and was arrested, and conveyed to the Beekman house, on the corner of
Fifty-first Street and First Avenue, where General Howe had his
headquarters. He was at once tried, convicted as a spy, and sentenced to
be hung on the following day at daybreak. It was a mercy to him that his
execution was fixed so speedily, as in the mean time he was placed in
the keeping of that heartless scoundrel, Cunningham, whose after deeds
as provost marshal of New York have rendered his name forever infamous.
Hale was kept in confinement during the night by the marshal, who
refused to give him a light and writing materials to enable him to send
a last message of love to his aged parents and friends. A kindly
disposed lieutenant afterwards furnished him with pen and paper.
Cunningham, however, in the morning manifested the natural atrocity of
his disposition by rudely tearing into pieces before his eyes the
letters which he had written, and at the same time declaring "that the
rebels should never know that they had a man in their army who could die
with so much firmness."
On the morning of September 22, 1776, Cunningham ordered the execution
to proceed, and at the same time required Hale to make a dying
confession. In the nobility of his liberty-loving nature, Hale said: "I
only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." These
brave words were his last. He was suspended on an apple-tree, and his
remains were committed to the grave without any ceremony. He did not
perish; his name will live as that of one of the heroes of the
Revolution. In the American army he was universally beloved, and his
untimely end filled the hearts of his friends with deep-seated hatred to
their foes, and a renewed determination to be avenged.
In this connection the following may not be uninteresting. It is an
extract from a letter from New York, dated September 1, 1776:[48]
"Last Monday we went over to Long Island, and about midnight we were
alarmed by the return of some of our scouting parties, who advised us
that the _English_ were in motion, and coming up the island with several
field pieces; it was generally thought not to be the main body, but only
a detachment, with a view to possess themselves of some advantageous
heights, upon which near three thousand men were ordered out, consisting
chiefly of the Pennsylvania and Maryland troops, to attack them on their
march. The Delaware and Maryland battalions made one party. Colonel
Atlee with his battalion, a little before us, had taken post in an
orchard, and behind a barn, and on the approach of the enemy he gave
them a very severe fire, which he bravely kept up for a considerable
time, until they were near surrounding him, when he retreated to the
woods. The enemy then advanced towards us, upon which _Lord Stirling_,
who commanded, immediately drew us up in line, and offered them battle
in the true _English_ taste. The British army then advanced within three
hundred yards of us, and began a heavy fire from their cannon and
mortars, for both the balls and shells flew very fast, now and then
taking off a head. Our men stood it amazing well; not even one of them
showed a disposition to shrink.
"Our orders were not to fire until the enemy came within fifty yards of
us; but when they perceived we stood their fire so coolly and
resolutely, they declined coming any nearer, though treble our number.
In this situation we stood from sunrise to twelve o'clock, the enemy
firing upon us the chief part of the time, when the main body of their
army, by a route we never dreamed of, had utterly surrounded us, and
drove within the lines or scattered in the woods all our men except the
_Delaware_ and Maryland battalions, who were standing at bay with double
their number. Thus situated, we were ordered to attempt a retreat by
fighting our way through the enemy, who had posted themselves and nearly
filled every field and road between us and our lines. We had not
retreated a quarter of a mile before we were fired upon by an advanced
party of the enemy, and those upon our rear were playing upon us with
their artillery. Our men fought with more than _Roman_ courage, and I am
convinced would have stood until they were shot down to a man. We forced
the advanced party which first attacked us to give way, through which
opening we got a passage down to the side of a marsh, seldom before
waded over, which we passed, and then swam a narrow river, all the time
exposed to the fire of the enemy. The companies commanded by Captains
Ramsey and Scott were in the front, and sustained the first fire of the
enemy, when hardly a man fell.
"The whole right wing of our battalion, thinking it impossible to pass
through the marsh, attempted to force their way through the woods, where
they were almost to a man killed or taken. The Maryland battalion has
lost two hundred and fifty-nine men, amongst whom are twelve officers:
Captains Veazey and Bowie, the first certainly killed; Lieutenants
Butler, Sterritt, Dent, Coursey, Muse, Prawl; Ensigns Coates and
Fernandez; who of them killed or who prisoners is yet uncertain. Many of
the officers lost their swords and guns. We have since abandoned Long
Island, bringing off all our military stores.
"Generals Sullivan and Stirling are both prisoners. Colonels Atlee,
Miles, and Piper are also taken. There are about one thousand men
missing in all. We took a few prisoners. By a lieutenant we took, we
understand they had about twenty-three thousand men on the Island that
morning. Most of our Generals were upon a high hill, in our lines,
viewing us with glasses. When we began our retreat, they could see the
enemy we had to pass through, though we could not. Many of them thought
we would surrender in a body without firing. When we begun the attack,
General _Washington_ wrung his hands and cried out, _Good God! What
brave fellows I must this day lose_. Major Guest commanded the
_Maryland_ battalion, the Colonel and Lieutenant Colonel being both at
York. Captains Adams and Lucas were sick. The Major, Captain Ramsey and
Lieutenant Plunkett were foremost and within forty yards of the enemy's
muzzles, when they were fired upon by the enemy, who were chiefly under
cover of an orchard, save a force that showed themselves, and pretended
to give up, clubbing their firelocks until we came within that distance,
when they immediately presented, and blazed in our faces; they entirely
overshot us, and killed some men away behind in our rear. I had the
satisfaction of dropping one of them the first fire I made. I was so
near I could not miss. I discharged my rifle seven times that day, as
deliberately as I ever did at a mark, and with as little perturbation."
Washington, in a letter dated September 4, 1776, addressed to General
Schuyler, fixes the number in killed, wounded, and prisoners on the
American side in the Long Island battle at from seven hundred to one
thousand men.[49]
In writing to the Massachusetts Assembly, under date of September 19,
1776, Washington states that the number in killed and wounded of the
enemy could not be ascertained, "but that it was pretty considerable and
exceeded ours a good deal." He also says that the Americans lost eight
hundred men, three fourths of whom were taken prisoners, thereby leaving
only two hundred killed.[50]
English writers upon this subject place the loss on the American side at
between three and four thousand. These figures greatly overstep the
mark, and were doubtless gathered from the reports of those commanding
generals who desired to make it appear to the home authorities that a
substantial victory had been secured.
The loss in the battle of Brooklyn is fixed by the best authorities at
not over a thousand men. This, as we have seen, is the number fixed by
Washington himself, both in his letters and official reports. Johnson,
in his admirable and exhaustive narrative of the campaign of 1776,
concurs in this view. These figures appear to be a correct estimate of
the loss sustained. Certainly if as many had been killed as reported by
British officials, some tradition or evidence would exist as to the vast
number requiring burial after the battle, and subsequent to the
evacuation. The neutral inhabitants remaining on the island would have
found abundant occupation in consigning so many to mother earth. This
alone would have rendered the occasion memorable.
The loss on the Tory side appears from the returns made by General Howe
to have been:--Commissioned officers: three generals, three colonels,
four lieutenant-colonels, three majors, eighteen captains, forty-three
lieutenants, and eleven ensigns; staff officers: one adjutant, three
surgeons, two volunteers; privates: one thousand and six. This includes
nine wounded officers and fifty-six wounded privates.[51]
In the annals of the Revolutionary period in Brooklyn, a conspicuous
place is occupied by the famous Rising Sun tavern. It stood (and still
stands) at the junction of the Bedford and Jamaica turnpikes in East New
York, and was an old-fashioned farm-house of the Dutch type. This famous
tavern, from its prominent position on the King's highway, was a resort
for the burghers and farmers of the island. The host, William Howard,
was very popular amongst the people, and the old landmark, so prominent
in the early history of Kings County, has long been an object of
interest.
At this house, the day before the battle of Brooklyn, an important
meeting in reference to the war was held. The house was situated within
five miles of the American intrenchments, which were in the neighborhood
of Bridge and Fulton streets. The American army rested quietly, not
dreaming of the impending danger. Meanwhile the British army was not
inactive. It was encamped at Flatbush. Just after midnight it occupied
the roads leading to East New York, and pushed forward to that suburban
spot. The guides who had been employed lost their way, and General Howe
found it absolutely necessary to obtain more trustworthy leaders. In
consulting upon the subject, it was determined that William Howard, the
keeper of the tavern, being familiar with the different passes, was the
best man to secure in the emergency. The approach of the army had not
been observed by the occupants of the wayside hotel. Suddenly the
bar-room door was forced open, and the terrified family were aroused
from their slumbers. The guard sought and found the astonished
innkeeper, and quickly brought him before the august generals Howe,
Cornwallis, and Sir Henry Clinton. It was their desire to use this man
to guide them over the hills and through the woods to the little hamlet
at Bedford, where it was supposed a large body of Americans were
encamped, whom the invaders desired to outflank, and by a circuitous
route, if possible, gain the plain beyond, and thus cut off their rear.
Howard was perfectly familiar with the intricate pathways. The interview
between Howard and the British officers was brief and to the point.
William Howard had a son then only fourteen years of age. The events of
the evening left a vivid impression on the lad's mind. In after years,
in referring to the adventures of that night, he said: "It was about two
o'clock in the morning of the 27th of August that I was awakened by
seeing a soldier by the side of my bed. I got up and dressed, and went
down into the bar-room, where I saw my father standing in one corner,
with three British soldiers before him, with muskets and bayonets fixed.
The army (numbering about sixteen thousand men) was then lying in the
fields in front of the house. General Howe asked for a glass of liquor,
and, after receiving it, entered into conversation with William Howard,
and said: 'I must have some one to show me the Rockaway path around the
pass.'"
To this remark Howard replied: "We belong to the other side, General,
and can't serve you against our duty." General Howe then said: "That is
all right, stick to your country, or stick to your principles; but,
Howard, you are my prisoner, and must guide my men over the hill."
Howard, in the nobility of his nature, objected to being a party to the
betrayal of his countrymen, but was silenced by the General, who finally
said: "You have no alternative. If you refuse, I shall have you shot
through the head."[52]
It was a painful task for Howard to thus pave the way for the
destruction of the American army. He was led out under a guard, which
was directed to shoot him should he attempt to make his escape. The
entire march was conducted in a cautious, noiseless manner, and every
precaution taken to be in readiness for an attack. They succeeded in
reaching the road below the Bedford pass, and flanked the position
supposed to be occupied by the American troops.
Young Howard, who accompanied his father, in giving an account of the
march, says: "On reaching the turn in the Jamaica road, my father and
myself were released and sent back to the tavern, which we found
surrounded by the guard."
It may be well to state here that the Rockaway path was a narrow pass
across the hill, forming now a portion of Evergreen Cemetery, and led
from the Jamaica road to Bushwick lane, now the main entrance to the
cemetery.
In the legal documents of the time, the roads were called the King's
highways. The Brooklyn and Jamaica road, which passed through the hills
near East New York, was known as the King's highway. General Howe named
it, "the pass through the hills."
The name of the Clove road originated from the fact that it passed
through the clove or cleft of the hills. By the British army it was
distinguished as the Bedford pass. The valley through which the Flatbush
road passed, being densely covered with wood, was called Valley Grove.
The enemy, having crossed over from Long Island and effected a landing
in New York city on the 15th of September, immediately pushed forward
to meet and drive before them the forces of Washington, which movement
on their part culminated in the battle of Harlem Heights. In that
engagement, which was short and fierce, the Americans lost, in killed,
16 privates, whilst the damage done to the enemy was 74 killed and 274
wounded. Governor Clinton, who witnessed the battle, wrote of it: "It
has animated our troops, given them new spirits, and erased every bad
impression the retreat from Long Island had left in their minds. They
find that they are able with inferior numbers to drive their enemy, and
think of nothing now but conquest."
Shortly after the occupation of New York by the British, and on the 21st
of September, the city was visited by a great fire, which quickly
reduced a large part of it to ashes. It is estimated that 500 houses
were obliterated. Trinity Church was destroyed, and the Lutheran chapel,
situated on the corner of Rector Street, met the same fate. St. Paul's
Church, the oldest religious edifice now standing in New York city, was
saved by the energy and superhuman exertions of the citizens. Long may
this old landmark resist the vandalism of the age. The fire was looked
upon as the act of an incendiary. The Tory element of the community,
believing that it was caused by the Sons of Liberty, accused them of the
act. Several citizens were arrested as accessories, but were
subsequently discharged, as no evidence could be produced on which to
hold them.
During this time the Continental Congress continued to hold its sessions
in the city of Philadelphia.
On the 31st of August, Washington sent a letter to Congress wherein he
gave an explicit statement of the result of the council of war held on
Long Island, and the reasons which led him to withdraw the troops from
that locality. By reason of this decision New York city, and all its
fortifications, was ultimately given up to the British fleet and army.
The new occupants, upon taking possession, adopted measures to fortify
and strengthen it against invasion from the American forces.
After the occupation of New York by the British army, large numbers of
Tories, who had been compelled to forsake the place by reason of the
stringent measures adopted by the Committee of Safety against all who
sided with royalty, again returned to the city and were warmly welcomed
by the new authorities. Amongst the number who returned to their old
haunts was Rivington the printer, whose vituperations against the Sons
of Liberty had in former times called down upon him the wrath and enmity
of the patriots. The returning Tories held high carnival in the city.
They seemed to think that the cause of the Americans was lost, and that
soon they would have undisputed control of public affairs.
Kings County, which never had manifested a strong patriotism, contained
many who did not greatly lament the triumph of the British. The retreat
of the American army from Long Island served to strengthen the
convictions of the Tory adherents, and induced them to embrace the
opportunity afforded of forsaking what they conceived to be the "lost
cause," and give in their adhesion to the Crown of England. Moreover, as
we shall see by later explanation, there was a peculiarly heavy pressure
placed on the loyalty of Kings County.
It was under this pressure that in November some of the largest
freeholders in the county of Kings met together and resolved to accept
the terms offered by Howe in his proclamations. In order to gain favor
with the British authorities, an address was prepared in the Uriah Heep
style, in which it was stated:--
"We, therefore, whose names are hereto subscribed, freeholders
and inhabitants of Kings County, in the province of New York,
reflecting with the tenderest emotions of gratitude on this
instance of his Majesty's paternal goodness and encouraged by
the affectionate manner in which his Majesty's gracious purpose
hath been conveyed to us by your Excellencies, who have thereby
evinced that humanity is inseparable from that true magnanimity
and those enlarged sentiments which form the most shining
characters, they beg leave to represent to your Excellencies,
that we bear true allegiance to our rightful sovereign George
the Third, as well as warm affection to his sacred person,
crown, and dignity, to testify which we and each of us have
voluntarily taken an oath (in the church at Flatbush) before Wm.
Axtell, Esq., one of his Majesty's council for this province, in
the following words: '_I do solemnly promise and swear that I
will be faithful and bear true allegiance to his Majesty King
George the Third, and that I will defend his crown and dignity
against all persons whomsoever. So help me God._' And that we
esteem the constitutional supremacy of Great Britain over these
colonies, and other depending parts of his Majesty's dominions,
as essential to the union, security, and welfare of the whole
empire; and sincerely lament the interruption of that harmony
which formerly subsisted between the parent state and these her
colonies. We therefore hereby pray that your Excellencies would
be pleased to restore this country to his Majesty's protection
and peace."[53]
This was certainly a model epistle, and clearly demonstrated the
character of the men who endorsed its sentiments, or pretended to
endorse them, by appending to it their names. As the common people had
expressed themselves so freely, the leaders, not to be outdone in giving
evidence of submission to royalty, a short time afterwards presented to
Governor Tryon an address couched in terms of detestation of the
rebellion, and of warm admiration for the Crown. It was a craven
document, evincing cowardice and lack of true manliness. It ran as
follows:--
"We, the members of the Provincial Congress, the County
Committee, and the Committees of the different townships,
elected by the inhabitants of Kings County, feel the highest
satisfaction in having it in our power to dissolve ourselves
without danger of the county being dissoluted, as it was by
repeated threats some short time ago. We do hereby accordingly
dissolve ourselves, rejecting and disclaiming all power of
Congress and committees, totally refusing obedience thereto, and
revoking all proceedings under them whatsoever, as being
repugnant to the laws and constitution of the British Empire,
and undutiful to our sovereign, and ruinous to the welfare and
prosperity of this county. We beg leave to assure your
Excellency we shall be exceeding happy in obeying the legal
authority of government, whenever your Excellency shall be
pleased to call us forth, being of long experience well assured
of your Excellency's mild and upright administration."
This paper was signed on December 3 and 4. Amongst the parties who
appended their signatures to this obsequious missive are the following,
many of whom will be recognized as prominent in the annals of the
community:--
Philip Nagel
W^m Johnson
Evert Suydam
Richard Stillwell
Johannes E. Lott
Rem Cowenhoven
Nich Cowenhoven
Joost Duryea
Jeremiah Vanderbilt
Stephen Voorhies
Denyse Denyce
Engelbert Lott
I. Hubbard
Garret Wyckoff
Richard Stillwell, Jr.
Rutgers Van Brunt
Adrien Hegeman
Abram Laguare
Derick Remsen
Abram Voorhies
Adrian Voorhies
Petrus Van Pelt
Leffert Lefferts
Wilh^s Stoothoof
Casper Crisper
Isaac Cortelyou
Petrus Lott
Johannes De Bevoice
Isaac Denyce
Johannes Bergen
John Vanderbilt
Theodorus Polhemus
W^m Van Brunt
Jacobus Vanderwenter
Cor^s Wyckoff
Jeremias Remsen[54]
That these men, who had served in official stations in councils of the
state, and who had witnessed for a dozen years the aggressions of the
Crown, should so far submit to British authority, and be willing to
resume the yoke when an opportunity was presented by concerted action to
throw off the shackles which bound them to the mother country, is
perhaps sufficient evidence of the strain produced by the peculiar
situation in Kings County.
The militia, who had rendered but little service to the patriots, now
followed the example set them by their leaders, and, to gain favor with
the British officers, voluntarily raised and contributed the munificent
sum of £310 8s towards defraying the expenses of raising and equipping a
new battalion to be employed in the service of the Tories. Howe and
Tryon rejoiced greatly over these manifestations on the part of the
people of Kings County. Such acts encouraged them greatly in their
labors, and led them to suppose that the war was being carried on by a
few zealous but hot-headed fanatics, who desired to enrich themselves by
a continuance of the rebellion. They believed that they could control
the rich, who did not wish to part with their property to be used in a
prolonged campaign, and the poor, who did not desire to be separated
from their families by compulsory service in the army. General Howe and
Governor Tryon, whose position of late years had become merely nominal,
gladly accepted these evidences of obedience to their mandates, and were
careful to scatter amongst them the assurance that "his Majesty has
observed with great satisfaction the effusions of loyalty and affection
which break forth in the address of his faithful subjects, upon their
deliverance from the tyranny and oppression of the rebel committees; and
the proof given by the inhabitants of Kings County of their zeal for the
success of his Majesty's measures by so generously contributing towards
the expense of raising Colonel Fanning's battalion cannot fail of
recommending them to his Majesty's favor."[55]
No one, upon hearing of these manifestations on the part of the people
of Kings County, would for a moment wonder that the leaders of the
rebellion against kingly authority should at times feel discouraged and
disheartened. However, with so many who were faithless, there were some
who still were true to the honored cause. The name of Major Barent
Johnson, father of the late General Jeremiah Johnson, stands
conspicuously amongst those who were not ashamed to acknowledge
allegiance to the infant republic. Johnson was ever distinguished as a
patriot, and attested his love of liberty, not only by words but also by
actions. On every occasion he fearlessly and boldly advocated the
revolutionary movement, and was one of the officers of the Kings County
militia who would not truckle to power, and who refused "to sell his
heritage for a mess of pottage." When the American army retreated from
Brooklyn he followed their fortunes, and was encamped with them at
Harlem in 1776, and ever testified his love of country by his
willingness to serve her in her hour of danger and trial. In the early
part of 1777 he was taken prisoner while accompanying the American army
to New Jersey. Subsequently he obtained a parole from General Howe
through assistance of a brother Mason, and returned to his home in Kings
County. He resided on the old farm in the present nineteenth ward of the
city, so long known as the residence of General Jeremiah Johnson. He did
all he could to aid the American cause. "In order to help on the cause
to which he was devoted, he shrank not from personal and pecuniary
risks, but suggested loans from friends in his county to the American
government, and himself set the example by loaning, first, £700, and
afterwards sums amounting to $5000; all the security for which was a
simple private receipt, given, too, in times of exceeding peril and
discouragement,--a noble and memorable deed."[56]
There were many signs during 1776 that Kings County's disaffection was
recognized. At the session of the Provincial Congress held June 21, the
subject of preventing Kings County from giving aid to the enemy was
discussed, and resulted in the passage of the following resolution:--
_Resolved_, That it be recommended to the general committee of
Kings County, immediately to take effectual measures that all
boats and craft in the bay, on the south and southwest sides of
said county, be drawn up or on the upland, to such a distance
from the water as to prevent as much as possible the disaffected
persons in that county from keeping up a communication with the
enemy; and that the oars and sails belonging to the said boats
and craft be secured in the most effectual manner.
At this session Kings County was represented by Mr. Lefferts and Mr.
Polhemus.
On the 10th of August the Provincial Convention (to which name that of
the former Congress had been changed), directed that one half of the
militia of Kings County and Queens County be "immediately ordered to
march and put themselves under the command of the officer commanding the
Continental troops on Nassau Island, to be continued in service until
the first day of September next, unless sooner discharged by order of
this Convention."
The Convention, having received information that the inhabitants of
Kings County had determined not to oppose the enemy, thereupon adopted
the following resolution:--
_Resolved_, That a committee be appointed to repair forthwith to
said county, and enquire concerning the authenticity of such
report, and in case they find it well founded, that they be
empowered to disarm and secure the disaffected inhabitants; to
remove or destroy the stock of grain; and if they shall judge
necessary, _to lay the whole country waste_. And for the
execution of these purposes, they are directed to apply to
General Greene, or the commander of the Continental troops in
that county, for such assistance as they shall want.
The committee appointed in accordance with this resolution consisted of
Mr. Duer, Colonel Remsen, Mr. Hebert, and Colonel DeWit.[57]
On the 13th of August the Convention, in pursuance of the resolution
passed on the 10th of August, relative to the Kings County militia,
appointed Colonel Jeromus Remsen of Queens County, Lieutenant-Colonel
Nich^s Cowenhoven of Kings County, and Major Richard Thorne of Queens
County, as officers of the militia ordered to be drafted from Kings and
Queens counties, and placed them under the command of the officer
commanding the Continental troops on Nassau Island.
The Convention of Representatives of the State of New York met again on
the 21st of August. The first subject which engaged its attention was
the character of the credentials presented by the delegates from Kings
County. The convention, upon examination and due deliberation, came to
the conclusion that the same were defective, in that they did not state
"whether any, or what power was given to the representatives therein
named." Considering that the representatives so elected should be
expressly authorized to assist in framing and establishing a new form of
government, and thereby give in their adhesion to the independence of
America, the Convention ordered that the said Committee of Kings County
be immediately informed of said defect, to the end that a new election
might be held, whereat delegates clothed with full power in the premises
might be returned.
The Convention of Representatives on the 29th of August passed a
resolution recommending to the inhabitants of Long Island "to move as
many of their women, children, and slaves, and as much of their live
stock and grain, to the mainland, as they can," at the same time
"assuring them that Convention would pay the expense of moving the
same."
There is much significance in the letter of John Sloss Hobart to the
Committee of Safety, dated October 7, 1776, fairly stating the causes
which led to the apparent submission of the citizens of Long Island to
the British Crown. He shows that the measures adopted were from
necessity and not from choice. He says:--
"Upon the retreat of the army from the island they viewed
themselves as abandoned by the Convention, and expecting the
enemy hourly amongst them, a general removal appeared
impracticable; besides, to quit their pleasant habitations, and
throw themselves, with their tender connections, upon the
charity of an unknown world, was a degree of apathy to which
they had not yet arrived. In a fit of despair they laid down
their arms, and made an unconditional submission to what they
supposed the inquiring army;[58] the people at large being thus
brought to terms, they found it less difficult by threats to
induce the individuals who had formerly held commissions under
the Crown of Great Britain to resume the execution of their
offices; being well led into the snare, every measure tended to
draw the _net_ closer about them. Notwithstanding which, I am,
from the best authority, informed that they are accused by Mr.
Tryon and his minions of having submitted only the better to
cover their intention of removing, and that, unless the young
men do voluntarily take up arms against their country, an
inveterate and disappointed soldiery will be let loose upon
them. These considerations induce me earnestly to wish that some
measure may be taken to induce the people to quit the island, by
offering a support to those who cannot maintain themselves--the
aged and infirm must be maintained at public expense."
This letter reveals the true condition of affairs, and forcibly states
the motives which led the inhabitants of Long Island to submit to the
aggressions of the British.
At the session of the Committee of Safety, held on the 26th of November,
some of the inhabitants of the State of Connecticut presented claims for
expenses incurred in removing stock and the poor inhabitants from Long
Island. A committee was therefore appointed to collect and state these
accounts, together with the names of the persons bought of, the quantity
of stock, and the names of the persons to whom they belonged, together
with the place of their present residence, and report the same to the
convention of this State as soon as possible.
This subject was again brought to the attention of the Committee of
Safety on the 3d of December, 1776. At that meeting the following letter
was prepared and signed by the vice-president and transmitted to Colonel
H. B. Livingston:--
"SIR,--The Committee of Safety have received accounts from
different towns in Connecticutt, with their demands for
transporting stock and effects from Long Island. Some are sent
in by private persons, as employed by you for that purpose. I am
directed to desire you to send me as particular an account as
you can of the stock and other effects you have brought off Long
Island, with the number of cattle, sheep, and other stock, the
names of the persons to whom they belonged, and in what manner
the same was disposed of, and to whom; with such vouchers for
the same as you have taken. You will likewise inform us of the
number of families brought off by your order, with the names of
the heads of each family, as far as in your power, with any
other particulars you may think necessary respecting the
transportation and disposing of the same."
"To COLONEL H. B. LIVINGSTON."
In January, 1777, the American prisoners in New York were paroled and
billeted on the inhabitants of Kings County, Congress agreeing to pay a
weekly stipend of two dollars for each for board.[59]
Colonel Graydon, in his memoirs, presents a very vivid picture of the
scenes and incidents connected with the sojourn of the prisoners amongst
the island farmers. He says that "the officers of Colonel Mayan's and
Colonel Sher's regiments were quartered at Flatbush. He, with another
officer, was placed in the house of Jacob Suydam." It was a large house,
with many additions erected at different times, with doubtless a strange
and weird appearance. He states that "they were civilly received, but
that their presence was not welcome to the Low Dutch, who did not like
to have their regular habits interfered with. Had they been sure of
receiving the two dollars a week, it might have reconciled them. They
were, however, a people who seemed thoroughly disposed to submit to any
power that might be imposed on them; and whatever might have been their
propensities at an earlier stage of the contest, they were now the
dutiful and loyal subjects of his Majesty George III. Their houses and
beds were clean, but their living was extremely poor. A sorry wash, made
up of a sprinkling of Bohea and the darkest sugar on the verge of
fluidity, with half-baked bread (fuel being amongst the scarcest
articles in Flatbush), and a little stale butter constituted our
breakfast. At our first coming a small piece of pickled beef was
occasionally boiled for dinner, but to the beef, which was soon
consumed, there succeeded _clippers_ or clams; and our unvaried supper
was supan or mush, sometimes with skimmed milk, but more generally
buttermilk blended with molasses, which was kept for weeks in a churn,
as swill is saved for hogs. I found it, however, after a little use,
very eatable, and supper soon became my best meal. The table company
consisted of the master of the house, Mr. Jacob Suydam, an old bachelor;
a young man, a shoemaker of the name of Rem Hegeman, married to Jacob's
niece, who with a mewling infant in her arms never failed to appear. A
black boy, too, was generally in the room; not as a waiter, but as a
sort of _enfant de maison_, who walked about and took post in the
chimney corner with his hat on, and occasionally joined in the
conversation. Rem Hegeman and Yonichy, his wife, gave themselves no
airs, nor was harmony with Uncle Jacob ever interrupted but once, when
soured a little he made a show of knocking down Lieutenant Forrest with
a pair of yarn stockings he had just drawn from his legs, as he sat in
the chimney corner one evening preparing for bed; but moments of
peevishness were allowable to our host, for we had been consuming his
provisions while he had never seen a penny of our money. The religion of
the Dutch, like their other habits, was unostentatious and plain; a
simple silent grace before meat prevailed at the table of Jacob Suydam.
When we were all seated, he suddenly clapped his hands together, threw
his head on one side, closed his eyes, and remained mute and motionless
for about a minute. His niece and nephew followed his example, but with
such an eager solicitude that the copied attitude should be prompt and
simultaneous as to give an air of absurdity to what otherwise might have
been very decent."[60]
Graydon refers to the peculiarities of the Dutch in their habits,
customs, and manners. One which seemed to strike him with considerable
force was the custom of never asking people to "sit down to the table,
but to sit 'by.'"
Judging from the Colonel's narrative, the American prisoners must have
had a good time at Flatbush. Although at times the enforced inactivity
was irksome, the prisoners were favored with the presence of many
estimable ladies who did much to render their forced stay agreeable.
Meanwhile, the Convention of Representatives held short sessions on the
5th and 6th of December, 1776, and again on the 11th of February, 1777,
when they resolved to adjourn to Kingston, which at once became the
capital of the State. On the 6th of March, a state constitution was
framed, and provision made for a temporary form of government by
electing a council of safety. Abraham Ten Broeck, of Albany, was
president of the Convention at the time of the passage of these
important measures. Theodorus Polhemus was the only member from Kings
County at this convention.
In accordance with the resolution passed April 20, 1777, providing for
an _ad interim_ government, a council of safety was appointed, and the
Convention of Representatives was dissolved on the 13th of May, 1777.
Owing doubtless to the disturbed condition of affairs in Kings County,
that county was not represented in the committee.
The Council of Safety, at its session on the 27th of June, in response
to the petition of Obadiah Jones and other refugees from Long Island,
reported the following resolutions:--
_Resolved_, Thereby provided His Excellency Governor Trumbull
shall approve thereof, Obadiah Jones, John Hulbart, and Thomas
Dearing, or any two of them, do give permits to such refugees
from Long Island as reside in Connecticut as they shall think
proper, and at such times and under such restrictions as they
may judge prudent, to pass to Long Island to get off their
effects.
_Resolved_, That Obadiah Jones, John Hulbart, and Thomas
Dearing, or any two of them, be, and they are hereby authorized
and directed to remove, at the expense of this state, to the
county of Dutchess, within the same, all such refugees from Long
Island, now in Connecticut, as are unable to maintain
themselves, and are willing so to be removed.
_Resolved_, That one hundred pounds be advanced to the said
gentlemen to enable them to execute the above resolutions; and
that they account with the auditor-general of this state for the
expenditure thereof.
_Ordered_, That the treasurer of this state pay the said sum of
one hundred pounds unto Mr. Paul Reeve, to be by him conveyed
and delivered to said gentlemen or one of them.
_Resolved_, That the persons so to be removed shall, on their
arrival in Dutchess County, be under the care of and supplied
with the necessaries by Mess. Abraham Schenck and Gerlim Van
Veelon, commissioners for superintending and providing for such
of the inhabitants of this state in the said county as have been
driven from their habitations by the enemy.
Kings County was not represented at the first meeting of the new Senate
at Kingston in September. In the Assembly which met and organized,
William Boerum and Henry Williams represented Kings County. These
gentlemen, owing to the peculiar condition of affairs in Kings County,
and the impossibility of holding an election, were appointed by the
Convention, on May 8th, to represent the county. The members of the
Senate and Assembly for the counties of New York, Queens, Suffolk, and
Richmond, were appointed in like manner.
The Provincial Convention having instituted the office of
auditor-general, for the purpose of settling certain accounts, the
appointment to this office was given to Comfort Sands, July 24, 1776,
who held the place until March 23, 1782, when he resigned. In 1797 the
office was abolished, and that of comptroller was instituted in its
place. Comfort Sands, who filled the important position of auditor,
deserves more than a passing notice. During his life he took a deep
interest in Brooklyn affairs, and owned considerable property in the
village. He purchased a part of the property belonging to John Rapalje,
whose wife, we have seen, sent her negro servant to apprise General Howe
of the premeditated retreat from Brooklyn on the 29th of August, 1776.
Rapalje's property extended along the water front from the Ferry to the
Navy Yard. He was an influential man, and during colonial times had
frequently been a member of the Assembly. When the war commenced in
earnest, his family became identified with the Tory element. A bill of
attainder was passed against him October 27, 1779, and he was banished.
When the British occupied Long Island, he returned to his home,
remaining until 1783, when, with his family, he removed to England. His
estates having been confiscated, Comfort and Joshua Sands, on the 13th
of July, 1784, purchased 160 acres of them, bordering on the East River,
for, £12,450, paid in state scrip.
It might be well to state here that John Rapalje was clerk of Kings
County in 1775, and continued in that office during the British
control. His successor, Jacob Sharp, Jr., did not assume the office
until 1784. When Rapalje removed to England, he carried with him the
town records. These documents were very valuable.
A few years after the declaration of peace Rapalje's granddaughter
visited America, hoping to regain possession of her father's land, upon
the technical point that the confiscation had taken place subsequent to
the treaty of peace. The advice of counsel was taken, whose opinions
were adverse to her claim, and she abandoned the effort and returned to
Europe. When Mrs. Weldon, the granddaughter, came to America, she
brought with her the missing records, and sought to sell and dispose of
them for $10,000. The inhabitants looked upon the price as fabulous, and
refused to accept the offer. Had they been wise, they would have
asserted their rights, and by legal proceedings secured the property,
which belonged to the town. By reason of the abstraction of these
documents a hiatus has been created in the history, and much valuable
information lost. The documents were taken back to England. Even at this
late date they probably might be secured from the descendants of the
family.
Comfort Sands, who by this purchase became interested in Brooklyn, was
born at Sands Point, L. I., in 1748. After serving a clerkship he went
into business on his own account in 1769. When he resigned his position
as auditor, he resumed business in New York. Having served in the
Provincial Congress, at the close of the war he was again called into
service. He was a member of the Assembly in 1784-85, 1788, and 1789.
Egbert Benson, of Queens County, was appointed attorney-general by an
ordinance of the Constitutional Convention, May 8, 1777. The council of
appointment afterwards ratified the act, and on the 15th of January,
1778, granted and issued to him a commission. He filled this responsible
trust until May 14, 1789. Egbert Benson was a man of culture. He
graduated at Columbia College in 1765. He was a classmate of Robert R.
Livingston, with whom he was ever on intimate terms. They served
together in the different conventions for the common cause. He was
subsequently judge of the New York Supreme Court, and justice of the
United States Circuit Court, New York.
The treaty of peace between the American and British commissioners was
signed on September 3, 1783. On November 25, following, the British
troops formally evacuated New York and Brooklyn, and the flagstaff of
the Pierrepont mansion on the Heights, which had been used for signaling
during the battle of Brooklyn, once more floated the American flag.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] See appendix in second volume for explanation of system of Dutch
family names.
[2] _American Ancestry_, vol. v., 1890.
[3] _A History of Long Island, from its First Settlement by Europeans,
to the year 1845, with Special Reference to its Ecclesiastical
Concerns._ By Nathaniel S. Prime. 1845.
[4] Richard M. Bayles, in _Long Island Magazine_, September, 1893.
[5] At the time of the discovery the Iroquois, or League of the Five
Nations, claimed to have subdued and mastered all the Indian tribes from
the Atlantic to the Mississippi. The Iroquois occupied in particular the
middle and upper region of New York State. The earliest of the general
histories of this remarkable confederacy was written by Cadwallader
Colden, who died on Long Island in 1776.
[6] _New York Historical Society's Collections_, vol. iii. p. 324.
[7] _Antiquities of Long Island_, p. 29.
[8] Among Brooklyn's manufactures in recent years rope-making has taken
a prominent place.
[9] _A History of the City of Brooklyn, including the Old Town and
Village of Brooklyn, the Town of Bushwick, and the Village and City of
Williamsburgh._ By Henry R. Stiles. 1867.
[10] Van Twiller.
[11] _Address before Long Island Historical Society_, 1880.
[12] "The Ladye Moodye, a wise and anciently religious woman, being
taken with the error of denying baptism to infants, was dealt with by
many of the elders and others, and admonished by the church of Salem
(whereof she was a member); but persisting still, and to avoid further
trouble, etc., she removed to the Dutch against the advice of her
friends."--_Governor Winthrop's Journal._
[13] Also described as a Council of Eight.
[14] The function of the schepen resembled that of the squire or petty
justice, particularly in communities so small as not to have a
burgomaster.
[15] By the wording of contracts dated November 22, 1646 (New York Col.
MSS. ii. 152), it appears that Teunissen was called "Schout of
Breuckelen" before this date.
[16] As we have seen, Rapalje, who made one of the earliest purchases
(1636), did not begin living on his Wallabout farm until probably 1655.
[17] "No other figure of Dutch, nor indeed of Colonial days is so well
remembered; none other has left so deep an impress on Manhattan history
and tradition as this whimsical and obstinate, but brave and gallant old
fellow, the kindly tyrant of the little colony. To this day he stands in
a certain sense as the typical father of the city."--Theodore Roosevelt,
_New York_, p. 26.
[18] Bayard Tuckerman, _Peter Stuyvesant_, p. 62.
[19] Stiles, _History of Brooklyn_, vol. i. p. 229.
[20] "Among the Dutch settlers the art of stone-cutting does not appear
to have been used until within comparatively a few years, with but few
exceptions, and their old burying-grounds are strewn with rough
head-stones which bear no inscriptions; whereas the English people,
immediately on their settlement, introduced the practice of perpetuating
the memories of their friends by inscribed stones. Another reason for
not finding any very old tombstones in the Dutch settlements is that
they early adopted the practice of having family burying-places on their
farms, without monuments, and not unfrequently private burials, both of
which the Governor and Colonial Legislature, in 1664 and 1684, deemed
of sufficient importance to merit legislative interference, and
declared that all persons should be publicly buried in some parish
burial-place."--Furman, _Antiquities of Long Island_, p. 155.
[21] _New York_, p. 29.
[22] A Dutch war-ship sold twenty negroes into the colony of Virginia in
August, 1619.
[23] The call of the Breuckelen Church to Dominie Selyns was by him
accepted, and approved by the Classis of Amsterdam, February 16,
1660(-61).--_Brooklyn Church Records._
[24] Mr. Campbell and other recent writers, actuated doubtless by some
resentment toward the complacency of New England, have unquestionably
exaggerated in certain respects the essential position of Holland in
educational advancement, and offered a somewhat stronger plea for the
leadership of the Dutch in popular education on this continent than a
strictly judicial examination of the case seems to justify; but there
can be no reasonable doubt in the minds of impartial students that
serious misconceptions have existed, and that these justify the
championship of the Dutch, of which Mr. Campbell's _The Puritan in
Holland, England, and America_ is so brilliant an example. The early
claims for English and for Puritan educational traditions not only
ignored but excluded the Dutch, and it was inevitable that the effort to
do justice to Holland's remarkable services for popular education should
result in occasional overstatement.
[25] _Democracy in Europe_, vol. ii. pp. 67-72.
[26] _Public School Pioneering in New York and Massachusetts._
[27] _New York Colonial Documents_, vol. i. p. 112.
[28] The river farm, which included the "Kiekout" bluff, is first found
in the possession of Jean Meserole, who came from Picardy, France, in
1663, and from whom is descended Gen. Jeremiah V. Meserole, President of
the Williamsburgh Savings Bank, first colonel of the Forty-seventh
Regiment, N. G. S. N. Y.
[29] So named from Dirck Volckertsen, surnamed "the Norman," to whom was
granted in 1645 land on the East River between Bushwick Creek and
Newtown Creek, now within the seventeenth ward of the city of Brooklyn,
and still known as Greenpoint. Volckertsen lived in a stone house on the
northerly side of Bushwick Creek near the East River. The house was
standing until after the middle of the present century.
[30] Early section names within the township of Breuckelen were Gowanus,
Red Hook (lying west of the Ferry), the Ferry, Wallabout, Bedford,
Cripplebush. All of these, save the last, have survived as designations
of regions in the present city.
[31] When, in 1660, it was deemed necessary to prepare defenses for
Breuckelen and New Utrecht against attacks from the Indians, De Sille
was directed to make the necessary surveys. Under Stuyvesant De Sille
held the important position of attorney-general. He was a man of ability
and influence. The position he held under Stuyvesant demonstrated the
fact that his attainments were appreciated. He was born in Arnheim. His
ancestors were natives of Belgium, who fled to Holland to escape
religious persecution, and whose devotion to the interests of their
adopted country was manifested on many occasions in the noble stand
taken by the Dutch Republic to maintain its independence against the
Spanish invasion. He came to New Netherland in 1653, commissioned by the
West India Company to reside at New Amsterdam, and by his counsel aid
and assist the Governor in his duties. He was directed to give his
advice on all subjects relating to the interests of the colony. It is
said that he built the first house in New Utrecht. It was at his house
that the brave General Woodhull, the hero of Long Island, who gave his
life for his country, breathed his last.--S. M. O.
[32] _Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour in Several of the
American Colonies in 1679-80._ By Jasper Dankers and Peter Sluyter of
Wiewerd, in Friesland. Translated from the original manuscript in Dutch
for the Long Island Historical Society, and edited by Henry C. Murphy,
Foreign Corresponding Secretary of the Society. Brooklyn, 1867.
[33] "No man has been more maligned or misunderstood than Jacob Leisler.
Historians have deliberately misjudged him, drawing their conclusions
from the biased reports of the few aristocrats who hated or the English
officials who despised him. Jacob Leisler was one of the earliest of
American patriots. His brief and stormy career as Provincial Governor of
New York was marked by mistakes of judgment, but his mistakes were more
than overbalanced by his foresight and statesmanship. He acted as one of
the people for the people. He summoned a popular convention, arranged
the first mayoralty election by the people, attempted the first step
toward colonial union by endeavoring to interest the several provinces
in a continental congress, and sought to cripple the chief adversary of
the English in America, France, by the masterly stroke of an invasion of
Canada. That he failed is due to the jealousy, the timidity, and the
short-sightedness of his fellow colonists. But he builded wiser than he
knew; for, though he died a martyr to colonial jealousy and English
injustice, his bold and patriotic measures awoke the people to a
knowledge of their real power, and prepared them for that spirit of
resistance to tyranny which a century later made them a free
republic."--Elbridge S. Brooks, _The Story of New York_, p. 74.
[34] "The government of the colony was at once put on the basis on which
it stood until the outbreak of the Revolution. There was a governor
appointed by the king, and a council likewise appointed; while the
assembly was elected by the freeholders. The suffrage was thus limited
by a strict property qualification. Liberty of conscience was granted to
all Protestant sects, but not to Catholics; and the Church of England
was practically made the state church, though the Dutch and French
congregations were secured in the rights guaranteed them by treaty. It
was, then, essentially a class or aristocratic government,--none the
less so because to European eyes the little American colony seemed both
poor and rude."--Theodore Roosevelt, _New York_, p. 71.
[35] There are varying views of Kidd's character and career. Thus
Berthold Fernow writes in the _Narrative and Critical History of
America_ (vol. v. p. 195): "To-day that which was meted out to Kidd
might hardly be called justice; for it seems questionable if he had ever
been guilty of piracy."
[36] The assessment rolls of the five Dutch towns in 1675 showed the
following proportions in the number of persons assessed: Breuckelen, 60;
Midwout, 54; Boswyck (Bushwick) 36; Amersfoort, 35; New Utrecht, 29.
[37] The peculiar methods employed by the citizens of Brooklyn at that
time in electing their officials cannot be better illustrated than by
the presentation of a report of one of those town meetings as follows:--
Att a towne meeting held this 29th day of April, 1699, at
Breucklyn, by order of Justice Michael Hanssen ffor to chose
town officers ffor to order all townes business and to deffend
theire limits and bounds, and to lay out some part thereoff in
lotts, to make lawes and orders ffor the best off the
inhabitants, and to raise a small tax ffor to defray the towne
charges, now being or hereafter to come, to receive the townes
revenues, and to pay the townes debts, and that with the advice
off the justices off the said towne standing the space or time
off two years. Chosen ffor that purpose by pluralitie of votes.
Benjamin Vande Water, Joras Hanssen, Jan Garritse Dorlant.
By order off inhabitants aforesaid,
J. VANDE WATER, _Clarke_.
[38] Furman's _Notes_, p. 45.
[39] The total assessment value of real and personal estate in Brooklyn
in 1706 was £3,122 12d, or about $15,610, and the tax on the same was
£41 3s 7-1/2d, or about $205. The tax levied in the County of Kings was
£201 16s 1-1/2d, or about $1,005.
[40] The description of this road in the records is as follows: "One
common highway to begin ffrom the house of Jurian Collier to the new
mill of Nicholas Brower, now sett upon Gowanus Mill neck soe called, as
the way is now in use, along said neck to said mill to be of two rods
wide, and that there shall be a landing place by said mill in the most
convenient place ffor the transportation of goods, and the commodious
passing of travellers; and said highway and landing place to be, remaine
and continue forever."
[41] For comment on Brooklyn's claims, see appendix.
[42] To DeLancey belongs the honor of signing the charter of Columbia
College in New York, first known as Kings College, an institution in
which Brooklynites have always taken a deep interest. Among her
graduates from Brooklyn may be mentioned the ex-mayor, ex-senator, and
ex-minister to the Hague, Henry C. Murphy, who graduated in 1830. The
Hon. Alexander McCue, of the City Court, was the valedictorian of the
class of 1845. Ex-supervisor William J. Osborne, Henry C. Murphy, Jr.,
George I. Murphy, Richard M. De Mille, John Lockwood, of Lockwood's
Academy; George W. Collard, the erudite professor of languages in the
Polytechnic; Stewart L. Woodford, and Edgar M. Cullen all graduated from
Columbia. Beside these might be mentioned John L. Lefferts, Van Brunt
Wyckoff, ex-mayor Edward Copeland, who graduated in 1809; the late
Samuel E. Johnson, ex-county judge, who graduated in 1834, and the late
Rev. Stephen H. Meeker, who for fifty years was pastor of the old
Bushwick Church. Among the clergy who enjoyed her academic shades might
be mentioned the late Rev. Dr. Dwight, who for many years was pastor of
the Joralemon Street Dutch Church; the Right Rev. Henry Ustick
Onderdonk, at one time rector of St. Ann's Church and subsequently
bishop of Pennsylvania; Rev. Dr. Samuel Roosevelt Johnson, formerly
rector of St. John's Church; the Right Rev. Dr. George F. Seymour,
formerly rector of St. John's Church and now bishop of Springfield. Of
the legal profession who have graduated from her law school might be
mentioned William H. Ingersoll, Edward B. Barnum, Henry Broadhead, Abel
Crook, William Leggett Whiting, Philip L. Wilson, Henry S. Bellows,
Merwin Rushmore, F. A. Ward, D. D. Terry, L. Bradford Prince, Daniel W.
Northup, and a host of other well known members of the bar. Of the
medical profession the number from Brooklyn is legion.--S. M. O.
We may now add to the roll a conspicuous name, that of ex-mayor Seth
Low, now president of Columbia.
[43] Kings, Queens, and part of Suffolk.
[44] _History of the City of Brooklyn_, vol. i. p. 243.
[45] The school remained closed until 1777.
[46] Onderdonk, _Kings County_, p. 120.
[47] The wife of John Rapalje was a well-known Tory. So far did she
manifest her predilections in favor of the Tory cause as at all times to
boldly proclaim her sympathies for the King. At the time the act was
passed prohibiting the use of tea, she, with her proverbial pertinacity
and obstinacy, persisted in its use, and so continued while the American
army was in the occupation of Brooklyn. On this account she became a
marked woman. Her conduct caused much discussion, and drew down upon her
the umbrage of the Whig militia, who fired a cannon ball into her home
while she was drinking her favorite beverage. The ball passed close to
her head and lodged in the wall. This action not only seriously annoyed
the lady, but served to stir within her bosom the spirit of revenge, and
she eagerly awaited an opportunity to gratify her spite. When she saw
the preparations for the retreat of the army her heart rejoiced, for she
fancied that the moment had arrived when she could mete out punishment
to her enemies.--S. M. O.
[48] Force's 5th series, vol. ii. p. 107.
[49] Force, 5th series, vol. ii. p. 167.
[50] Force, 5th series, vol. ii. p. 399.
[51] Force, 5th series, vol. iii. p. 1057.
[52] _Corporation Manual of Brooklyn_, 1866.
[53] Onderdonk, _Kings County_, sec. 829.
[54] Onderdonk, _Kings County_, sec. 830.
[55] Onderdonk, _Kings County_, sec. 830.
[56] Rev. Dr. S. R. Johnson's _Memorial Discourse on General Jeremiah
Johnson_.
[57] _Journal of Provincial Convention_, p. 567.
[58] So in the original _Journal of Committee of Safety_, p. 671.
[59] Onderdonk's _Revolutionary Incidents_, sec. 832.
[60] Onderdonk's _Incidents of Kings County_, p. 174.
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes:
Simple typographical errors were corrected.
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
The "appendix" to which reference occasionally is made appears in Volume
II.
"[Illustration]" used by Transcribers to represent actual illustrations
in source book; other words in [square brackets] were printed that way
in source book.
Contractions originally printed as superscripts are represented here
by preceding them with the caret symbol, e.g., W^m (William).