INDIAN NAMES.
Indian names and Indian words in general of the tribes of the region of
the Columbia have many peculiarities, and amply repay time spent in
trying to study them out. The following pretends to be only the merest
beginning, and the writer has advanced only to the edges of the subject.
It comprises only those names, and those meagerly and superficially, of
the Lower Columbia and Willamette rivers, and these have been obtained
from but two or three original sources. Those sources, however, are as
reliable and intelligent as are to be found, being the recollections of
Silas B. Smith, of Clatsop, and Louis Labonte, of Saint Paul, Oregon.
That others may present anything they may have on the subject, and thus
the stock of information be increased before those who have the original
information shall have passed away, and the later investigators be left
only to conjecture, is my idea in preparing this paper.
In the first place we must bear in mind a remark of Mr. Smith’s, and
that is that the most of the Indian names we have incorporated into our
own nomenclature are more or less altered. He says that white men always
like to change the original Indian somewhat. This is no doubt true. Such
a disposition arises partly from the white man’s egotism, which rejoices
in showing that he can make a thing wrong if he pleases, and especially
that an Indian name has no rights which he is bound to respect; and it
arises in part from the white man’s ignorance. This ignorance is shown
partly in the lack of training of our ears in hearing, so that we
frequently are unable to distinguish between allied letters, or sounds,
such as “p” and “b,” or “m,” for the consonants, or between a simple
vowel sound, or a compound, or diphthong. Moreover, our English language
is almost hopelessly mixed up between the open, or broad continental
pronunciation of the vowels, and the narrow, or closed sound; so that no
one is sure that an “a” stands for “ay,” as in “day,” or for “ah,” as in
“hurrah.” The Yankee peculiarity, also, of leaving off the sound of “r”
where it belongs, and putting it on where it does not belong, like
saying “wo’k” for “work,” or “Mariar” for “Mariah,” has very materially
changed the original pronunciation. With us, too, the pronunciation of
the vowels follows a fashion, and varies from time to time according to
what particular “phobia” or “mania” we may happen to be cultivating. At
present the prevailing Anglomania is probably affecting our speech as
well as our fashions and politics. An Indian name, therefore, that might
have been rendered into very good English fifty years ago, may now,
having become subject to the mutations of our fads of pronunciation, be
spoken quite differently from the original tongue.
But, after making all these allowances, due to our white man’s egotism,
ignorance and change of fashions, the main difficulty is in the
strangeness, and, it might be said, the rudimentariness of the Indian
sounds. Many, perhaps the most, of the aboriginal tones have no exact
phonetic equivalent in English. We must remember that their names were
originated away back in their own history, and were not affected by
contact with Europeans, and have therefore a primitive quality not found
even in the Jargon. This makes them more difficult, but certainly not
less interesting.
In general it will be found, I think, that the aboriginal languages have
the following peculiarities of pronunciation:
1. Almost all the sounds are pronounced farther back in the throat than
we pronounce them. This brings into use an almost entirely different
set of tones, or more exactly, it brings the various vocal sounds
produced by the vocal chords to a point at a different, and to us an
unused position of the throat or mouth—at a point where we can
scarcely catch and arrest the sound. This makes the vowel sounds in
general pectoral or ventral, and the consonant sounds guttural or
palatal. As to the consonants, also, it often gives them a clucking or
rasping sound not found in our language, unless in certain
exclamations.
2. As a consequence of the above, the vowel sounds are not very fully
distinguished from the subvowels. There is no “r” sound; if that is
ever seen in an Indian name it has been interpolated there by some
white mal-transliterator. “L” easily runs into “a,” and “m” into “b.”
Names that upon first pronunciation seem to have an “l” turn out upon
clearer sound to have a short Italian “a,” or those having an “m” to
be more exactly represented by “b.” Probably the fact as to “r” is
that it is identical in the aboriginal throat with long Italian “a,”
or the ah sound, as it still is with Easterners and Southerners.
3. Many of the most common aboriginal consonants, or atonic sounds,
while simple to them, can be represented in English only by compounds.
Such are the almost universal “ch” which can be as accurately rendered
“ts,” (?) and the very common final syllable “lth.” “T” is also
produced so far back in the throat as to be almost indistinguishable
from “k.” It seems to be a principle to slip a short “e” sound before
an initial “k,” and many names begin with a short introductory “n”
sound, which is nearly a pure vowel. Of the vowels, “a” pronounced as
ah is the most common, though long “a,” properly a diphthong, and long
“i” a diphthong, and long “e” are very frequent. While it is true that
the sounds as a rule are _in_, rather than _out_, still the pure
vowels, especially “a,” and this used as a call, or cry, is often very
open and pure.
4. It will probably be found, also, that the sounds are varied more or
less according to meaning. With us tones are a matter of expression.
With the aborigines they were probably a matter primarily of meaning.
This would arise from the fact that their language was not written,
but spoken, and their terms were not descriptive, but imitative. We
know, for instance, that the Jargon word indicating pastime, which is
“ahncuttie,” means a shorter or longer period, according as the length
the first vowel is drawn out—a very long time ago admitting also of
imitative gesticulation. This principle would modify the pronunciation
of words, lengthening or shortening the vowels, or opening or closing
them, or perhaps drawing semi-vowels out into pure vowels, and
softening or sharpening the consonants.
While any expression of opinion must be very modest, still this much may
be ventured: That our language has lost many valuable elements in its
evolution from the spoken to the written form, especially in the matter
of picturesqueness. We have, of course, gained immeasurably in
directness and objective accuracy, but true evolution does not abolish
any former element, but retains and subordinates it, and thereby is able
to advance to new utilities. By study of a pure aboriginal language on
the imitative principle, expressed only in tones, not only may the
advantages of our own tongue be understood, but its deficiencies may be
remedied, and a more complete language at length be developed. I am by
no means of the opinion that all that is human, or of value to
civilization, is to be found in the Anglo-Saxon race, or even in the
white race; but that the slow and painful struggles and ponderings of
the other races are also to be wrought into the final perfect expression
of humanity in society, art, literature and religion.
After the above, which is perhaps too much in the way of introduction, I
will proceed with the names that I have been favored with—only wishing,
if that were possible, that our aboriginal languages might be
reconstructed in their entirety.
Water, says Mr. Smith, unless enclosed by land, was never named. The
Columbia or the Willamette had no names. Water was to the native mind,
like air, a spiritual element, and just the same in one place as
another; and the circumstance that it was bounded by land made it no
other than simply “chuck”—the Jargon word. If Indians ever seemed to
give a name to a river, all that was meant was some locality on the
shore. The idea of giving an appellation to a body of water from source
to outlet never occurred to them.
The following are some of the more common Indian names of places, as
given by Mr. Smith:
_Chinook_, or _Tsinook_—The headland at Baker’s Bay.
_Clatsop_, or, more properly, _Tlahtsops_—About the same as
Point Adams at mouth of the Columbia.
_Wal-lamt_, accented on last syllable, and but two syllables—A
place on the west shore of the Willamette River, near Oregon
City, and the name from which Willamette is taken.
_E-multh-a-no-mah_—On east side of Sauvie’s Island; from which
the name Multnomah is derived.
_Chemukata_—Chemekata, site of Salem.
_Chemayway_—A point on the Willamette River about two and one-half
miles southward from Fairfield, where Joseph Gervais, who came to
Oregon with Wilson G. Hunt in 1811, settled in 1827-28. The name
Chemawa, the Indian school, is derived from this.
_Champoek_—Champoeg, an Indian name signifying the place of a
certain edible root. The name is not the French term _le campment
sable_, as naturally supposed by some, and stated by Bancroft.
_Ne-ay-lem_—The name from which Nehalem is derived.
_Acona_—Yaquina.
To these might be added, perhaps, Sealth, the name of the Indian chief
after whom the City of Seattle is called. The name is of two syllables,
accented on the first. This well illustrates the tendency of the whites
to transpose letters, here making an “lth” into a “tle” in imitation of
the French, or, perhaps, the Mexican names. Bancroft learnedly discusses
the similarity between the Washington and Mexican “tl,” apparently not
knowing that the Washington termination was not “tl,” but “lth.”
I will now give, in more detail, names of places, chiefs, and of some
primitive articles of food, and utensils, etc.:
NAMES OF PLACES AND CHIEFS IN CLATSOP COUNTY.
_Tle-las-qua_—Knappa.
_Se-co-mee-tsiuc_—Tongue Point.
_O-wa-pun-pun_—Smith’s Point.
_Kay-ke-ma-que-a_—On John Day’s River.
_Kil-how-a-nak-kle_—A point on Young’s River.
_Nee-tul_—A point on Lewis and Clark River.
_Ne-ahk-al-toun-al-the_—A point on west side of Young’s Bay,
near Sunnymead.
_Skip-p-er-nawin_—A point at mouth of Skipanon Creek.
_Ko-na-pee_—A village near Hotel Flavel, where the first white
man in Oregon, Konapee, lived.
_Ne-ahk-stow_—A large Indian village near Hammond.
_Ne-ah-keluc_—A large Indian village at Point Adam’s, name
signifying “Place of Okeluc,” or, where the _Okeluc_ is made;
“_Okeluc_” being salmon pemmican.
_E-will-tsil-hulth_—A high sand hill, or broken end of a sea
ridge, facing the sea beach about west of the “Carnahan” place,
meaning steep hill.
_E-wil-nes-culp_—A flat-topped hill against the beach about west
of the “West” place, meaning “Hill cut off.”
_Ne-ah-ko-win_—Village on the beach about west of the “Morrison”
place, where the Ohanna Creek once discharged into the ocean.
_Ne-ah-coxie_—Village at the mouth of Neacoxie Creek.
_Ne-co-tat_—Village at Seaside.
_Ne-hay-ne-hum_—Indian lodge up the Necanicum Creek.
_Ne-ahk-li-paltli_—A place near Elk Creek where an edible plant,
the Eckutlipatli, was found.
_Ne-kah-ni_—A precipice overlooking the ocean, meaning the abode
of _Ekahni_, the supreme god; called “Carnie Mountain” by the
whites.
_Ne-tarts_—Netarts.
_Nestucca._
_Tlats-kani_—A point in Nehalem Valley reached either by way of
Young’s River, or the Clatskanie; and hence the name
“Claskanine” for the branch of Young’s River, and “Clatskanie”
for the stream above Westport. In saying “_tlastani_,” the
Indians meant neither of those streams, but merely the place
where they were going to or coming from; but with usual
carelessness the whites applied it to both.
There were two lakes on Clatsop plains, one of which was
called _O-mo-pah_, Smith’s Lake: and the other, much larger,
_Ya-se-ya-ma-na-la-tslas-tie_, which now goes by the name of an
Indian, _Oua-i-cul-li-by_, or simply _Culliby_.
The name of Cape Hancock was _Wa-kee-tle-he-igh_; _Ilwaco_,
_Comcomby_, _Chenamas_, _Skamokoway_, _Kobaiway_, _Tostam_, and
_Totilhum_, were chiefs.
These chiefs’ names illustrate some of the peculiarities of Indian
pronunciation. _Kobaiway_, who was the Clatsop chief when Lewis and
Clark came, was called by them _Comowool_; _Tostam_ was sometimes called
_Tostab_; and _Totilhum_, “a powerful man of the people,” had the
Columbia River called after him by some whites. Seeing some Indians
coming down the great stream with camas, etc., they asked where they
obtained this: “From _Totilhum_,” was the reply; meaning that they had
been on a visit to the chief. Then thinking they had made a great
discovery, the whites announced that the Columbia was called _Totilhum_.
_Totilhum_ was chief of the Cathlamets, who originally had their village
on the Oregon side, near Clifton.
INDIAN NAMES OF PLACES IN THE WILLAMETTE VALLEY—SOME CHIEFS.
_Ni-a-kow-kow_—St. Helens. A noted Indian chief here was
_Ke-as-no_. He was made a friend by the Hudson’s Bay Company, was
given fine presents, and entrusted with the duty of firing a salute
to the company’s vessels as they came in sight up the river.
_Nah-poo-itle_—A village just across the river from
_Niahkowkow_. The name of the chief was _Sha-al_, who was very
large sized.
_Nah-moo-itk_—A point on Sauvie’s Island.
_Emulthnomah_—A point a little above.
_Wa-kan-a-shee-shee_—A point across the river from
_Emulthnomah_; meant “white-headed duck,” or diver.
_Na-quoith_—On mainland, old Fort William.
_Na-ka-poulth_—A pond a little above Portland, on the east side,
where the Indians dug wapatoes.
_E-kee-sa-ti_—The Willamette Falls. The name of the tribe here
was _Tla-we-wul-lo_. The name of a chief was _Wah-nach-ski_; he
had a nephew, _Wah-shah-ams_.
_Han-te-uc_—Point at mouth of Pudding River.
_Champo-ek_—Champoeg, meaning the place of a certain edible
root. “Ch” pronounced hard, as in “chant.”
_Che-sque-a_—Ray’s Landing.
_Cham-ho-kuc_—A point near the mouth of Chehalem Creek; Chehalem
Village, in Chehalem Valley. A Chehalem chief was _Wow-na-pa_.
_Chemayway_—_Chemayway_ was also a name given to Wapato Lake.
_Cham-hal-lach_—A village on French Prairie.
It will be noticed that the names above the Willamette Falls frequently
begin with “Che” or “Cham,” as the coast names often begin with “Ne.”
The name for Clackamas was _Ne-ka-mas_, and for Molalla, _Mo-lay-less_.
The name Tualatin was _Twhah-la-ti_. At Forest Grove, near the old
A. T. Smith place, was an Indian village, _Koot-pahl_. The bare hill
northwest, now called David’s Hill, was _Tahm-yahn_, and an open
spot up Gales’ Creek Valley was _Pa-ach-ti_. A Tillamook chief was
_Tae-sahlx_. The name of a chief at The Dalles was _Wah-tis-con_.
Labonte remembers several chiefs at Spokane, one of whom was _Ilmicum
Spokanee_, or the Chief of the Moon; another, _Ilmicum Takullhalth_, or
the Chief of the Day, and another, _Kah-wah-kim_, or Broken Shoulder. A
chief of the Colville tribe was _Skohomich_, a very old, white headed
man when Labonte saw him in about 1827. A tribe at the Cascades were
the _Wah-ral-lah_.
NAMES OF ANIMALS.
Coyote—Chinook, _Tallapus_; Klikitat, _Speeleyi_; Spokane,
_Sincheleepp_.
Fox—Spokane, _Whawhaoolee_.
Gray wolf—_Cheaitsin_.
Grizzly bear—Spokane, _Tsim-hi-at-sin_; Chinook, _E-shai-um_.
Black bear—Spokane, _N’salmbe_; Chinook. _Itch-hoot_.
Deer—Spokane, _Ah-wa-ia_; Doe, _Poo-may-ia_, or _Poom-a-wa-ia_.
(?) Calapooia, “A big buck,” _Awaia umpaia_.
Black bear—Clackamas, _Skint-wha_.
Beaver—_Wa-ca-no_.
Deer—Chinook, _Mowitch_; Calapooia, _A-mo-quee_.
Elk—Calapooia, _An-ti-kah_.
Elk—Clatsop, _Moo-luk_.
Duck—Clatsop, _Que’ka-que’kh_ (_onomatopœia_).
Geese—Clatsop, _Kah-lak-ka-lah-ma_ (_ono._).
Yellow legged goose—_Hi-hi_.
Columbia Sucker—_Kaht-a-quay_.
Smelt—Clatsop, _O-tla-hum_.
Hake—Clatsop, _Sca-nah_.
Silverside salmon—_O-o-wun_.
Blue back salmon—Clatsop, _Oo-chooi-hay_.
Large black salmon of August run—Clatsop, _Ec-ul-ba_.
Steelhead—Clatsop, _Qua-ne-ah_.
Dog salmon—Clatsop, _O-le-ahch_.
Cinook salmon (Royal Chinook)—Clatsop, _E-quin-na_, from which
“_Quinnat_,” the name of the Pacific Coast salmon species has
been taken.
Trout—_O-tole-whee_.
Whale—Clatsop, _E-co-lay_.
Horse—Clatsop, _E-cu-i-ton_.
Cow—Clatsop, _Moos-moos_ (_ono._).
Sheep—_Ne-mooi-too_.
Wildcat—Clatsop, _E-cup-poo_.
[Mr. Smith conjectures that the name of wildcat was
given from the alarm call of the squirrel, which was
hunted by the wildcats, and whose cry indicated the
presence of these animals.]
Beaver—Clatsop, _E-nah_.
Seal—Clatsop, _Ool-hi-you_.
Sea lion—Clatsop, _Ee-kee-pee-tlea_.
Sea otter—Clatsop, _E-lah-kee_.
Coon—Clatsop, _Twa-las-key_.
EDIBLE ROOTS, ETC.
Wapato—Clatsop, _Kah-nat-sin_.
Camas—Calapooia, _Ah-mees_.
Loaf of Camas—_Um-punga_.
Foxtail tuber—Clatsop, _Che-hup_; Calapooia, same.
[The _che-hup_ was quite an article of commerce, being
prepared by the Calapooias and traded with the coast
tribes. It was black, and sweet tasting.]
Thistle root—Clatsop, _Sh-nat-a-whee_.
Blue lupine root—Clatsop, _Cul-whay-ma_.
[This was a root as large as one’s finger, a foot long,
and roasted, tasted like sweet potato.]
Wild tulip, or brown lily—Clatsop, _Eck-ut-le-pat-le_.
Cranberry—Clatsop. _Solh-meh_.
Strawberry—Clatsop, _Ah-moo-tee_.
Service berry—Clatsop, _Tip-to-ich_.
Blue huckleberry—Same as service berry.
Buffalo berry—Clatsop, _Smee-ugh-tul_.
Sallal—Clatsop, _Sal-lal_.
Hazel nuts—Calapoolia, _To-que-la_.
Wasps’ nest—Calapooia, _An-te-alth_.
[The nest of the “yellow jackets” was dug out of the
ground, the insects being first well smoked so as not to
sting; and the combs, with the honey and larvæ, were
considered a great delicacy. The expression (Calapooia)
“_msoah quasinafoe antealth_,” means “yellow jacket’s
nests are good eating.”]
Tar weed seed—Calapooia, _Sah-wahh_.
The tar weed seeds were small and dark, ripening late. One of the
objects of burning the prairie over in the fall was to ripen and
partially cook these seeds, which, after the fire had passed, were left
dry and easily gathered. They were ground like camas root in a mortar
and then resembled pepper in appearance, but were sweet tasting.
CHINOOK AND SPOKANE NUMERALS.
One—Chinook, _ikt_; Spokane, _nekoo_.
Two—Chinook, _mox_; Spokane, _es-sel_.
Three—Chinook, _clone_; Spokane, _tsye-sees_.
Four—Chinook, _lack-et_; Spokane, _moos_.
Five—Chinook, _quin-am_ or _quun-un_; Spokane, _chyilks_.
Six—Chinook, _tahum_; Spokane, _e-tecken_.
Seven—Chinook, _sinomox_; Spokane, _sees-pul_.
Eight—Chinook, _sto-ken_; Spokane, _ha-en-um_.
Nine—Chinook, _quoist_; Spokane, _h’noot_.
Ten—Chinook, _tat-ta-lum_; Spokane, _oo-pen_.
Twenty—Chinook, _tattalum-tattalum_; Spokane, _es-sel oo-pen_.
One hundred—Spokane, _en-kay-kin_.
HOUSEHOLD ARTICLES, IMPLEMENTS, ETC.
Blankets—Calapooia, _Pas-sis-si_.
Kettle—Calapooia, _Moos-moos_.
Slaves—Calapooia, _El-ai-tai_.
_Haiqua_ shells, used for money, a small turritella, found on
the northern coast.
Small _haiqua_—Calapooia, _Cope-cope_.
Tobacco—Calapooia, _E-kai-noss_.
Knives—Calapooia, _Eoptstsh_.
Powder—Calapooia, _Poo-lal-lie_.
Buffalo robe—Clatsop, _Too-i-hee_.
Wagon—Clatsop, _Chick-chick_ (_ono._).
High-bow Chinook canoe—Clatsop, _Esquai-ah_.
Big tub Chinook canoe—Clatsop, _Ska-moolsk_.
Small duck canoe—_Kah-see-tic_(_h_).
Clackamas canoe—Clackamas, _Tse-quah-min_.
Even from the above meager list a number of interesting inquiries might
be begun, but my object at present is only to make a small contribution
along what I believe will prove a profitable line of investigation,
hoping that others will add theirs. In this way something will be
accomplished toward reconstructing the simple life of our natives, doing
them a justice, and discovering, I am sure, what will be a delight and
benefit both to the present and to the coming generations of our own
people.
H. S. LYMAN.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
DOCUMENTS.
All of the following newspaper articles were taken from a single year of
the New York _Tribune_. They serve well to indicate the interest with
which Oregon Territory was regarded throughout the country in 1842:
[From the _Tribune_ (New York), January 18, 1842.]
FROM OREGON.
EXTRACT OF A LETTER DATED WILHAMET, FEBRUARY 19, 1842.
I will now tell you something of the people of this country. There
are about seventy-five to eighty French Canadians settled in this
country, principally discharged from the service of the Hudson Bay
Company; there are also about fifty Americans settled in and about
this country, making, perhaps, one hundred and twenty-five to one
hundred and thirty male inhabitants, who are married to Indian
women. They raise from their farms, on an average, from three to
five hundred, and some from ten to twelve hundred bushels of wheat,
besides great quantities of pease, potatoes, oats, barley, corn,
etc. The Hudson Bay Company have in their employ at Fort Vancouver
about one hundred and twenty-five persons, and many in several
other forts both sides of the Rocky Mountains.
These people, as I said before, are married to Indian women, and
live very much the same, in all respects, as our farmers at
home, with the exception of not being obliged to labor half as
much. They generally have from fifty to one hundred head of
horses, half as many cows, and about the same number of hogs;
these all take care of themselves. The people here cut no hay
and make no pastures; they do not give their hogs any feed,
excepting about a month before they kill them. There is one
church here, and the people have contracted for a brick church
and other buildings necessary, such as a school house for the
French and one for the Americans. The French have one priest
here and one at Fort Vancouver.
The Americans generally attend at the mission, and, as far as I
can see, the people here are as well behaved and moral as in our
town. We have now a committee at work drafting a constitution and
code of laws; have in nomination a governor, an attorney-general,
three justices of the peace, etc.; overseers of the poor, road
commissioners, etc. We have already chosen a supreme judge with
probate powers, a clerk of the court and recorder, a high sheriff,
and three constables; so that you see we are in a fair way of
starting a rival republic on this side of the mountains, especially
as we are constantly receiving recruits— those people whose time
has expired with the Hudson Bay Company, and from mountain hunters
coming down to settle.—_National Intelligencer_.
[From the _Tribune_ (New York), Friday morning, March 24, 1842.]
Oregon is now the theme of general interest at the west. Large
meetings to discuss the policy of taking formal possession of
and colonizing it have been held at Columbus, Ohio, and several
other places. Many are preparing to emigrate. A band of hardy
settlers will rendezvous at Fort Leavenworth, and set out thence
for Oregon early in May, under the command of Major Fitzpatrick.
[From the _Tribune_ (New York), April 26, 1842.]
FROM OAHU.
The ship William Gray brings to Salem, Massachusetts, date from
Honolulu, November 27. * * * Late intelligence from Oregon
confirms previous accounts with regard to missionary operations.
From the fewness of the Indians and their migratory habits it is
feared that little good can be effected among them. Many of the
missionaries have become farmers and others are preparing to
leave.
[From the _Tribune_ (New York), March 13, 1842.]
OREGON.
The following letter is from an intelligent sea captain just
returned from the Pacific Ocean. It gives information of the
progress of the British appropriation of the trade and all the
accessible regions of the Northern Pacific, which should be
impressed upon the American public.—_Globe_.
BOSTON, May 1, 1842.