and diminutive figures. Over this is a gilded balustrade, and finally
another and a broader frieze containing gilded figures, together with
delicate foliage wrought in dull silver. This second tier grows
gradually narrower, and sustains the third, whose base projects, serving
as cornice to the frieze of the tier below, and decorated with a gilded
balustrade. Upon it rises a mass or body with twelve sides, following
the same arrangement of projecting and receding angles as the lower
tiers. In each of its receding spaces this order contains three
compartments, and in each of its salient faces it has a small tower or
buttress, which springs from the base and rests upon a delicate plinth
carved with a gilded ornamental band. Thus, the order we are describing
has six salient faces behind the six towers or buttresses, and six
spaces containing three open compartments. In these compartments,
separated one from another by diminutive buttresses with delicate
pinnacles, there is the same number of sunken spaces, one inch deep, on
which are represented, in high relief, scenes of the life and passion of
our Lord. The figures, admirably executed, are two inches high. Above
this order is a projecting cornice, decorated along its lower part with
a band of dull silver. It should be noted, that as the _custodia_
narrows gradually as it rises, the receding spaces grow proportionally
larger, thus affording room for the spacious inner order on which is
raised the _viril_. This order is formed by a crystal cylinder
(containing the host) resting on a base which is also cylindrical, the
lower part of which is decorated with a broad hexagonal band, narrower
at the top than at the bottom, and wrought with delicate foliage and
figures, as are the bands which lie beneath it. Above the transparent
cylinder enclosing the _viril_ rises a Gothic vault, drooping over in
the manner of a plume, and resting on the buttresses which fill the
projecting spaces on the base of the principal order. These buttresses
have a similar arrangement to, and coincide with, the other ones which
spring from the base of the third tier of the first order, and are
joined one to another by means of fine cross-buttresses surmounted by
statuettes. The circular vault which holds the crystal cylinder
containing the _viril_, and which resembles that of the rotunda
dedicated as a sepulchral chapel by the emperor Constantine to the
memory of his daughter, saint Constance, supports other and finer
buttresses, alternated with those beneath; but instead of rising from
the salient spaces of the base, these rise from the receding spaces and
support another vault, of smooth open-work, beneath which is a graceful
statuette of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción. Over this vault is a kind of
open-work dome, consisting of an effective series of pinnacles and
buttresses in the shape of segments of a circle, which bridge over the
summits of the pinnacles. Upon the dome is a crown surmounted by a
statuette of Christ triumphant, with the cross. The two vaults--that
which encloses the _viril_, and the other one above it, enclosing the
image of the Virgin--are masked on the outside by arches of elegant
design, crowned by an elaborate balustrade. The turrets or buttresses
which rise upon the lowest and the principal orders are decorated with
numerous statuettes, resting on plinths of exquisite design, covered by
open-work canopies.
"This masterpiece of art is made of gold, and polished and unpolished
silver. The weight is 532 marks.... Unfortunately, it lacks its original
purity of style, having been restored in the year 1735, when it is
probable that certain details were added which now disfigure it."
APPENDIX D
THE IMPERIAL CROWN OF THE VIRGEN DEL SAGRARIO, TOLEDO
This was the most elaborate and costly crown that had ever been produced
in Spain for decorating an image of the Virgin. The following is a
sketch of it:--
[Illustration]
Before it was enlarged to the imperial shape, this crown was executed by
a silversmith named Fernando de Carrión, who finished it in the year
1556, and was paid for his labour 760,000 _maravedis_. It then consisted
of a gold diadem adorned with rows of pearls, emeralds, rubies, and
enamelled devices of various colours, in the style of the Renaissance.
The superstructure, which converts it into what is known as an imperial
crown, was added by Alejo de Montoya, another silversmith of Toledo, who
began it in 1574, and completed it twelve years later. The addition
consisted of a number of gold statuettes of angels, covered with enamel,
measuring in height from two inches to two and a half, distributed in
pairs, and supporting decorative devices attached to the body of the
crown. From behind these angels sprang gold bands thickly studded with
precious stones, and terminating towards their union at the apex of the
crown in seated allegorical figures grouped about a globe surmounted by
a cross. This globe consisted of a single emerald, clear, perfect both
in colour and in shape, and measuring an inch and a half in diameter.
The inside of the hoop was covered with enamels representing emblems of
the Virgin, disposed in a series of medallions, and the dimensions of
the entire crown were eleven inches high by nine across the widest part.
The crown was examined and reported upon by two goldsmiths of Madrid,
who declared it to contain the following precious stones:--
Two balas rubies, valued at 150,000 _maravedis_
Twelve rubies, " 403,528 "
Twelve emeralds, " 237,500 "
Fifty-seven diamonds, " 555,396 "
One hundred and eighty-two pearls, " 397,838 "
The precious stones were thus valued at a total of 1,744,262
_maravedis_. Besides this, the value of the gold and silver contained in
the crown was estimated to amount to 405,227 _maravedis_, while
3,097,750 _maravedis_ were allowed for the workmanship. These figures
relate to the part which was made by Alejo de Montoya only. That which
had previously been executed by Fernando de Carrión was valued at
1,954,156 _maravedis_, making a grand total, for the whole jewel, of
7,201,395 _maravedis_. At the present day the intrinsic value of the
crown would be from nine to ten thousand pounds sterling.
In 1869 this splendid specimen of Renaissance jewellery was stolen from
a cupboard in the cathedral of Toledo, sharing thus the fate of many
other precious objects which have been entrusted to the slender
vigilance or slender probity of Spanish church authorities.
APPENDIX E
GOLD INLAY ON STEEL AND IRON
The inlaying of iron or steel with gold is often thought to be a craft
particularly Spanish, and to have been inherited directly by the Spanish
Christians from the Spanish Moors. This work, however, although we may
assume it to have been of Eastern origin in a period of remote
antiquity, was quite familiar to the ancient Romans, including,
probably, such as made their home in Spain. The Memoirs of Benvenuto
Cellini contain the following notice of the work in question:--
"I met with some little Turkish daggers, the handles of which were of
iron as well as the blade, and even the scabbard was of that metal. On
these were engraved several fine foliages in the Turkish taste, most
beautifully filled up with gold. I found I had a strong inclination to
cultivate this branch likewise, which was so different from the rest;
and finding that I had great success in it, I produced several pieces in
this way. My performances, indeed, were much finer and more durable than
the Turkish, for several reasons: one was, that I made a much deeper
incision in the steel than is generally practised in Turkish works; the
other, that their foliages are nothing else but chicory leaves, with
some few flowers of echites: these have, perhaps, some grace, but they
do not continue to please like our foliages. In Italy there is a variety
of tastes, and we cut foliages in many different forms. The Lombards
make the most beautiful wreaths, representing ivy and vine-leaves, and
others of the same sort, with agreeable twinings highly pleasing to the
eye. The Romans and the Tuscans have a much better notion in this
respect, for they represent acanthus leaves, with all their festoons and
flowers, winding in a variety of forms; and amongst these leaves they
insert birds and animals of several sorts with great ingenuity and
elegance in the arrangement. They likewise have recourse occasionally to
wild flowers, such as those called Lions' Mouths, from their peculiar
shape, accompanied by other fine inventions of the imagination, which
are termed grotesques by the ignorant. These foliages have received that
name from the moderns, because they are found in certain caverns in
Rome, which in ancient days were chambers, baths, studies, halls, and
other places of a like nature. The curious happened to discover them in
these subterranean caverns, whose low situation is owing to the raising
of the surface of the ground in a series of ages; and as these caverns
in Rome are commonly called grottos, they from thence acquired the name
of grotesque. But this is not their proper name; for, as the ancients
delighted in the composition of chimerical creatures, and gave to the
supposed promiscuous breed of animals the appellation of monsters, in
like manner artists produced by their foliages monsters of this sort;
and that is the proper name for them--not grotesques. In such a taste I
made foliages filled up in the manner above mentioned, which were far
more elegant and pleasing to the eye than the Turkish works.
"It happened about this time that certain vases were discovered, which
appeared to be antique urns filled with ashes. Amongst these were iron
rings inlaid with gold, in each of which was set a diminutive shell.
Learned antiquarians, upon investigating the nature of these rings,
declared their opinion that they were worn as charms by those who
desired to behave with steadiness and resolution either in prosperous or
adverse fortune.
"I likewise took things of this nature in hand at the request of some
gentlemen who were my particular friends, and wrought some of these
little rings; but I made them of steel well tempered, and then cut and
inlaid with gold, so that they were very beautiful to behold: sometimes
for a single ring of this sort I was paid above forty crowns."
APPENDIX F
OLD SPANISH PULPITS
The earliest pulpits of the Spaniards were similar to those of other
Christian nations. One of them was the _tribuna_ or _tribunal_, so
called, according to Saint Isidore, "because the minister delivers from
it the precepts for a righteous life, wherefore it is a seat or place
constructed upon high, in order that all he utters may be heard." The
ambo, too, although it is not mentioned by Saint Isidore, was probably
not unknown among the Spaniards.[61] Then there were various desks, such
as the _analogia_, _legitoria_, or _lectra_, on which the scriptures
were deposited in church, or carried in procession, and from which the
latter were read aloud by the priest. Saint Isidore remarks of the
_analogium_; "It is so called because the word is preached therefrom,
and because it occupies the highest place."[62] Ducange, quoting from
old authors, remarks in his Glossary that these desks were often adorned
with gold and silver plates or precious stones. Thus it is extremely
probable that Tarik's celebrated "table" (see Vol. I., pp. 31 _et seq._)
was merely some elaborate and bejewelled _analogium_ of the Christians;
such as was, in fact, the predecessor of the modern lectern or
"hand-pulpit."
[61] "Ambo, pulpitum ubi ex duabus partibus sunt gradus." Ugutio,
quoted by Ducange.
[62] _Originum_, Book XV., Chap. iv.
According to Amador de los Ríos, sermons in those early times were
delivered from the _analogium_ only. Towards the twelfth century, the
Isidorian liturgy was abolished in Spain, and the furniture of Spanish
temples underwent some change. In the same century and throughout the
century following, the Spanish Peninsula was invaded by the Order of
Preachers, while, coinciding with, or closely consequent upon, this
movement, the primitive ambo was succeeded by the _jubé_, and wood, as
the material of which the pulpit was constructed, by marble, iron,
stone, or plaster.
Two Mudejar pulpits of great interest are preserved at Toledo, in the
church of Santiago del Arabal (thirteenth century), and in the convent,
erected in the reign of Pedro the Cruel, of Santo Domingo el Real. The
substance of these ancient objects is a brick and plaster foundation,
with panels of the stucco known as _obra de yesería_, produced from
wooden moulds. The pulpit of the church of Santiago is traditionally
affirmed to be the one from which, in 1411, Saint Vincent Ferrer
delivered a sermon to the Toledan Jews. Whether this be so or not, the
date of its construction is undoubtedly the second half of the
fourteenth century, or early in the fifteenth. The shape is octagonal--a
very common form with Gothic pulpits. It is divided into four _cuerpos_
or orders, including the sounding-board. The decoration, which is
chiefly floral, is a combination of the Gothic and the Moorish styles.
The pulpit of Santo Domingo el Real stands in the refectory of that
convent. It dates from the same period as the one belonging to the
church of Santiago, but unlike this latter, bears no trace of former
gilding, painting, or enamelling upon the surface of the stone or
plaster. It has three tiers or compartments, and, as in the other
pulpit, the decoration consists of leaves and flowers, blended with
geometrical patterns and Moorish _lacería_.
The Moorish _mimbar_ or pulpit of the mosque of Cordova was very
wonderful. According to Sentenach, its situation was near the archway
leading to the _mihrab_, and on its desk rested the sacred copy of the
Koran which had belonged to the Caliph Othman, and which was stated to
be stained with his blood.
This _mimbar_, sacrificed long years ago to Christian barbarism and
neglect, was the richest piece of furniture in all that mighty building,
seven years of unremitting labour being exhausted by Al-Hakem's
craftsmen in constructing it of the richest and most aromatic woods,
inlaid with silver, ivory, gold, and precious stones. Ambrosio de
Morales called it "King Almanzor's chair," describing it quaintly as a
four-wheeled car of richly-wrought wood, mounted by means of seven
steps. "A few years since," he adds, "they broke it up, I know not
wherefore. So disappeared this relic of an olden time."
APPENDIX G
SPANISH CUTLERS
In former times excellent cutlery, such as knives, scissors, daggers,
spearheads, and surgical instruments, was made in Spain, at Seville,
Albacete, Toledo, Valencia, Pamplona, Ronda, Peñíscola, Guadix, Ripoll,
Mora, Olot, and Tolosa. Rico y Sinobas has given an interesting
description of the workshop and apparatus of one of these old Spanish
cutlers--his graduated set of hammers, weighing from a few ounces to
five pounds, his hand-saws, bench-saw, chisels, pincers, files, and
drills, his forge, measuring from a yard square to a yard and a half,
his two anvils of the toughest iron, the larger with a flat surface of
three inches by ten inches, for ordinary work, the smaller terminated by
conical points for making the thumb and finger holes of scissors.[63]
The method of tempering and forging practised by these cutlers was much
the same as that of the Toledo swordsmiths.
[63] _Noticia Histórica de la Cuchillería y de los Cuchilleros Antiguos
en España_ (_Almanaque de El Museo de la Industria_, Madrid, 1870).
Rico y Sinobas also embodied in his essay the following list of cutlers
and cutler-armourers, who manufactured knives, penknives, scissors,
parts of firearms, or heads and blades for lances, halberds, and the
like. The following is a summary of the list in question:--
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
NAME. | DATE. | WORKED AT
--------------------+---------------------+----------------------------
Acacio |17th century |? He made spearheads and
| | fittings for crossbows.
| |
Aguas, Juan de |Early in 18th century|Guadix.
| |
Alanis |Late 16th century |? Maker of fittings for
| | crossbows.
| |
Albacete |Late 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Ambrosio |Late 18th century |Mora. Maker of large
| |scissors for
| |sheep-shearing.
| |
Arbell, Ramón |17th century (?) |Olot. Knife-maker.
| |
Azcoitia (the elder)|Late 15th century |Guipúzcoa (?). A celebrated
|and early 16th |maker of pieces for
| |crossbows.
| |
Azcoitia (Cristóbal)|16th century |? Also a maker of pieces for
| | crossbows. He was the
| | fourth descendant of the
| | family who worked at this
| | branch of the cutler's
| | craft.
| |
Azcoitia (Juan) |16th century |? Perhaps a member of the
| | same family. He also made
| | pieces for crossbows.
| |
Beson, Manuel |18th century |Madrid. Knife-maker.
| |
Bis, Francisco |18th century |Madrid (see Vol. I.,
| |p. 273). Maker of knives and
| |arquebuses.
| |
Blanco, Juan |16th century |Maker of crossbows, and of
| |pieces for the same.
| |
Castellanos (the |18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
elder) | |
| |
Castellanos (the |Late 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
younger) |and early 19th |
| |
Castillo, Gregorio |Late 16th century |Cataluña (?).
| |Scissors-maker.
| |
Cerda, Miguel de la |Late 16th century |Madrid and Segovia. He made
| |scissors and other
| |cutlery.
| |
Criado, Juan |Early 17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
| |for crossbows.
| |
Diaz, Pedro |Early 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Escobar, Cristóbal |Late 16th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
|and early 17th |for crossbows.
| |
Escobar, Juan |17th century |Madrid (?). Son of the
| |preceding, and also a maker
| |of pieces for crossbows.
| |
Fernandez Manso |Late 18th century |Guadalajara. A Portuguese,
de Payba, José | |naturalized in Spain. He
| |was a scissors-maker of
| |considerable fame.
| |
Fuente, Pedro de la |Late 15th century |Madrid (?). Maker of
|or early 16th |crossbows and their pieces.
| |
García, Domingo |Late 17th century |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
| |cutler.
| |
García de la Torre, |Early 18th century |Guadalix and Alcorcón.
Teodoro | |Cutler. In company with
| |Manuel Beson, he invented a
| |method of converting iron
| |into steel.
| |
Garijo |18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Garro, Martín |Early 15th century |Pamplona. Cutler and
| |swordsmith. A letter dated
| |October 31st, 1406, records
| |that he was paid five
| |_escudos_ for making a
| |sword, and one _escudo_ for
| |a dagger.
| |
Gomez, Mateo |Late 17th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Grajeras |17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
| |for crossbows.
| |
Grande, Juan |17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of
| |lanceheads.
| |
Gutierrez |Late 17th century |Chinchilla. Scissors-maker.
| |
Hernandez, Juan |16th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
| |for crossbows.
| |
Herraez, Andres |Late 16th century |Cuenca. Arquebus-maker and
| |cutler.
| |
Herrezuelo (the |Late 16th century |Baeza. Cutler.
elder) |and early 17th |
| |
Herrezuelo (the |Early 17th century |Baeza.
younger) | |Scissors-maker.
| |
Horbeira, Angel |Late 17th century |Madrid. Cutler; a native of
| |Galicia, and reputed to be
| |one of the best craftsmen of
| |his time. He was known as
| |_El Borgoñon_, and passed
| |his early life in Flanders.
| |
Hortega |Early 16th century |? Maker of pieces for
| | crossbows.
| |
Lallabe, Juan de |Early 19th century |? Cutler, locksmith, and
| | maker of surgical
| | instruments.
| |
Lastra, Juan |17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
| |for crossbows. He was one
| |of the latest and most
| |celebrated of these
| |craftsmen.
| |
Leon |Early 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Llorens, Pablo |Late 17th century |Olot. Cutler.
| |
Marcoarte, Simon |Late 16th century |Madrid. Arquebus-maker and
|and early 17th |cutler. He was the son of
| |another craftsman of the
| |same name, who settled in
| |Spain in the reign of
| |Charles the Fifth
| |(see Vol. I., p. 273).
| |
Martinez, Juan |Early 16th century |? Maker of darts and lances
| | for crossbows.
| |
Mendoza, Francisco |Early 18th century |Trigueros (Old Castile).
and Manuel | |Cutlers.
| |
Moreno, Luis |Late 15th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
|or early 16th | for crossbows.
| |
Moro, El |Late 18th century |Madrid. Cutler.
|and early 19th |
| |
Muñoz of Getafe |16th century and |? Maker of pieces for
|early 17th | crossbows.
| |
Óipa, Juan | ? |Madrid. Maker of crossbows.
| |
Perez de Villadiego,|16th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
Juan | |for crossbows.
| |
Perez, Julian |Early 17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of darts
| | and lances for crossbows.
| |
Puebla (the elder) |Early 16th century |Madrid. Maker of parts of
| | crossbows.
| |
Ramirez, Juan |Late 16th century |? Cutler. He emigrated to
| | the city of Puebla de los
| | Angeles, in Mexico, where
| | he continued to make
| | knives, scissors, and
| | weapons of good quality.
| |
Renedo (the elder) |Early 16th century(?)|? Maker of darts and lances
| | for crossbows.
| |
Renedo (the younger)| Late 16th century |? Son of the preceding. He
| | and early 17th made the
| | same objects as his
| | father.
| |
Romero |Late 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Rosel | ? |Mora. Scissors-maker.
| |
San José, Brother |Late 17th century |Jaen. Scissors-maker.
Antonio | |
| |
Santamaría |Late 16th century |Madrid (?). Maker of pieces
|and early 17th |for crossbows.
| |
Selva, Juan |Late 18th century |Cartagena and Madrid. Cutler
| |and iron-founder.
| |
Segura |Late 18th century |Mora. Scissors-maker.
|and early 19th |
| |
Sierra, Juan |18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Soler, Isidro |Late 18th century |Madrid. Arquebus-maker,
| |and early 19th cutler, and
| |author of _An Historical
| |Essay on making Arquebuses_.
| |
Sosa |17th century |Madrid (?). Maker of weapons,
| |especially the heads of
| |lances.
| |
Targarona, |Late 18th century |Madrid. Arquebus-maker to
Francisco | |Charles the Third and
| |Charles the Fourth, and one
| |of the most skilful
| |craftsmen of his day.
| |
Tijerero, El | ? |Toledo. Maker of swords and
(Domingo Sanchez) | |scissors.
| |
Torres |Early 17th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Ucedo |Late 16th century and|? Maker of pieces for
|perhaps early 17th | crossbows.
| |
V.... |16th century (?) |Toledo (?). Scissors-maker.
| |The rest of this craftsman's
| |name is not known.
| |
Valderas, Pedro de |16th century |Madrid and Valladolid. Maker
| |of pieces for crossbows.
| |
Vicen-Perez, Pedro |Late 17th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |
Vilarasa, Antonio |Late 17th century |? Cutler and razor-maker.
| |
... Emt.., Julian |Early 18th century |Albacete. Scissors-maker.
| |Only a fragment of his name
| |has been preserved upon a
| |blade. Rico y Sinobas
| |suggests thatthe entire
| |surname may have been
| |_Vicen-Perez_.
| |
Zeruantes, |Late 17th century |Toledo. Maker of blades for
Francisco | |halberds.
| |
Zamora ("the deaf") |Late 16th century |Castile. Cutler,
|and early 17th |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
APPENDIX H
SPANISH TRADE-GUILDS
The _gremios_ of Spain were copied from the guilds of France and other
countries, and may be traced originally to the _corpora_ and _collegia_
of the Romans and Byzantines. The earliest which were formed in the
Peninsula were those of Barcelona[64] and Soria, succeeded, not long
after, by Valencia, Seville,[65] and Toledo. Prior, however, to the
institution of these trade-guilds proper, whose purpose was
pre-eminently mercenary,[66] there existed, in the case of several
cities, _cofradías_ or religious brotherhoods, that is, associations of
a philanthropic character, composed of tradesmen or artificers who
pledged themselves to assist each other in poverty or sickness, or to
defray the burial expenses of such members as should die without
resources.
[64] See Pérez Pujol, _Condición social de las personas á principios del
siglo V_. "The ironsmiths of Barcelona," says Riaño, "formed an
extensive guild in the thirteenth century; in 1257, four of its
members formed part of the chief municipal council; this guild
increased in importance in the following centuries."
[65] The history of the Sevillian trade-guilds begins properly with the
fifteenth century, although Gestoso states in his _Diccionario de
Artífices Sevillanos_ that he has found a few documents which seem
to point to their existence in the century preceding.
When the Spanish Christians pitched their camp before this city,
prior to their victorious assault upon its walls, the besieging
army was divided according to the various trades of its component
soldiery: the spicers in one part of the camp, the apothecaries in
another, and so forth. It is therefore probable that the Sevillian
trade-guilds were instituted shortly after the re-conquest. The
wages of smiths, shoemakers, silversmiths, armourers, and other
craftsmen were decreed by Pedro the First in his _Ordenamiento de
Menestrales_. The ordinances of the silversmiths, in particular,
are so old that Gestoso believes them to have been renewed and
confirmed by Juan the Second, in the year 1416. However this may
be, it is certain that the Seville guilds were regularly
constituted in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
[66] Barzanallana defines the word _gremio_ "as it came to be understood
in Spain," as "any gathering of merchants, artisans, labourers, or
other persons who practised the same profession, art, or office;
and who were bound to comply with certain ordinances, applicable to
each individual of their number."