erect buildings; the Grecian styles of architecture, beyond doubt,
were derived from imitating in stone those structures first made of
wood. All the largest members of the vegetable kingdom belong to this
division; and indeed the same may be said of size which has been
said of age, namely, that there is no limit except from accidental
circumstances.
[Illustration: FIG. 23.--WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA.]
In the Crystal Palace at Sydenham is a most wonderful and gigantic
specimen of the Wellingtonia Gigantea (fig. 23), one of the class of
trees called coniferous, and belonging to the exogens, the bark of
which has been stripped off in portions at the place where it grew,
each of which being numbered, has enabled them to be re-adjusted in
their original places, the result of which is, the whole bark of this
most magnificent tree appears as if growing on the timber. It measures
31 feet across at the base, and 93 feet in circumference; the original
tree was 363 feet in height, its present height is 116 feet, and the
bark is 18 inches thick. The Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria excelsa)
sometimes grows to 300 feet in height, and Humboldt, describing a
specimen of the Pinus Trigona, says, "This gigantic fir was measured
with great care; the girth of the stem at 6-1/4 feet above the ground
was often 38 to 45 feet; one stem was 300 feet high, and without
branches for the first 192 feet."
As the exogens grow by the addition of woody matter to their
circumference, of course the older the tree (other conditions being
equal) the larger will be the trunk, but as the new wood is added
to the outside, the centre loses its vitality and is liable to the
attacks of both animal and vegetable parasites, and is therefore
constantly found either decayed or totally destoyed; this is not,
however, invariably the case, and many instances are found of wood of
a great age remaining sound in the centre. At St. Nicholas in Lorraine
is exhibited a plank of walnut wood made into a dining-table which is
twenty-five feet wide. Besides timber for various useful purposes, this
division of the vegetable kingdom furnishes us with both cotton and
linen for clothing, and many of the dye-stuffs for ornamenting such
clothing, also with many articles of food (although not so prolific in
this respect as the Endogenæ), the potato, most green vegetables, as
cabbages, lettuces, are exogenous, together with such roots as carrots,
parsnips, &c.
To this class of plants belong many of the most beautiful flowers, and
all our fruit-trees, not the least important of which is the fig-tree,
although the fig can hardly be called a fruit in the strict sense of
the word, being a consolidated mass of flowers within a receptacle.
The figs of commerce are produced from the Ficus carica, the fruit
being dried in the sun; they form a considerable article of commerce.
The celebrated Banyan tree (Ficus indica, fig. 24) is one of the fig
tribe, it throws down branches (as do many others of this tribe) which
take root in the earth and form fresh stems, so that one of the banyan
trees with its off-shoots will cover a space of ground sufficient to
shelter a regiment of cavalry, and many of the fig tribe, especially
the sycamore (Ficus sycamorus), are planted for the sake of the shelter
they supply by their broad crowns of leaves; another of the fig trees
(Ficus elastica) supplies a great part of the India-rubber of commerce.
[Illustration: FIG. 24--THE BANYAN TREE.]
De Candolle divides the class of exogens into four sub-classes
according to the arrangement of their flowers &c.; they are as
follows:--
1. THALAMIFLORÆ, the flowers of which are furnished with both
calyx and corolla, the corolla having distinct petals, and the stamens
hypogynous, that is, growing immediately from below the pistil.
2. CALYCIFLORÆ, having flowers with both calyx and corolla,
the corolla divided into distinct petals, but the stamens always
Perigynous, that is, growing upon the sides of the calyx.
3. COROLLIFLORÆ, having flowers with both corolla and calyx,
the former having its petals united.
4. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ, flowers without corolla and often without a
calyx.
These four sub-classes have been divided into orders as follows:--
ORDERS OF THALAMIFLORÆ.
1. NYMPHACEÆ (Nymphæa alba) White Water-Lily.
(Nuphar luteum) Yellow Water-Lily.
This order contains water plants of great beauty, they grow in the mud
at the bottom of the water, sending up long flower- and leaf-stalks so
that the flowers may blossom in the air and the leaves float on the
surface; the leaves are generally round and turned up slightly at the
edges. The "Victoria Regia" is a magnificent specimen of this order;
it originally came from Brazil, and has flowers a foot wide, leaves
four or five feet across, and is sufficiently buoyant, it is said,
to bear the weight of a child. The Lotus of the Nile, the blossom of
which so frequently occurs on the carvings of the Egyptians as an
offering to Isis, is another member of this order.
[Illustration: White Water-Lily.]
2. PAPAVERACEÆ (Papaver somniferum) White Poppy.
(Papaver Rhoeas) Red Poppy.
Opium is prepared from the unripe capsules of the White Poppy, it is
chiefly cultivated for this purpose in India and Turkey. The Chinese
are the great consumers of opium, it being a common habit with them
both to eat and smoke it. Opium is made by collecting the juice in
the morning which has exuded from incisions made in the capsules over
night; those employed for this purpose use a small knife with several
blades and go round the plantations scarifying the capsules in the
evening, and the juice which issues and forms a thick concrete matter,
is scraped off, beaten up, and dried in round lumps. About £2,000,000
worth are exported from India annually.
[Illustration: White Poppy.]
[Illustration: Red Poppy.]
3. RANUNCULACEÆ (Anemone coronaria) Garden Anemone.
(Aconitum Napellus) Monk's-hood.
(Ranunculus acris) Butter-cup.
Besides the above examples, there are many beautiful flowers belonging
to this order, as the Clematis and Peony. Members of this order are
for the most part poisonous, and some of them, as Monk's-hood and
Hellebore, are violently so, while even the Butter-cup is to a certain
extent acrid.
[Illustration: Garden Anemone.]
[Illustration: Monk's-hood.]
4. FUMARIACEÆ (Fumaria officinalis) Fumitory.
This order contains no plant of any importance. The common Fumitory
derives its name from the supposed resemblance of the odour of its
flowers to smoke.
[Illustration: Fumitory.]
5. BRASSICACEÆ (Sinapis alba) White Mustard.
(Nasturtium officinalis) Water Cress.
(Brassica oleracea) Cabbage.
In this order are contained many of the useful occupants of our
kitchen gardens, the Cabbage, Turnip, Cauliflower, Radish, and many
more; they have nearly all a pungent taste, and some, as the Rape,
yield seed producing much oil. The Water Cress is grown near London in
square pools, into which some neighbouring stream is turned. These
pools are arranged side by side, and those who gather the plants lie
down on a plank of wood placed across. Enormous quantities are thus
supplied to the London markets.
[Illustration: Water Cress.]
6. CISTACEÆ (Helianthemum Vulgare) Helianthemum.
These plants are for the most part evergreens; the Yellow Cistus is
our most familiar example of the order. In Turkey the Rock-roses are
much cultivated, they exhale a gum having a highly aromatic odour,
which is there used as a perfume.
[Illustration: Helianthemum.]
7. BERBERIDACEÆ (Berberis vulgaris) Common Berberry.
The Berberry is commonly found in our hedgerows, and its fruit
is sometimes eaten; in Italy it grows to a good-sized tree. It is
remarkable as furnishing an example of vegetable motion, from the
irritability of its stamens, which if touched will bend forward in
a curved position, and touch the stigma with the anther, and after
remaining a short time in that position the stamens recover their
natural form.
[Illustration: Common Berberry.]
8. VIOLACEÆ (Viola odorata) Sweet Violet.
(Viola tricolor) Heart's-ease.
The well known Sweet-smelling Violet belongs to this order, which
otherwise contains no plants of importance, except one, the Cephaelis
Ipecacuanha, which produces the well-known emetic bearing that name.
[Illustration: Sweet Violet.]
9. DROSERACEÆ (Drosera rotundifolia) Sun-dew.
The Sun-dew is so called from the globules of a sort of viscid liquid
excreted by the hairs of this plant while in sunshine, and looking
like dew; some species of this order have their leaves so irritable
that an insect alighting on them causes them to shut up and catch it,
hence the name "Venus's Fly Trap" (Dionea muscipula) which is given to
an American species.
[Illustration: Sun-dew.]
10. POLYGALACEÆ (Polygala vulgaris) Milk-wort.
The Polygala Senega, or Virginian Snake-root, is a member of this
order; it is celebrated in America for the cure of the bite of snakes,
and is used here as an expectorant. The Rhatany, a very powerful
astringent, is also of this order.
[Illustration: Milk-wort.]
11. CARYOPHYLLACEÆ (Lychnis dioica) Bachelor's Buttons.
(Dianthus caryophyllus) Common Pink.
(Stellaria media) Chickweed.
There are upwards of a thousand species of this order, but none are
of much importance; they form however many of our most beautiful
ornamental garden flowers, of which the Carnation, Sweet William, and
several others, are familiar to all.
[Illustration: Bachelor's Buttons.]
[Illustration: Pink.]
12. TILIACÆ (Tilia Europæa) Lime Tree.
The Lime Tree grows often to a great size, is a fine handsome tree,
commonly found in our plantations, has heart shaped leaves, and
flowers generally in corymbs; it is very general in tropical climates,
and produces a fine close grained wood.
[Illustration: Lime Tree.]
13. HYPERICACEÆ (Hypericum perforatum) Perforated Hypericum.
Many species of Hypericum are cultivated in our gardens, and form
handsome flowers; the well known plant called Aaron's Beard (Hypericum
calycinum) is a member of this order, and is remarkable for the long
runners which it throws out forming fresh plants at intervals. It is
often suspended in pots, from which these runners descend in a very
graceful manner.
[Illustration: St. John's Wort.]
14. MALVACEÆ (Malva sylvestris) Common Mallow.
(Althæa officinalis) Marsh Mallow.
The Marsh Mallow has been much esteemed as a demulcent medicine, and
an ointment is made from it for external use; but one species of this
order, the Gossypium, is one of the most important plants in the
whole world, producing that most useful article, cotton, so largely
grown in America, and for which the slave population are chiefly
employed. The fine white hairs surrounding the seeds and filling up
the pod is the part picked out and preserved, it forms the cotton-wool
of commerce, of which some eight hundred millions of pounds' weight
are used annually! employing a million and a half people, in England
alone, and furnishing clothing to hundreds of millions. It is grown
in India, which is supposed to be its native place, and will probably
be grown to a much greater extent when railways and canals shall have
made a more easy communication from the interior of that country to
the sea-board.
[Illustration: Marsh Mallow.]
15. GERANIACEÆ (Geranium pyreniacum) Meadow Geranium.
Many species of this order are indigenous, and when cultivated
produce some of our most beautiful garden flowers, as the Geraniums,
Pelargoniums, and Erodiums. The Geraniums are those species which
have five irregular petals and ten stamens; they are the most
characteristic of the order.
[Illustration: Meadow Geranium.]
16. LINACEÆ (Linum usitatissimum) Common Flax.
The Flax plant is another of those insignificant plants which, from
certain properties they possess, have become the greatest boons to
mankind; the stalks of the Linum usitatissimum, soaked, bruised, and
prepared by combing, &c., form the flax of commerce, from which all
our linen fabrics are made. The manufacture of flax is one of the
oldest arts known, the ancient Egyptians formed their mummy-cloths
from this article, and a piece of one of these cloths, bleached and
placed side by side with some of the present date, would hardly suffer
by the comparison, but the rapidity of its manufacture, and the price
at which supplied, are doubtless very different in the two cases.
[Illustration: Flax Plant.]
The value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain is between seven
and eight millions yearly.
The seeds of the flax plant (Linseed) are used to crush and produce
the linseed oil of commerce so extensively used in the production of
paints and varnishes, and the cake is used as food for cattle.
17. ACERACEÆ (Acer campestre) Maple Tree.
(Acer pseudoplatanus) Sycamore Tree.
This order contains the Maple and Sycamore, fine trees, not only
ornamental, but producing wood much in request, moreover the Acer
saccharinum or Sugar Maple of North America is used to produce sugar,
which is obtained from its sap.
[Illustration: Maple Tree.]
18. RUTACEÆ (Ruta graveolens) Rue.
Rue is a well-known shrub with small pinnate leaves, and possessing a
strong and very disagreeable odour; this depends upon the volatile oil
which is contained in the glands with which the leaves are dotted. It
has been, from time immemorial, used as a medicine. Another member of
this order, the Buchu (Diosmia crenata), is also used medicinally.
[Illustration: Rue.]
19. OXALIDACEÆ (Oxalis acetosella) Wood Sorrel.
The Wood Sorrel is very acid, and from its juice is made the salt of
sorrel (which is bin-oxalate of potash), used to get out ink and iron
stains from linen, &c. This is supposed to be the true Shamrock.
[Illustration: Wood Sorrel.]
This completes the orders of Thalamifloræ, which, with the following
sub-class, Calycifloræ, contain all our star-like flowers, or those
in which the corolla forms a whorl or open ring of petals. The third
sub-class contains those chiefly in which the flowers form cups or
bells.
ORDERS OF CALYCIFLORÆ.
1. CELASTRACEÆ (Euonymus Europæas) Spindle Tree.
[Illustration: Spindle Tree.]
This order consists of shrubs or small trees growing in the temperate
regions of most parts of the world, and some of the species, as
Celastrus venatus, are said to be poisonous; the seeds of the South
African species are used to express oil from.
2. RHAMNACEÆ (Rhamnus catharticus) Buckthorn.
(Rhamnus frangula) Black Alder.
[Illustration: Buckthorn.]
Buckthorn berries afford a juice which, when made into syrup with
sugar, is a popular purgative medicine; the juice precipitated with
lime produces the green pigment known to artists as "sap green."
The "French Berries" used as a yellow dye-stuff are procured from a
species of Rhamnus.
3. FABACEÆ, or } (Cytisus scoparius) Broom.
LEGUMINOSÆ } (Pisum sativum) Garden Pea.
(Faba vulgaris) Garden Bean.
[Illustration: Broom.]
[Illustration: Garden Pea.]
The plants producing pods or legumes are among the most important of
the orders of this class, giving us very many useful and nutritious
plants, which, for the most part, are climbers, as Peas, Beans, &c.
The Tamarind and Cassia trees belong to this order, also those which
produce gum-arabic, catechu, logwood, and indigo. There are between
six and seven thousand species of the Leguminosæ.
4. ROSACEÆ (Rosa centifolia) Hundred-leaved Rose.
(Fragaria vesca) Wood Strawberry.
(Rubus fruticosus) Bramble.
(Pyrus communis) Pear Tree.
This important order yields us our most beautiful flower, the Rose, of
which there are a great many varieties, among which the Dog-rose--that
beautiful ornament to our hedges--deserves to hold a conspicuous
place, also the Sweetbriar or Eglantine. The rose is used in Turkey
and Persia for obtaining that most valuable and delicious perfume,
"Otto of Roses." It is made by distilling a portion of water from
several quantities of fresh roses, until it becomes saturated with the
volatile oil. This water is then exposed to the open air, and, in the
cool night time, drops of the otto collect on the top, from which it
is carefully gathered, and the same water again distilled from a fresh
quantity of roses. Besides the Rose tribe, this order contains some of
our most valued fruits. The Apple, Pear, and Strawberry belong to it,
also the Almond.
[Illustration: Pear Tree.]
[Illustration: Rose.]
[Illustration: Strawberry.]
5. LYTHRACEÆ (Lythrum salicaria) Purple Loose-strife.
[Illustration: Loose-Strife.]
The Purple Loose-strife is indigenous to England, bearing a purple
flower, and is also found in Australia. There are several varieties of
this plant; an Indian species, Lythrum Hunteri, bearing a red flower,
has been used by the natives as a red dye.
6. ONAGRACEÆ (Epilobium angustifolium) French Willow.
[Illustration: French Willow.]
This order contains some very beautiful flowering plants, as the
Evening-primrose (Enothera biennis), Fuchsia, &c. of which there are
a great many varieties; they abound plentifully in America, of which
country the Evening-primrose is said to be a native.
7. MYRTACEÆ (Myrtus communis) Myrtle.
[Illustration: Myrtle.]
The Myrtles are, for the most part, inhabitants of the warmer
climates. They are shrubs or trees, and sometimes of great size and
beauty; the flowers and leaves of many species are odorous. There are
upwards of fifty species of Myrtle, and they are found in most of the
warmer parts of the Old and New Worlds.
8. CRASSULACEÆ (Sempervivum tectarum) House-leek.
(Sedum Acre) Stone-crop.
[Illustration: House-leek.]
The species of this order have, most of them, thick succulent
leaves. The Sedums, Stone-crop, and House-leek, are among the most
common, growing in dry, earthy matter, on walls or housetops; they,
nevertheless, are full of a milky juice. The juice of Houseleek mixed
with cream has been a long time a popular remedy for various external
complaints, but, like most popular remedies, does neither good nor
harm.
9. GRASSULARIACEÆ (Ribes rubrum) Red Currant.
(Ribes grassularia) Gooseberry.
[Illustration: Gooseberry.]
The Gooseberry and Currant are members of this order. They are useful
plants for the kitchen-garden, and afford a grateful and wholesome
fruit, although unripe gooseberries (eaten raw) are extremely
unwholesome, as the acid they contain is the "oxalic."
10. SAXIFRAGACEÆ (Robertsonia umbrosa) London Pride.
[Illustration: London Pride.]
These are plants growing, for the most part, in mountainous regions,
and in the crevices of rocks. The London Pride and Hydrangea are the
best known, the latter producing very large corymbs of flowers. They
occur in temperate climates in most parts of the world.
11. APIACEÆ, or } (Foeniculum officinale) Fennel.
UMBELLIFERÆ } (Conium maculatum) Hemlock.
(Apium graveolens) Celery.
(Petroselinum sativum) Parsley.
[Illustration: Fennel.]
[Illustration: Hemlock.]
Contains many of our useful vegetables, as the Carrot (Daucus Carota),
Parsnip (Pastinaca), &c. The Celery also, and many of our aromatic
seeds, are produced by the Umbelliferæ, as Anise, Carraway, Dill,
Coriander, and Fennel. Some members, however, are poisonous, as
Hemlock (Conium Maculatum), and Cow-bane or Water Hemlock (Cicuta
Virosa).
ORDERS OF COROLLIFLORÆ.
1. CUCURBITACEÆ (Cucurmis melo) The Melon.
(Elaterium agreste) Spirting Cucumber.
[Illustration: Melon.]
The Cucumber (Cucurmis Sativa), the Melon (Cucurmis Melo), both
esteemed as delicacies, are of this order. Also the numerous tribe of
Gourds (Cucurbita), as the Pumpkin, Large Gourd, Bottle Gourd, Squash,
&c., also the Vegetable Marrow. Gourd-shells form the most common
vessels for holding liquids, in many parts of Asia.
2. CORNACEÆ (Cornus Sanguinea) Dogwood.
[Illustration: Dogwood.]
These plants are chiefly shrubs or trees, growing in most temperate
regions, and especially in America. The Cornelian Cherry (Cornus
muscula) produces a berry somewhat resembling a cherry. Some species
are used in America as a tonic medicine.
3. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ (Sambucus nigra) Elder Tree.
(Viburnum tinus) Laurustina.
(Caprifolium perfoliatum) Honeysuckle.
[Illustration: Honeysuckle. Guelder Rose.]
This order contains few plants of any importance. The Honeysuckle is a
very favourite ornamental plant, and the fruit of the Elder produces
the Elderberry-wine so much used on Christmas Eve, with toasted bread,
in many parts of the country.
4. GALIACEÆ (Galium cruciatum) Cross Wort.
(Rubia tinctorum) Madder.
[Illustration: Cross-wort.]
The root of the Madder is one of our most important "dye-stuffs,"
producing the most permanent reds and browns used in dyeing. It is a
native of the south of Europe and of Asia. Animals fed upon madder are
found to have their bones tinged of a red colour.
5. VALERIANACEÆ (Valeriana officinalis) Valerian.
(Cetranthus ruber) Red Valerian.
[Illustration: Valerian.
Red Valerian.]
Valerian is indigenous, growing by ditches, and bearing a pink flower;
the root is used in medicine, and has a most disagreeable odour.
Several species are cultivated as ornamental garden flowers; there are
about 125 species.
6. DIPSACACEÆ (Dipsacus fullonum) Teasel.
[Illustration: Teasel.]
The heads of the Teasel were formerly used, to an enormous extent,
for carding cloth, and were cultivated largely in some parts for that
purpose--wagon-loads of them were brought to the cloth-dressers--but
their use is now, to some extent, superseded, the process called
"teaselling" being frequently performed by machinery.
7. ASTERACEÆ (Tussilago Farfara) Coltsfoot.
(Helianthus annuus) Sunflower.
(Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). Ox-eye Daisy.
[Illustration: Coltsfoot.]
[Illustration: Ox-eye Daisy.]
The members of this family have a star-like inflorescence, as the
Sunflower, China Aster, &c.; the centre part or eye, being composed
of undeveloped florets, is frequently, by cultivation, almost lost,
forming florets which are added to the ray.
8. CAMPANULACEÆ (Campanula rotundifolia) Hare-bell.
(Campanula media) Canterbury-bell.
[Illustration: Harebell.]
Comprise the various "Bells," which form of inflorescence is
characteristic of the Corollifloræ. There are about 500 species of
this order, the flowers of which are for the most part of a blue
or purple colour; the Hare-bell is also known as the "Bluebell of
Scotland."
9. ERICACEÆ (Calluna vulgaris) Heather.
(Erica cinerea) Grey Heath.
[Illustration: Grey Heath.]
The Heaths are, for the most part, social plants, growing in great
numbers on waste ground, and giving great beauty to scenery. The
Heather gives a peculiar aspect to the hills of Scotland. Humboldt
observes, "It is curious that, out of more than 300 species of Erica,
one only should be found throughout the whole American continent."
10. GENTIANACEÆ (Gentiana campestris) Field Gentian.
(Menyanthes trifoliata) Buck Bean.
[Illustration: Field Gentian.]
[Illustration: Buck Bean.]
This order contains no member of great importance; the Gentian-root,
much used as a tonic, is the product of the "Gentiana Lutea."
11. PRIMULACEÆ (Anagallis arvensis) Pimpernel.
(Primula veris) Cowslip.
(Primula acaulis) Primrose.
[Illustration: Pimpernel.]
[Illustration: Primrose.]
These well-known and beautiful flowers form ornaments to our meadows,
hedgerows, and gardens; the Oxlip, Polyanthus, and Auricula belong to
this order, of which many varieties are produced by cultivation.
12. CONVOLVULACEÆ (Calystegia sepium) Bindweed.
[Illustration: Bindweed.]
The Bindweeds are gay and beautiful flowers, and besides being
used for ornamental purposes, many of this order have medicinal
properties of great importance. The Jalap root is from the Convolvulus
Jalapæ, which comes from Xalapa, in Mexico, of which name Jalap is a
corruption. Scammony, another medicine much used, is a resin procured
from a species of this order.
13. BORAGINACEÆ (Borago officinalis) Borage.
[Illustration: Borage.]