history; a German emperor was busy in the interests of Rome, striving to
bring back the Pope from his long exile at Avignon, and obtaining
dubious victories over the great Italian family of the Visconti; while
meantime a league of cities in his own empire was carrying on a
successful war against the kings of the north, dethroning and defeating
them. And so far from raising a hand to aid them, the emperor, on paper,
at least, and by word and protestation, was taking part with Waldemar
against his own subjects. A curious, a unique condition of things truly.
And herewith we have brought the history of our League to the close of
what is known as its first period, dating from its origin to the peace
concluded with Denmark.
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Some writers reckon Waldemar as the fourth of his name, counting as
the third Waldemar the impostor, who for some years ruled over the land
under that name. I have preferred to follow the more generally adopted
reckoning.--H. Z.
[7] "Ante portas Wisby in manibus Danorum ceciderunt Gutenses."
PERIOD II.
_THE HISTORY OF THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE, FROM 1370 TO THE PUBLIC PEACE OF
1495, DECREED IN GERMANY BY MAXIMILIAN I._
I.
LUEBECK RECEIVES AN IMPERIAL VISITOR.
The great war ended, the Hansa, in true merchant spirit, instantly
busied itself making up its accounts. The poundage toll, instituted to
cover martial expenses, was at once abolished; credit and debit
carefully balanced. Examination of its books showed that,
notwithstanding the long duration of the war, the Hansa had been as
little a pecuniary, as it had been a military, loser, in its struggle
against Waldemar's assumptions.
While thus engaged, Luebeck was startled by the intelligence that the
Emperor, Charles IV., intended to honour "his beloved free Imperial City
of Luebeck" by a personal visit. Since Frederick Barbarossa no emperor
had ever passed the city gates, and the town councillors were probably
not far wrong when they perceived in this proposal a tacit imperial
acknowledgment of the Hansa's great military victories, victories in
which Luebeck had played the part of leader. For twenty-eight years
Charles had worn the imperial crown, and all that time his chief efforts
had been directed towards extending the power of his family, and the
home influence of the emperors. He was a shrewd and wily old man, who
saw the dangers Italy presented to the empire, and wished to avoid them.
At first, however, he had no proper comprehension of the great power
that had sprung up within his own domains in the shape of the Hanseatic
League, nay, indeed, he had sided against his subjects and with
Waldemar. But now the scales fell from his eyes, and he appreciated, as
all Europe did, the greatness and the strength of the Hansa.
Of course he did not admit this in words, yet there is little doubt that
he wished to gain the goodwill of this League, and hoped thus to get
from it both pecuniary and military support for his dynastic plans.
It was, however, "diamond cut diamond;" the worthy councillors of Luebeck
were no less shrewd and wily than their imperial master. Needless to say
that, in accordance with the usage of the age, they indulged in the most
servile and hyperbolical expressions of their joy and unworthiness to be
so honoured, but like true merchants they had a good memory, and knew
that Charles had not so long ago pawned his coronation cloak and some of
his tolls to one of their federation, and they suspected in their heart
of hearts that ulterior motives were probably not absent to account for
this unwonted event. Still, with the wisdom of the serpent, they let
nothing of this appear, either in their replies to Charles, or in their
treatment of him. Like their Lombard predecessors, even when in open
warfare against the emperor's authority, they ever protested in words
their submission and fidelity to the imperial crown.
It was in the autumn of 1375 that Charles the Fourth entered the gates
of Luebeck as the city's guest. It is a curious fact that his visit
coincided with the death of Waldemar on the island of Zealand; but in
those days of slow communication the news did not reach the emperor till
after the festivities were over.
On October 22nd, the Emperor, accompanied by the Empress, the Archbishop
of Cologne, prince-bishops, dukes, earls, and suzerains many and mighty,
halted before the closed gates of Luebeck. His suite, his armed
retainers, and those of his party, made such a numerous host that Luebeck
hesitated awhile ere opening its gates to so great a multitude, not
feeling wholly sure whether their mission were indeed one of peace, or
whether an affectation of peace was meant to cover a deceitful attack.
For such things were not uncommon in those days.
After some preliminaries it was however decided to let them all in. A
halt had been made outside the walls. Here was situated the Chapel of
St. Gertrude, patron saint of strangers. The chapel was the property of
the municipal council, and to obtain relics for it the town had spent
many sums of money. Among other matters, they boasted of possessing some
bones of Thomas a Becket, and it is curious to note that they sent over
to England to buy these at the very time Chaucer was superintendent of
tolls in the harbour of London, and was writing his immortal "Canterbury
Tales," in which he derides the frauds constantly practised upon the
purchasers of such wares; as in his "Pardonere's Tale." Now Charles
IV. had a great fancy for objects of this nature; he was in the habit of
making tours in his kingdom in order to collect them, begging them from
churches or monasteries, and giving in return privileges and sanctions.
It is possible he also had an eye to St. Thomas's bones, but among the
rich booty he took with him from Luebeck, we find no mention of such
relics.
[Illustration: SHIPPING HOUSE, LUEBECK.]
It was before St. Gertrude's Chapel, then, that Charles and his great
suite halted, and here he and his empress put on their imperial robes
previous to entering the city. This done, they were greeted by a
procession that came forth from the gates to welcome them. It consisted
of the temporal and spiritual lords of the town, the leading men, and
the most lovely and notable of its women. They carried before them a
crucifix and a casket containing relics. Both the emperor and his
consort kissed these with great fervour. Then two stately horses, richly
caparisoned, were brought before them, upon which they mounted. That of
the emperor was led by two burgomasters, that of the empress by two town
councillors. Eight young patricians carried a baldachino of rich stuffs
over the heads of the imperial pair. In front of the emperor rode a
councillor, bearing aloft on a pole the keys of the city; while he was
flanked by two imperial dukes, carrying respectively the sword and the
sceptre of the empire. In front of the empress rode the archbishop,
bearing the imperial globe. Behind followed all the nobles, the suite,
the men-at-arms.
Such was the procession that moved from St. Gertrude's Chapel on the
morning of October 22nd. In the space between the outer and inner walls
of the city the women of Luebeck awaited them ready to greet the guests
with cheers and song and waving kerchiefs. It was through the stately
Burg Thor that the great train passed and entered the streets of the
city, gaily decked out with arras and banners and verdure to bid them
welcome. They rode the whole length of the town, through the Breite
Strasse, to the sound of fife and drum, and then made for the cathedral.
Here they halted, dismounted, and entered. A solemn thanksgiving service
was held, and the choir sang the Introitus for the feast of the
Epiphany: "Ecce advenit Dominator Dominus" ("Behold the Lord, the Ruler
is come"), and then the second verse of the Seventy-second Psalm, "Give
the king Thy judgments, O God." After this the party once more
re-formed, and rode along the Koenigstrasse, till they came to the house
that was to harbour the imperial guests.
Contemporary chroniclers tell us that all along the route of the
procession and both by night and day the sounds of military and sacred
music never ceased. Night was as light as day, thanks to the general
illumination prescribed by the council; a prescription that, in a city
thus overcrowded by a martial train and by curious spectators from far
and near, was as much a matter of safety as of compliment to its guests.
In those times street-lighting was an unknown luxury, and nocturnal
brawls of constant occurrence.
The house where Charles halted exists to this day, as also that where
the empress lodged. They are both corner-houses and boast gables, which
according to contemporary writers was an indication of an aristocratic
building. The lodging of the empress was opposite to that of the
emperor, and a covered way was built across the street to connect them.
Such road-bridges, springing from the projecting gable windows, were not
unusual things in the harrow streets of those times. The condition of
the unpaved roads made them requisite, as these could not be crossed on
foot with safety or cleanliness.
For the space of eleven days Charles and his train halted at Luebeck, and
the town spared neither cost nor trouble to entertain him right royally,
and to impress him with its wealth and importance. Feasts, tournaments,
rejoicings, followed upon one another; time was not allowed to hang
heavy upon the emperor's hands. But neither was he allowed to carry out
his ulterior objects. With great politeness and fulsome flattery Charles
was made to understand that the Hansa was sure of its own strength, and
since he had not helped it in the hour of need, it did not propose to
make great sacrifices to assist him in his troubles. All however was
done with perfect courtesy, Charles even being permitted on one occasion
to be present at a meeting of the municipal council when both sides
exchanged pretty compliments. He even went so far as to address them as
"Lords." With great modesty they disclaimed this appellation. But the
emperor insisted on it: "You are lords," he said; "the oldest imperial
registers know that Luebeck is one of the five towns that have had
accorded to them in the imperial council the ducal rank, that they may
take part in the emperor's council and be present where is the emperor."
These five cities were Rome, Venice, Pisa, Florence, and Luebeck.
When Charles left Luebeck he was delighted with the hospitality he had
there received, but disappointed in his political aims. It is certain,
however, that he rode out richer than he rode in; to this the account
books of the city bear testimony, of this the taxpayers told a tale for
many a long day. Indeed the expenses incurred through this imperial
visitor were to lead later on to some serious riots of the guilds
against the municipality.
It was through the _Muehlen Thor_ that Charles departed with his train
and by order of the town council this gate was walled up for ever behind
him. It was meant as a piece of subtle flattery to the emperor, a
suggestion that no mortal was worthy to step where he had stepped,[8]
but it is not out of keeping with the astute sense of humour that
distinguished these commercial princes, that the act also covered a
secret satisfaction in having outwitted their imperial guest and in
being once more the victors in an encounter with royalty. Certain it is
that Charles' visit proves that the Hanseatic League had reached the
apex of power, and that the city of Luebeck was regarded in Europe as
the head of this organization. Charles' visit was one of the proudest
moments in her story, and the memory survives in local chronicles.
It also survives in an old picture preserved until quite recently in the
house where he lodged, and now removed to the rooms of the Municipal
Antiquarian Society. In this canvas we see the Emperor Charles IV.,
seated on a large throne-like chair. On either side of him is a leaded
window. A carpet lies before his feet bordered with black, red, and gold
cords. The emperor is clothed partly in imperial, partly in episcopal
robes: a not uncommon mode of representation in those days. He wears his
hair long, has a long moustache, and his full beard is parted in the
middle, showing the costly clasp that closes his mantle. His head is
surrounded by a golden jewelled crown, in his right hand he holds a long
sword, in his left the imperial globe. The subscription runs: "Anno Dni.
1376 ipse Sevori Dn. Carolus quartus imperator invictissimus decem
diebus hac in domo hospitatus est."
FOOTNOTES:
[8] Modern, disintegrating criticism, casts doubts on this story, and
tries to prove that this gate was walled up before Charles' visit, and
that he did not depart by it. This objection, however, is not fully
proved, and the contrary tradition so powerfully rooted, and so entirely
in keeping with the spirit of the age, that I have preferred to
reproduce it as characteristic, even if untrue.--H. Z.
II.
THE TOWNS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
Our League had attained its maturity. As we have seen from its origin
and as we shall see until its decadence, security and extension of
commerce was its one aim and solicitude. The Hanseatics were at all
times desirous to extend their markets abroad, to obtain, if possible,
the monopoly of trade, and it must be admitted that they succeeded
admirably in achieving the end they had in view. When we look back and
consider the disorganized state of the empire and the slight support
they received from their nominal liege lord, it seems strange that they
did not take this occasion to constitute themselves also into a
political union, forming independent states after the pattern of the
Italian commercial republics. In general, the towns in pursuing their
policy took as little real notice of the authority of the emperor, as
the emperor of the interests and doings of the towns.
Even our shrewd Hansa merchants, it would seem, were afraid outwardly to
present a bold front to their rulers, though secretly they defied them
and circumvented their laws. The very existence of the federation was
illegal, and in direct contravention to one of the chief clauses of the
Golden Bull, which forbade all associations and unions within the
empire. It is no doubt on this account that the Hansa, like the Venetian
Republic, kept its organization so secret. Even in its own day people
were but vaguely informed as to the working of its government, and as to
the number and extent of its dominions.
The very natural question arises now that our League is mature, How many
cities did it count in its federation? but it cannot be answered with
precision. Nay, this question can receive no final reply in any period
of the Hansa's history. The towns that joined did not always do so
permanently, or were not able to maintain their place, and to fulfil
their duties. Often, too, they proved restive and were "unhansed," and
it was no easy or inexpensive matter to be readmitted. The ban of the
Hansa was more potent than that of pope or emperor. A town that fell
under it lost its commerce at one blow. Thus, for example, Bremen,
headstrong and stiff-necked, anxious to play an undue part in the Hansa
League, saw itself shut out in 1356, because one of its burghers had
traded with Flanders at a time when such trading was forbidden. The
municipality, called upon to punish him, took his part, with the result
that for thirty years the town was "unhansed," thirty miserable years,
during which "the city was impoverished, grass grew in its streets, and
hunger and desolation took up their abode in its midst," so writes a
contemporary eyewitness. Reinstated at last, Bremen had to take up heavy
responsibilities in atonement for its misdeeds.
[Illustration: GROCERS' HALL, BREMEN.]
On another occasion Brunswick fell into the hands of discontented
artizans, who headed a revolt of several towns against the League. A
fulminating decree was issued by the Hansa with the same results as in
the case of Bremen. Misery and hunger in this case also proved
persuasive, and at last, after six years, this proscribed town was
readmitted. It had to send deputies to Luebeck, who craved pardon in the
most abject terms, and who had to accept the most humiliating
conditions. Besides questions of internal management, the Brunswickers
undertook to build a votive chapel in the town in memory of their bad
behaviour, and to send pilgrims to Rome who should crave the Papal
pardon for the murders of councillors committed by the rioters. Two
burgomasters of Brunswick, and eight of the chief citizens walked humbly
in procession, bare-headed, bare-footed, carrying candles in their hands
from the church of our Lady at Luebeck, to the town hall, where in the
great council chamber of the League, before an enormous crowd, they had
publicly upon their knees to confess their repentance for what unruly
passion had caused them to do, and to implore their confederates to
pardon them for the love of God, and the honour of the Virgin Mary.
[Illustration: RATH-HAUS, BRUNSWICK.]
More and more did Luebeck come to take the leading place among the
cities. Her laws ruled at the Hansa diets. They were reckoned the wisest
ever framed by an autonomous community, and are still quoted with
respect. The right to use Luebeck law was as eagerly craved by distant
cities as the Greek colonies craved the holy fire from native altars.
No wonder Luebeck's merchants loved to quote the proud couplet:
"Was willst begehren mehr,
Als die alte Luebsche Ehr?"
("What more will you desire than the old Luebeck honour?")
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., when travelling
through Europe as Chancellor of the Emperor Frederick III., visited
Luebeck, and writes of it as the town which surpasses all others in the
wealth and magnificence of its buildings and churches. The same praise
is echoed a little later by a rare guest, the Metropolitan of Moscow,
who passed through Luebeck on his way to Florence, to be present at the
great church council held there by Eugene IV. Aeneas also visited Danzig,
and says it was so well equipped for land and sea warfare, that it could
call under arms at least 50,000 men.
The prominence of the cities varied greatly. Circumstances which at one
time might be to their advantage, might at another time prove adverse.
Thus Wisby, after its sacking by Waldemar, was the victim of an
accidental fire, which destroyed all that the Dane had spared. In
consequence it fell at once from its position of importance, and its
very site, once the source of its strength, became the cause of its
downfall, for it proved a most convenient station to pirates. Where the
merchant had safely halted, he was now in peril of life and goods.
[Illustration: MUEHLENTHOR, STARGARD.]
To the question put at various times to the Hansa's ambassadors "which
are the Hansa's cities?" evasive replies were given, either "those towns
that fought the Hansa's battles;" or a few were enumerated, and the
list closed with a colossal etcetera, etcetera. For they were not easily
caught napping, these worthy burghers, and had ever in view "the
interests of the common German merchants," which they feared might be
endangered by too much publicity. Still, they had become a power that
could not be hid, and seeing how well they realized this in most
respects, it is the more curious that they did not avail themselves of
their chance of attaining political autonomy. The more curious too,
because, as a rule, the Hanseatics, like the modern Italians, knew so
well how to draw profit out of all the dissensions and disorders that
agitated Europe.
It was indeed a vast dominion that stood under the sway of the Hansa. In
the course of less than a hundred years there had arisen on the Baltic
coast, within the area of two hundred and fifty miles, no fewer than
fourteen cities of first-class importance, not to name those that
already existed there. Thus the merchants held in their possession the
mouths of all the great Baltic rivers, on all of which they founded
harbours and depots. Germany in that epoch evinced a power of
colonization which in its successes recalls the most brilliant moments
of the extension of Greek life in the Mediterranean. In more modern
times only the North American soil has exercised an attraction similar
to that of the Baltic coasts, and has shown an equal power of upraising
cities within a brief space of time. Many of the towns boasted a far
larger population than they have at this day. Thus Luebeck in the
fourteenth century counted eighty thousand inhabitants, as against
forty-eight thousand in 1870.
An interesting contemporary opinion on our merchants is extant from the
pen of a learned and travelled Italian, Marino Sanudo, a pious Venetian,
who set forth early in the fourteenth century with a mission to stir up
the Christian world, and organize a new Crusade, for Askelon, the last
stronghold of the Romish Church, had fallen into the hands of the
unbelievers. His first purpose was to gauge the fighting power of the
various European maritime states, for it was a fleet rather than an army
that was required. In his journeyings he ventured as far north as the
Baltic, and thus reports in his letter to Pope John XXII.:
"In Alemannia live many peoples that could prove most useful to us.... I
have seen with my own eyes that these coasts of Alemannia are quite
similar to the Venetian. The inhabitants, strong of limb and practised
in arms, are mostly warriors; others well skilled in dyke-making;
besides, they are rich, and what is yet more commendable, they show a
warm zeal for the affairs of the Holy Land."
After enumerating other advantages to be gained from these allies, he is
however obliged to draw his Holiness' attention to a serious drawback on
their part, namely, "that the Germans are enormous eaters, which arouses
anxiety in respect to supplies when the fleet shall find itself in the
hot regions."
A love for feasting meets us repeatedly in the old chronicle reports on
the German merchants, and shows that in those days there also held good
what Hawthorne has more recently expressed, that the Germans need to
refresh exhausted nature twice as often as any other peoples. Then, as
now, they were an upright, thorough, massive race, not made of too fine
a clay and wanting rather on the aesthetic side; a want sure to strike
the more finely strung senses of an Italian.
[Illustration: BURGHERS AT TABLE.]
It is certain that the fourteenth century was in many respects the epoch
when the Hansa cities flourished most actively. Neither before nor after
did they have so many sided an importance for the whole life of the
German nation. It was a stirring period in the history of the European
continent; when the Minnesingers gave place to the Mastersingers; when
learning, hitherto stored up jealously in the monasteries and the
libraries of the princes, had found its way out among burghers and
laymen; when protectors of art and science were more often simple
merchant princes than noble-born beggars. In a word, it was an epoch
when the middle class sprang into full being, and took its due and
proper place as a link between the nobility and the common people.
Towards bringing about this state of things the Hansa had greatly
contributed. If it failed to emancipate itself entirely from the empire,
it was yet ever keenly desirous of emancipating itself from its petty
suzerains. Thus the burghers of Luebeck, Cologne, Goslar, and other
cities were early forbidden to hold posts under the lord of the domain,
no matter how lucrative such posts might be. Wismar, engaged on one
occasion in a dispute with the Dominican monks concerning the repair of
the town walls, and obliged to cede to these ecclesiastics because the
lord of the land was favourable to the Church, carefully recorded the
occasion in its "town book," "in order," as it wrote, "that it might
remember the circumstance on some future and more favourable occasion."
"To pay them out" is implied though not expressed in the phrase.