HAIR WASHES.
ROSEMARY WATER.
Rosemary free from stalk, 10 lbs.
Water, 12 gallons.
Draw off by distillation ten gallons for use in perfumery manufacture.
ROSEMARY HAIR WASH.
Rosemary water, 1 gallon.
Rectified spirit, 1/2 pint.
Pearlash, 1 oz.
Tinted with brown coloring.
ATHENIAN WATER.
Rose-water, 1 gallon.
Alcohol, 1 pint.
Sassafras wood, 1/4 lb.
Pearlash, 1 oz.
Boil the wood in the rose-water in a glass vessel; then, when cold, add
the pearlash and spirit.
VEGETABLE OR BOTANIC EXTRACT.
Rose-water, }
Rectified spirits, } of each, 2 quarts.
Extrait de fleur d'orange, }
" jasmin, }
" acacia, } of each, 1/4 pint.
" rose, }
" tubereuse, }
Extract of vanilla, 1/2 pint.
This is a very beautifully-scented hair wash. It retails at a price
commensurate with its cost.
ASTRINGENT EXTRACT OF ROSES AND ROSEMARY.
Rosemary water, 2 quarts.
Esprit de rose, 1/2 pint.
Rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint.
Extract of vanilla, 1 quart.
Magnesia to clear it, 2 oz.
Filter through paper.
SAPONACEOUS WASH.
Rectified spirit, 1 pint.
Rose-water, 1 gallon.
Extract of rondeletia, 1/2 pint.
Transparent soap, 1/2 oz.
Hay saffron, 1/2 drachm.
Shave up the soap very fine; boil it and the saffron in a quart of the
rose-water; when dissolved, add the remainder of the water, then the
spirit, finally the rondeletia, which is used by way of perfume. After
standing for two or three days, it is fit for bottling. By transmitted
light it is transparent, but by reflected light the liquid has a pearly
and singular wavy appearance when shaken. A similar preparation is
called Egg Julep.
BANDOLINES.
Various preparations are used to assist in dressing the hair in any
particular form. Some persons use for that purpose a hard pomatum
containing wax, made up into rolls, called thence _Baton Fixeteur._ The
little "feathers" of hair, with which some ladies are troubled, are by
the aid of these batons made to lie down smooth. For their formula, see
p. 224, 225.
The liquid bandolines are principally of a gummy nature, being made
either with Iceland moss, or linseed and water variously perfumed, also
by boiling quince-seed with water. Perfumers, however, chiefly make
bandoline from gum tragacanth, which exudes from a shrub of that name
which grows plentifully in Greece and Turkey.
ROSE BANDOLINE.
Gum tragacanth, 6 oz.
Rose-water, 1 gallon.
Otto of roses, 1/2 oz.
Steep the gum in the water for a day or so. As it swells and forms a
thick gelatinous mass, it must from time to time be well agitated. After
about forty-eight hours' maceration it is then to be squeezed through a
coarse clean linen cloth, and again left to stand for a few days, and
passed through a linen cloth a second time, to insure uniformity of
consistency; when this is the case, the otto of rose is to be thoroughly
incorporated. The cheap bandoline is made without the otto; for colored
bandoline, it is to be tinted with ammoniacal solution of carmine, i.e.
_Bloom of Roses_. See p. 236.
ALMOND BANDOLINE
Is made precisely as the above, scenting with a quarter of an ounce of
otto of almonds in place of the roses.
"Nor the sweet smell
Of different flowers in odor and in hue
Can make me any longer story tell."
Shakspeare.
[Illustration]
APPENDIX.
* * * * *
MANUFACTURE OF GLYCERINE.
Glycerine is generally made on the large scale, on the one hand, by
directly saponifying oil with the oxide of lead, or, on the other, from
the "waste liquor" of soap manufacturers. To obtain glycerine by means
of the first of these methods is the reverse of simple, and at the same
time somewhat expensive; and by means of the second process, the
difficulty of entirely separating the saline matters of the waste liquor
renders it next to impossible to procure a perfectly pure result. To
meet both these difficulties, and to meet the steadily increasing demand
for glycerine, Dr. Campbell Morfit recommends the following process,
which, he asserts, he has found, by experience, to combine the desirable
advantages of economy as regards time, trouble, and expense. One hundred
pounds of oil, tallow, lard, or stearin are to be placed in a clean
iron-bound barrel, and melted by the direct application of a current of
steam. Whilst still fluid and warm, add to it fifteen pounds of lime,
previously slaked, and made into a milky mixture with two and a half
gallons of water; then cover the vessel, and continue the steaming for
several hours, or until the saponification shall be completed. This may
be known when a sample of the soap when cold gives a smooth and bright
surface on being scraped with the finger-nail, and at the same time,
breaks with a crackling noise. By this process the fat or oil is
decomposed, its acids uniting with the lime to form insoluble lime-soap,
while the eliminated glycerine remains in solution in the water along
with the excess of the lime. After it has been sufficiently boiled, it
is allowed to cool and to settle, and it is then to be strained.
The strained liquid contains only the glycerine and excess of lime, and
requires to be carefully concentrated by heated steam. During
evaporation, a portion of the lime is deposited, on account of its
lesser solubility in hot than in cold water. The residue is removed by
treating the evaporated liquid with a current of carbonic acid gas,
boiling by heated steam to convert a soluble bicarbonate of lime that
may have been formed into insoluble neutral carbonate, decanting or
straining off the clear supernatant liquid from the precipitated
carbonate of lime, and evaporating still further, as before, if
necessary, so as to drive off any excess of water. As nothing fixed or
injurious is employed in this process, glycerine, prepared in this
manner, may be depended upon for its almost absolute purity.
M. Jahn's process is as follows:--
Take of finely-powdered litharge five pounds, and olive oil nine pounds.
Boil them together over a gentle fire, constantly stirring, with the
addition occasionally of a small quantity of warm water, until the
compound has the consistence of plaster. Jahn boils this plaster for
half an hour with an equal weight of water, keeping it at the same time
constantly stirred. When cold, he pours off the supernatant fluid, and
repeats the boiling three times at least with a fresh portion of water.
The sweet fluids which result are mixed, and evaporated to six pounds,
and sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through them as long as sulphuret
of lead is precipitated. The liquid filtered from the sulphuret of lead
is to be reduced to a thin syrupy consistence by evaporation. To remove
the brown coloring matter, it must be treated with purified animal
charcoal. However, this agent does not prevent the glycerine becoming
slightly colored upon further evaporation. It possesses also still a
slight smell and taste of lead plaster, which may be removed by diluting
it with water, and by digestion with animal charcoal, and some fresh
burnt-wood charcoal. After filtration, this liquid must be evaporated
until it has acquired a specific gravity of 1.21, when it will be found
to be free from smell, and of a pale yellow color. For the preparation
of glycerine, distilled water is necessary, to prevent it being
contaminated with the impurities of common water. Jahn obtained, by this
method, from the above quantity of lead plaster, upwards of seven ounces
of glycerine.--_Archives der Pharmacie_.
* * * * *
TEST FOR ALCOHOL IN ESSENTIAL OILS.
J.J. Bernoulli recommends for this purpose acetate of potash. When to an
ethereal oil, contaminated with alcohol, dry acetate of potash is added,
this salt dissolves in the alcohol, and forms a solution from which the
volatile oil separates. If the oil be free from alcohol, this salt
remains dry therein.
Wittstein, who speaks highly of this test, has suggested the following
method of applying it as the best:--In a dry test-tube, about half an
inch in diameter, and five or six inches long, put no more than eight
grains of powdered dry acetate of potash; then fill the tube two-thirds
full with the essential oil to be examined. The contents of the tube
must be well stirred with a glass rod, taking care not to allow the salt
to rise above the oil; afterwards set aside for a short time. If the
salt be found at the bottom of the tube dry, it is evident that the oil
contains no spirit. Oftentimes, instead of the dry salt, beneath the oil
is found a clear syrupy fluid, which is a solution of the salt in the
spirit, with which the oil was mixed. When the oil contains only a
little spirit, a small portion of the solid salt will be found under the
syrupy solution. Many essential oils frequently contain a trace of
water, which does not materially interfere with this test, because,
although the acetate of potash becomes moist thereby, it still retains
its pulverent form.
A still more certain result may be obtained by distillation in a
water-bath. All the essential oils which have a higher boiling-point
than spirit, remain in the retort, whilst the spirit passes into the
receiver with only a trace of the oil, where the alcohol may be
recognized by the smell and taste. Should, however, a doubt exist, add
to the distillate a little acetate of potash and strong sulphuric acid,
and heat the mixture in a test-tube to the boiling-point, when the
characteristic odor of acetic ether will be manifest, if any alcohol be
present.
* * * * *
DETECTION OF POPPY AND OTHER DRYING OILS IN ALMOND AND OLIVE OILS.
It is known that the olein of the drying oils may be distinguished from
the olein of those oils which remain greasy in the air by the first not
being convertible into elaidic acid, consequently it does not become
solid. Professor Wimmer has recently proposed a convenient method for
the formation of elaidin, which is applicable for the purpose of
detecting the adulteration of almond and olive oils with drying oils. He
produces nitrous acid by treating iron filings in a glass bottle with
nitric acid. The vapor of nitrous acid is conducted through a glass tube
into water, upon which the oil to be tested is placed. If the oil of
almonds or olives contains only a small quantity of poppy oil when thus
treated, it is entirely converted into crystallized elaidin, whilst the
poppy oil swims on the top in drops.
* * * * *
COLORING MATTER OF VOLATILE OILS.
BY G.E. SACHSSE.
It is well known that most ethereal oils are colorless; however, there
are a great number colored, some of which are blue, some green, and some
yellow. Up to the present time the question has not been decided,
whether it is the necessary property of ethereal oils to have a color,
or whether their color is not due to the presence of some coloring
matter which can be removed. It is most probable that their color arises
from the presence of a foreign substance, as the colored ethereal oils
can at first, by careful distillation, be obtained colorless, whilst
later the colored portion passes over. Subsequent appearances lead to
the solution of the question, and are certain evidence that ethereal
oils, when they are colored, owe their color to peculiar substances
which, by certain conditions, may be communicated from one oil to
another. When a mixture of oils of wormwood, lemons, and cloves is
subjected to distillation, the previously green-colored oil of wormwood
passes over, at the commencement, colorless, while, towards the end of
the distillation, after the receiver has been frequently charged, the
oil of cloves distils over in very dense drops of a dark green color. It
therefore appears that the green coloring matter of the oil of wormwood
has been transferred to the oil of cloves.--_Zeitschrift für Pharmacie._
* * * * *
ARTIFICIAL PREPARATION OF OIL OF CINNAMON.
BY A. STRECKER.
Some years since, Strecker has shown that styrone, which is obtained
when styracine is treated with potash, is the alcohol of cinnamic acid.
Wolff has converted this alcohol by oxidizing agents into cinnamic acid.
The author has now proved that under the same conditions by which
ordinary alcohol affords aldehyde, styrone affords the aldehyde of
cinnamic acid, that is, oil of cinnamon. It is only necessary to moisten
platinum black with styrone, and let it remain in the air some days,
when by means of the bisulphite of potash the aldehyde double compound
may be obtained in crystals, which should be washed in ether. By the
addition of diluted sulphuric acid, the aldehyde of cinnamic acid is
afterwards procured pure. These crystals also dissolve in nitric acid,
and then form after a few moments crystals of the nitrate of the hyduret
of cinnamyle. The conversion of styrone into the hyduret of cinnamyle by
the action of the platinum black is shown by the following equation:
C_{18}H_{10}O_{2} + 2 O = C_{18}H_{8}O_{2} + 2 HO.--_Comptes Rendus._
* * * * *
DETECTION OF SPIKE OIL AND TURPENTINE IN LAVENDER OIL
BY DR. J. GASTELL.
There are two kinds of lavender oil known in commerce; one, which is
very dear, and is obtained from the flowers of the _Lavandula vera_; the
other is much cheaper, and is prepared from the flowers of the
_Lavandula spica_. The latter is generally termed oil of spike. In the
south of France, whether the oil be distilled from the flowers of the
_Lavandula vera_ or _Lavandula spica_, it is named oil of lavender.
By the distillation of the whole plant or only the stalk and the leaves,
a small quantity of oil is obtained, which is rich in camphor, and is
there called oil of spike. Pure oil of lavender should have a specific
gravity from .876 to .880, and be completely soluble in five parts of
alcohol of a specific gravity of .894. A greater specific gravity shows
that it is mixed with oil of spike; and a less solubility, that it
contains oil of turpentine.
* * * * *
DIFFERENT ORANGE-FLOWER WATERS FOUND IN COMMERCE
BY M. LEGUAY.
There are three sorts of orange-flower waters found in commerce. The
first is distilled from the flowers; the second is made with distilled
water and neroli; and the third is distilled from the leaves, the stems,
and the young unripe fruit of the orange tree. The first may be easily
distinguished by the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid to some
of the water in a tube; a fine rose color is almost immediately
produced. The second also gives the same color when it is freshly
prepared; but after a certain time, two or three months at the farthest,
this color is no longer produced, and the aroma disappears completely.
The third is not discolored by the addition of the sulphuric acid; it
has scarcely any odor, and that rather an odor of the lemon plant than
of orange-flowers.--_Bulletin de la Société Pharmaceutique d'Indre et
Loire._
* * * * *
A FORMULA FOR CONCENTRATED ELDER-FLOWER WATER.
Krembs recommends the following process for making a concentrated
elder-flower water, from which he states the ordinary water can be
extemporaneously prepared, of excellent quality, and of uniform
strength:--2 lbs. of the flowers are to be distilled with water until
that which passes into the receiver has lost nearly all perfume. This
will generally happen when from 15 to 18 pounds have passed over. To the
distillate, 2 lbs. of alcohol are to be added, and the mixture distilled
until about 5 lbs. are collected. This liquor contains all the odor of
the flowers. To make the ordinary water, 2 ounces of the concentrated
water are to be added to 10 ounces of distilled water.--_Buchner's
Report._
* * * * *
PRACTICAL REMARKS ON SPIRIT OF WINE.
BY THOMAS ARNALL.
The strength of spirit of wine is, by law, regulated by proof spirit
(sp. gr. .920) as a standard; and accordingly as it is either stronger
or weaker than the above, it is called so much per cent. above or below
proof. The term _per cent._ is used in this instance in a rather
peculiar sense. Thus, spirit of wine at 56 per cent. overproof,
signifies that 100 gallons of it are equal to 156 gallons of proof
spirit; while a spirit at 20 per cent. underproof, signifies that 100
gallons are equal to 80 gallons at proof. The rectified spirit of the
Pharmacopoeia is 56 per cent. overproof, and may be reduced to proof
by strictly adhering to the directions there given, viz., to mix five
measures with three of water. The result, however, will not be eight
measures of proof spirit; in consequence of the _contraction_ which
ensues, there will be a deficiency of about [Symbol: oz.]iv in each
gallon. This must be borne in mind in preparing tinctures.
During a long series of experiments on the preparation of ethers, it
appeared a desideratum to find a ready method of ascertaining how much
spirit of any density would be equal to one chemical equivalent of
absolute alcohol. By a modification of a rule employed by the Excise,
this question may be easily solved. The Excise rule is as follows:--
To reduce from any given strength to any required strength, _add_ the
_overproof_ per centage _to_ 100, or _subtract_ the _underproof_ per
centage _from_ 100. Multiply the result by the quantity of spirit, and
divide the product by the number obtained by _adding_ the _required_ per
centage overproof, or _subtracting_ the _required_ per centage
underproof, to or from 100, as the case may be. The result will give the
measure of the spirit at the strength required.
Thus, suppose you wished to reduce 10 gallons of spirit, at 54
overproof, down to proof, add 54 to 100 = 154; multiply by the quantity,
10 gallons (154 × 10) = 1540. The required strength being proof, of
course there is nothing either to add to or take from 100; therefore,
1540 divided by 100 = 15.4 gallons at proof; showing that 10 gallons
must be made to measure 15 gallons, 3 pints, 4 fl. oz., by the addition
of water.
To ascertain what quantity of spirit of any given strength will contain
one equivalent of absolute alcohol. Add the overproof per centage of the
given spirit to 100, as before; and with the number thus obtained divide
4062.183. The result gives in gallons the quantity equal to four
equivalents (46 × 4).
_Example._--How much spirit at 54 per cent. overproof is equal to 1
equivalent of absolute alcohol?
Here,
54 + 100 = 154 and 4062.183 = 26.3778 galls., or 26 galls. 3 pts.
--------
154
which, divided by 4, gives 6 gallons, 4 pints, 15 oz.
Suppose the spirit to be 60 overproof,--
4062.183 {one-fourth of which is equal
then ---------- = 25.388 gallons, {to 6 gallons, 2 pints,
(100 + 60) {15-1/2 oz.
This rule is founded on the following data. As a gallon of water weighs
10 lbs., it is obvious that the specific gravity of any liquid
multiplied by 10 will give the weight of one gallon. The specific
gravity of absolute alcohol is 0.793811; hence, the weight of one gallon
will be 7.93811 lbs., and its strength is estimated at 75.25 overproof.
4 equivalents of alcohol = 46 × 4 = 184,
and
23.17936 gallons × 7.93811 lbs. per gallon, also = 184.0003094.
Hence it appears that 23.17936 gallons of absolute alcohol are equal to
4 equivalents. By adding the overproof per centage (75.25) to 100, and
multiplying by the quantity (23.17936 gallons) we get the constant
number 4062.183.
The rule might have been calculated so as to show _at once_ the
equivalent, without dividing by 4; but it would have required several
more places of decimals; it will give the required quantity to a
fraction of a fluid drachm.
* * * * *
PURIFICATION OF SPIRITS BY FILTRATION.
BY MR. W. SCHAEFFER.
Instead of resorting to repeated distillations for effecting the
purification of spirits, Mr. Schaeffer proposes the use of a filter. In
a suitable vessel, the form of which is not material, a filtering bed is
constructed in the following manner:--On a false perforated bottom,
covered with woollen or other fabric, a layer of about six inches of
well-washed and very clean river sand is placed; next about twelve
inches of granular charcoal, preferring that made from birch; on the
charcoal is placed a layer of about one inch of wheat, boiled to such an
extent as to cause it to swell as large as possible, and so that it will
readily crush between the fingers. Above this is laid about ten inches
of charcoal, then about one inch of broken oyster shells, and then about
two inches more of charcoal, over which is placed a layer of woollen or
other fabric, and over it a perforated partition, on to which the spirit
to be filtered is poured; the filter is kept covered, and in order that
the spirit may flow freely into the compartment of the filter below the
filtering materials, a tube connects such lower compartment with the
upper compartment of the filter, so that the air may pass freely
between the lower and upper compartments of the filter. On each, of the
several strata above described, it is desirable to place a layer of
filtering paper.
The charcoal suitable for the above purpose is not such as is obtained
in the ordinary mode of preparation. It is placed in a retort or oven,
and heated to a red heat until the blue flame has passed off, and the
flame become red. The charcoal is then cooled in water, in which
carbonate of potash has previously been dissolved, in the proportion of
two ounces of carbonate to fifty gallons of water. The charcoal being
deprived of the water is then reduced to a granular state, in which
condition it is ready for use.
* * * * *
ON ESSENTIAL OIL OR OTTO OF LEMONS.
BY JOHN S. COBB.
(_Read before the Chemical Discussion Society._)
I have recently made some experiments with oil of lemons, of which the
following is a short account:--
Being constantly annoyed by the deposit and alteration in my essence of
lemons, I have tried various methods of remedying the inconvenience.
I first tried redistilling it, but besides the loss consequent on
distilling small quantities, the flavor is thereby impaired. As the oil
became brighter when heated, I anticipated that all its precipitable
matter would be thrown down at a low temperature, and I applied a
freezing mixture, keeping the oil at zero for some hours. No such
change, however, took place.
The plan which I ultimately decided upon as the best which I had
arrived at, was to shake up the oil with a little boiling water, and to
leave the water in the bottle; a mucilaginous preparation forms on the
top of the water, and acquires a certain tenacity, so that the oil may
be poured off to nearly the last, without disturbing the deposit.
Perhaps cold water would answer equally well, were it carefully agitated
with the oil and allowed some time to settle. A consideration of its
origin and constitution, indeed, strengthens this opinion; for although
lemon otto is obtained both by distillation and expression, that which
is usually found in commerce is prepared by removing the "flavedo" of
lemons with a rasp, and afterwards expressing it in a hair sack,
allowing the filtrate to stand, that it may deposit some of its
impurities, decanting and filtering. Thus obtained it still contains a
certain amount of mucilaginous matter, which undergoes spontaneous
decomposition, and thus (acting, in short, as a ferment) accelerates a
similar change in the oil itself. If this view of its decomposition be a
correct one, we evidently, in removing this matter by means of the
water, get rid of a great source of alteration, and attain the same
result as we should by distillation, without its waste or deterioration
in flavor.
I am, however, aware that some consider the deposit to be modified
resin.[H] Some curious experiments of Saussure have shown that volatile
oils absorb oxygen immediately they have been drawn from the plant, and
are partially converted into a resin, which remains dissolved in the
remainder of the essence.
He remarked that this property of absorbing oxygen gradually increases,
until a maximum is attained, and again diminishes after a certain lapse
of time. In the oil of lavender this maximum remained only seven days,
during each of which it absorbed seven times its volume of oxygen. In
the oil of lemons the maximum was not attained until at the end of a
month; it then lasted twenty-six days; during each of which it absorbed
twice its volume of oxygen. The oil of turpentine did not attain the
maximum for five months, it then remained for one month, during which
time it absorbed daily its own volume of oxygen.
It is the resin formed by the absorption of oxygen, and remaining
dissolved in the essence, which destroys its original flavor. The oil of
lemons presents a very great analogy with that of oil of turpentine, so
far as regards its transformations, and its power of rotating a ray of
polarized light. Authorities differ as regards this latter property.
Pereira states that the oil of turpentine obtained by distillation with
water, from American turpentine, has a molecular power of right-handed
rotation, while the French oil of turpentine had a left-handed rotation.
Oil of lemons rotates a ray of light to the right, but in France a
distilled oil of lemons, sold as scouring drops for removing spots of
grease, possesses quite the opposite power of rotation, and has lost all
the original peculiar flavor of the oil. Oil of lemons combines with
hydrochloric acid to form an artificial camphor, just in the same manner
as does oil of turpentine, but its atom is only one half that of the oil
of turpentine. The artificial camphor of oil of lemons is represented by
the formula, C_{10}H_{8}HCl; the artificial camphor of oil of turpentine
by C_{20}H_{16}HCl.
According to M. Biot, the camphor formed by the oil of lemons does not
exercise any action on polarized light, whilst the oil of lemons itself
rotates a ray to the right. The camphor from oil of turpentine, on the
contrary, does exercise on the polarized ray the same power as the oil
possessed while in its isolated state, of rotating to the left. These
molecular properties establish an essential difference between the oils
of turpentine and lemons, and may serve to detect adulteration and
fraud. It is also a curious fact, that from the decomposition of these
artificial camphors by lime, volatile oils may be obtained by
distillation, isomeric with the original oils from which the camphors
were formed; but in neither case has the new product any action on
polarized light.
In conclusion, I would recommend that this oil, as well as all other
essential oils, be kept in a cool, dark place, where no very great
changes of temperature occur.
* * * * *
BENZOIC ACID, AND TESTS FOR ITS PURITY.
BY W. BASTICK.
Dr. Mohr's process for obtaining benzoic acid, which is adopted by the
Prussian Pharmacopoeia, unquestionably has the reputation of being the
best. According to this process, coarsely-powdered gum benzoin is to be
strewed on the flat bottom of a round iron pot which has a diameter of
nine inches, and a height of about two inches. On the surface of the pot
is spread a piece of filtering paper, which is fastened to its rim by
starch paste. A cylinder of very thick paper is attached by means of a
string to the top of the iron pot. Heat is then applied by placing the
pot on a plate covered with sand, over the mouth of a furnace. It must
remain exposed to a gentle fire from four to six hours. Mohr usually
obtains about an ounce and a half of benzoic acid from twelve ounces of
gum benzoin by the first sublimation. As the gum is not exhausted by the
first operation, it may be bruised when cold and again submitted to the
action of heat, when a fresh portion of benzoic acid will sublime from
it. This acid thus obtained, is not perfectly pure and white, and Mohr
states that it is a question, in a medicinal and perfumery point of
view, whether it is so valuable when perfectly pure, as when it contains
a small portion of a fragrant volatile oil, which rises with it from the
gum in the process of sublimation.
The London Pharmacopoeia directs that it shall be prepared by
sublimation, and does not prescribe that it shall be free from this oil,
to which it principally owes its agreeable odor.
By the second sublimation the whole of the benzoic acid is not
volatilized. What remains in the resin may be separated by boiling it
with caustic lime, and precipitating the acid from the resulting
benzoate of lime with hydrochloric acid. Benzoic acid can be obtained
also in the wet way, and the resin yields a greater product in this
process than in the former; yet it has a less perfumery value, because
it is free from the volatile oil which, as above stated, gives it its
peculiar odor. The wet method devised by Scheele is as follows:--Make
one ounce of freshly-burnt lime into a milk with from four to six ounces
of hot water. To the milk of lime, four ounces of powdered benzoin and
thirty ounces of water are to be added, and the mixture boiled for half
an hour, and stirred during this operation, and afterwards strained
through linen. The residue must be a second time boiled with twenty
ounces of water and strained, and a third time with ten ounces; the
fluid products must be mixed and evaporated to one-fourth of their
volume, and sufficient hydrochloric acid added to render them slightly
acid. When quite cold, the crystals are to be separated from the fluid
by means of a linen strainer, upon which they are to be washed with cold
water, and pressed, and then dissolved in hot distilled water, from
which the crystals separate on cooling. When hydrochloric acid is added
to a cold concentrated solution of the salts of benzoic acid, it is
precipitated as a white powder. If the solution of the salts of this
acid is too dilute and warm, none or only a portion of the benzoic acid
will be separated. However, the weaker the solution is, and the more
slowly it is cooled, the larger will be the crystals of this acid. In
the preparation of this acid in the wet way, lime is to be preferred to
every other base, because it forms insoluble combinations with the
resinous constituents of the benzoin, and because it prevents the
gum-resin from conglomerating into an adhesive mass, and also because an
excess of this base is but slightly soluble.
Stoltze has recommended a method by which all the acid can be removed
from the benzoin:--The resin is to be dissolved in spirit, to which is
to be added a watery solution of carbonate of soda, decomposed
previously by alcohol. The spirit is to be removed by distillation, and
the remaining watery solution, from which the resin has been separated
by filtration, treated with dilute sulphuric acid, to precipitate the
benzoic acid. This method gives the greatest quantity of acid, but is
attended with a sacrifice of time and alcohol, which renders it in an
economical point of view inferior to the above process of Scheele. It
is so far valuable, that the total acid contents of the resin can be
determined by it.
Dr. Gregory considers the following process for obtaining benzoic acid
the most productive. Dissolve benzoin in strong alcohol, by the aid of
heat, and add to the solution, whilst hot, hydrochloric acid, in
sufficient quantity to precipitate the resin. When the mixture is
distilled, the benzoic acid passes over in the form of benzoic ether.
Distillation must be continued as long as any ether passes over. Water
added towards the end of the operation will facilitate the expulsion of
the ether from the retort. When the ether ceases to pass over, the hot
water in the retort is filtered, which deposits benzoic acid on cooling.
The benzoic ether and all the distilled liquids are now treated with
caustic potash until the ether is decomposed, and the solution is heated
to boiling, and super-saturated with hydrochloric acid, which
afterwards, on cooling, deposits, in crystals, benzoic acid.
Benzoic acid, as it exists in the resin, is the natural production of
the plant from which the resin is derived. It may also be produced
artificially. Abel found that when cumole (C_{18}H_{12}) was treated
with nitric acid, so dilute that no red vapors were evolved for several
days, this hydro-carbon was converted into benzoic acid. Guckelberger
has, by the oxidation of casein with peroxide of manganese and sulphuric
acid, obtained as one of the products benzoic acid. Albumen, fibrin, and
gelatin yielded similar results when treated as above. Wöhler has
detected benzoic acid in Canadian castor, along with salicin. It is also
formed by the oxidation of the volatile oil of bitter almonds. Benzoate
of potash results when chloride of benzoyle is treated with caustic
potash. Benzoic acid in the animal economy is converted into hippuric
acid, which may by the action of acids, be reconverted into benzoic
acid.
Benzoic acid should be completely volatile, without leaving any ash or
being carbonized when heated. When dissolved in warm water, to which a
little nitric acid has been added, nitrate of silver and chloride of
barium should produce no precipitates. Oxalate of potash should give no
turbidity to an ammoniacal solution of this acid. When heated with an
excess of caustic potash it should evolve no smell of ammonia,
otherwise, it has been adulterated with sal ammoniac. In spirit, benzoic
acid is easily soluble, and requires 200 parts of cold and 20 parts of
boiling water to dissolve one part of it.
* * * * *
ON THE COLORING-MATTERS OF FLOWERS.
BY FREMY AND CLOEZ.
Chemists possess only a very incomplete knowledge of the coloring
matters of flowers. Their investigation involves difficulties which
cannot be mistaken. The matters which color flowers are uncrystallized;
they frequently change by the action of the reagents employed for their
preparation; and, also, very brilliantly-colored flowers owe their color
to very small quantities of coloring matter.
On the nature of the coloring matters of flowers several opinions have
been expressed. Some observers have assumed that flowers owe their color
to only two coloring matters, one of which is termed anthocyan, and the
other anthoxanthine. Others will find a relation between the green
coloring of leaves, the chlorophylle, and the coloring matters of
flowers. They support their opinion generally on the results of the
elementary analysis of those different bodies; but all chemists know
that chlorophylle has not yet been prepared in a pure condition.
Probably, it retains various quantities of fatty and albuminous bodies.
Further, the coloring matters of flowers are scarcely known, so that it
is impossible to establish relations supported by the necessarily
uncertain composition of impure bodies.
Some time since the blue color of flowers was ascribed to the presence
of indigo; but Chevreul has shown, in a certain way, that the blue
substance of flowers is always reddened by acids; and that with indigo
it is quite different, which, as is known, retains its blue color even
when the strongest acids are allowed to act on it.
It is thus seen that the coloring matters of flowers have heretofore
only in a superficial manner been examined, and that it is important to
again undertake their complete examination, as these bodies are
interesting to the chemist, because they are employed as reagents in the
laboratory for the recognition of alkalies; and by an improved knowledge
of them the florist might find the way by which he could give to
cultivated flowers various colors.
We have believed that before undertaking their elementary analysis,
methods must be carefully sought for which can be followed for the
obtainment of the coloring matters of flowers, and that it should be
proved whether these substances are to be considered as independent
bodies, or whether they proceed from one and the same matter, which is
changed in various ways by the juices of the plant.
We now publish the results of our first investigations.
_Blue Coloring Matter of Flowers (Cyanine)._--The blue coloring matter
of flowers we propose to call cyanine. To obtain this substance we treat
the petals of _Centauria cyanus_, _Viola odorata_, or _Iris
pseudacorus_, with boiling alcohol, by which the flowers are
decolorized; and the liquid acquires immediately a fine blue color.
If the coloring matter is allowed to remain some time in contact with
alcohol, it is perceived that the blue of the liquid gradually
disappears, and soon a yellow brown coloration takes its place. The
coloring matter has in this case suffered an actual reduction by the
prolonged action of the alcohol, but it will again assume its original
color when the alcohol is allowed to evaporate in the air. Nevertheless,
the alcohol must not be allowed to remain in contact too long with the
coloring matter, because the alcoholic extract will not then again
assume its blue coloration by the action of oxygen.
The residue remaining from the evaporation of the alcohol is treated
with water, which separates a fatty and resinous substance. The watery
solution which contains the coloring matter is then precipitated by
neutral acetate of lead. The precipitate, which possesses a beautiful
green color, can be washed with plenty of water, and then decomposed
with sulphuretted hydrogen; the coloring matter passes into the watery
solution, which is carefully evaporated in a water-bath; the residue is
again dissolved in absolute alcohol; and lastly, the alcoholic solution
is mixed with ether, which precipitates the cyanine in the form of blue
flocks.
Cyanine is uncrystallizable, soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in
ether; acids, and acid salts color it immediately red; by alkalies it
is, as known, colored green. Cyanine appears to behave as an acid, at
least it forms with lime, baryta, strontia, oxide of lead, &c., green
compounds insoluble in water.
Bodies absorbing oxygen, as sulphurous acid, phosphorous acid, and
alcohols, decolorize it; under the influence of oxygen its color is
restored.
We must here mention that Moroz has prepared a beautiful blue substance
from _Centauria cyanus_ by treatment with absolute alcohol.
_Rose-red Coloring Matter._--We have employed alcohol to extract the
substance which colors rose-red certain dahlias, roses, poeonias, &c.
For the procuration of this coloring matter the method pursued is
exactly as that for the preparation of cyanine.
By an attentive comparison of the properties of this coloring matter
with those of cyanine, we have found that the rose-red coloring matter
is the same as the blue, or at least results from a modification of the
same independent principle. It appears in the rose-red modification,
when the juice of the plant, with which it exists in contact, possesses
an acid reaction. We have always observed this acid reaction in the
juices of plants with red or rose-red coloration, while the blue juices
of plants have always exhibited an alkaline reaction.
We have exposed most of the rose-red or red-colored flowers which are
cultivated in the Paris Museum to the influence of alkalies, and have
seen that they first become blue and then green by their action.
It is often perceived that certain rose-red flowers, as those of the
_Mallow_, and in particular those of the _Hibiscus Syriacus_, acquire by
fading a blue and then a green coloration, which change, as we have
found, depends on the decomposition of an organic nitrogenous substance,
which is found very frequently in the petals. This body generates as it
decomposes ammonia, which communicates to the flowers the blue or green
color. By action of weak acids, the petals can be restored to their
rose-red color.
The alteration of color of certain rose-red flowers can also be
observed when the petals are very rapidly dried, for example, in
_vacuo_, by which it cannot be easily assumed that a nitrogenous body
has undergone decomposition to the evolution of ammonia. But, before all
things, it must be mentioned that in this case the modification of color
passes into violet, and never arrives at green; and, further, that it is
always accompanied with the evolution of carbonic acid, which we have
detected by a direct experiment. Petals which were before rose-red, and
have become violet by slight drying, evolve carbonic acid, and on that
account it may be assumed that the rose-red color is produced in the
petals by this carbonic acid, and that by its expulsion the petals
assume the blue color, by which the flowers with neutral juices are
characterized.
We believe that we are able to speak with certainty that flowers with a
rose-red, violet, or blue color, owe their coloration to one and the
same substance, but which is modified in various ways by the influence
of the juices of plants.
Scarlet-red flowers also contain cyanine reddened by an acid, but in
such cases this substance is mixed with a yellow coloring matter which
we will now describe.
_Yellow Coloring Matter._--The simplest experiments show that no analogy
exists between the substance which colors flowers yellow and that of
which we have already spoken. The agents which generate so easily with
cyanine, the rose-red, violet, or green coloration, cannot in any case
impart these colors to the yellow substance obtained from flowers.
By the examination of the various yellow-colored flowers, we have
ascertained that they owe their coloration to two substances, which
differ from one another in their properties, and appear not to be
derived from the same independent principle. One is completely insoluble
in water, which we have termed xanthine, a name which Runge has given
to a yellow matter from madder. As this name has not been accepted in
science, we have employed it to denote one of the coloring matters of
yellow flowers. The other substance is very soluble in water, and is by
us termed xantheine.
_Xanthine, or the Yellow Coloring Matter insoluble in water._--We have
prepared this coloring matter from many yellow flowers, but chiefly from
_Helianthus annuus_.
To obtain it we treat the flowers with boiling absolute alcohol, which
dissolves the coloring matter in the heat, and by cooling almost
completely allows it again to precipitate. The yellow deposit which is
obtained in this way, is not pure xanthine, as it contains a rather
considerable quantity of oil. To separate this oil we have recourse to a
moderate saponification; thus, we heat the yellow precipitate with a
small quantity of alkali to saponify the fatty body mixed with the
xanthine, which even contains the xanthine dissolved. As the coloring
matter is soluble in the soap solution, we do not treat the mass with
water, but decompose it with an acid which isolates the xanthine and the
fatty acids resulting from the saponification. This precipitate we treat
with cold alcohol, which leaves behind the fatty acids, and dissolves
the xanthine. This substance is a fine yellow color, insoluble in water,
but soluble in alcohol and ether, which are thereby colored golden
yellow. It appears to be uncrystallizable, and possesses the general
properties of resins.
Xanthine, in combination with cyanine, modified by the various juices of
plants, communicates in variable proportions orange-yellow, scarlet-red,
and red colors to flowers.
_Xantheine, or the Coloring Matter soluble in water._--By the
preparation of the substance which colors yellow certain dahlias, it is
at once perceived that it has no analogy to xanthine. The latter is as
known insoluble in water, while the coloring matter under consideration
is readily soluble in water.
To obtain the xanthine we treat the petals of yellow flowering dahlias
with alcohol, which quickly dissolves the yellow coloring matter,
besides the fat and resin. The solution is evaporated to dryness, and
the residue treated with water, whereby the fat and resin are separated.
The water is again evaporated to dryness, and the residue treated with
absolute alcohol. The resulting solution diluted with water is mixed
with neutral acetate of lead, which precipitates the coloring matters.
The lead precipitate is then decomposed with sulphuric acid, upon which
the xantheine which remains dissolved in the water is purified by
alcohol.
Xantheine is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but crystallizes from
none of these solutions. Alkalies color it intensely brown. Its power of
coloration is considerable. It dyes various fabrics of a yellow tone,
which is without brilliancy. Acids again destroy the brown coloration
produced by alkalies. Xantheine combines with most metallic bases, and
forms therewith yellow or brown insoluble lakes.
The facts here related agree with all which has been previously observed
regarding the coloring matters of flowers. It is known that blue flowers
can become red, and even white, where their coloring matter is
destroyed, but never yellow--and _vice versâ_. These three coloring
matters can generate the colors either alone or by admixture, which are
seen in flowers; but whether they are the only matters which color
flowers, we are at present unable to determine.--_Journal de
Pharmacie._
* * * * *
IMPROVED PROCESS FOR BLEACHING BEES'-WAX AND THE FATTY ACIDS.
BY MR. G.F. WILSON.
This improved process consists of two parts:--1st, the application of
highly-heated steam to heat the fatty matters under treatment, by which
means the requisite heat for melting these substances is obtained, and
at the same time the atmosphere is thereby excluded; the heated steam so
applied in its passage off, carries with it the offensive smells given
off by the fatty matters, and being made to traverse a pipe or passage
up or along which gaseous chlorine is allowed to flow, a complete
disinfection of the offensive products is thereby effected. 2dly, the
treating of bees'-wax in a mixture of hard acid fat and bees'-wax, with
compounds of chlorine and oxygen, preferring to employ that disengaged
from chlorate of potash by treating it with sulphuric acid. For this
purpose, Mr. Wilson takes at the rate, say, of a ton of yellow
bees'-wax, and melts and boils it up with free steam for about half an
hour. It is then allowed to stand a short time, and is then decanted
into another vessel provided with a steam-pipe to emit free steam; about
20 lbs. of chlorate of potash is added, and the steam turned on; 80 lbs.
of sulphuric acid, diluted with a like weight of water, is then
gradually added. The matters are allowed to stand for a short time, and
are then decanted into another vessel, and again boiled up with free
steam, and treated with a like quantity of diluted sulphuric acid. The
bees'-wax is then decanted into a receiver, and is ready for use. The
bees'-wax may, before undergoing these processes, be combined and boiled
up with a hard fatty acid, and then treated as above described.
* * * * *
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF NAPLES SOAP.
A. Faiszt has submitted this celebrated shaving soap to analysis. He
states that it is made by saponifying mutton fat with lime, and then
separating the fatty acids from the soap thus formed, by means of a
mineral acid. These fatty acids are afterwards combined with ordinary
caustic potash to produce the Naples soap. He found that 100 parts of
this soap contained
Parts.
Fatty acids, 57.14
Potash combined with the fatty acids, 10.39
Sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium,
with a trace of carbonate of potash, 4.22
Silica, &c., 0.46
Water, 27.68
-----
99.89
_Gewerbeblatt aus Wurttemberg._
* * * * *
MANUFACTURE OF SOAP.
The removal of the duty from soap, and the consequent emancipation of
this branch of industry from the tender mercies of the Excise, has given
a fresh impetus to the manufacture of this important article of daily
use, and enabled some processes to be practically carried out in
England, which, previous to the removal of the duty, could not be
adopted in this part of her Majesty's dominions.
It will doubtless appear strange to those unacquainted with the
circumstances, that owing to the mode of levying the duty by
admeasurement, and not by actual weight, the maker of a particular kind
of soap was debarred the privilege of manufacturing in this country.
Fortunately for him, the manufacture of soap being free from all Excise
restrictions in Ireland, he was enabled to carry out his process in the
sister kingdom, whence it was exported to England, and admitted here on
payment of the Customs' duty, which was the same as the Excise duty on
its manufacture here. All this roundabout method of doing business is
now done away with, and no restriction now exists to mar the peace of
the soap manufacturer.
Amongst various new processes lately introduced is that of Mr. H.C.
Jennings, which is practically carried out in the following manner:--
Combine 1000 lbs. of stearic or margaric acid, as free from elaine or
oleine as possible, or palmatine, or any vegetable or animal stearine or
margarine, at the temperature of 212° Fahr., with a solution of
bicarbonate of potash or soda, specific gravity 1500. Constantly stir or
mix until an intimate combination is obtained, and that the elements
will not part when tried upon glass or any other similar substance. When
the mass is cooled down to about 60° Fahr. add one pound per cent. of
liquor ammoniæ, specific gravity 880, and one pound per cent. of
strongest solution of caustic potash; these are to be added gradually,
and fully mixed or stirred until perfectly combined. Dissolve 15 to 18
pounds per cent. of common resin of commerce, by boiling it with a
solution of subcarbonate of potash and common soda of commerce, in equal
parts, as much as will give the solution a specific gravity of about
1800, when boiling hot. Mix these perfectly with the above-mentioned
stearic or margaric acids, and carbonated alkali; then add a strong
solution of caustic potash or soda, until a perfect saponification is
produced. The dose of caustic alkali will much depend upon the purity of
the stearine or margarine employed. The separation is now effected by
using common salt, or sulphate of soda, &c., as is known and practised
by soap manufacturers. If the soap intended to be produced is to be
colorless, no resin must be employed, and a larger dose of liquor
ammoniæ and caustic alkali must be used, according to the dryness of the
stearine matters to be operated upon.
* * * * *
A SIMPLE AND CERTAIN METHOD TO DETERMINE THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OF SOAP.
BY DR. ALEXANDER MÜLLER.
In consequence of the ceremonious process by which the fatty acids are
determined in one portion of the soap, and the alkali by the
incineration of another, I consider the following method is not unworthy
of publication, because it appears to afford quicker and more correct
results by reason of the greater simplicity of the manipulation. It is
available principally for soda soaps, which are the most common; but it
may be also employed with corresponding alterations for soaps which have
other bases.
A piece of soap weighing two or three grammes is dissolved in a tared
beaker glass of about 160 cubic centimetres capacity with 80 to 100
cubic centimetres of water, by heat, in a water-bath, and then three or
four times the quantity of diluted sulphuric acid or as much as is
necessary to decompose the soap, added from a burette. When, after
repeated agitation, the fatty acids have separated in a transparent
clear stratum from the aqueous solution, it is allowed to cool, and then
the contents of the beaker glass are placed in a moistened filter, which
has been previously dried at 212° Fahr. and weighed. The contents of the
filter are washed until their acid reaction disappears. In the meanwhile
the beaker glass is placed in a steam-bath, so that, it being already
dry, may support the washed and partly dry filter, which is laid on the
mouth of the glass as if it were in the funnel. The fatty acids soon
pass through the paper, and for the most part flow ultimately to the
bottom of the beaker glass; the increase of weight of which, after
cooling, and the subtraction of the weight of the filter, gives the
quantity of fatty acids present in the soap. A second drying and
weighing is not necessary, if on the cold sides of the interior of the
glass no damp is to be observed, which is occasioned by a trace of water
still present. If the quantity of oxide of iron added to marble the soap
is considerable, it may be easily found by incinerating the filter and
determining the weight of the residue.
The fluid runs from the fatty acids on the filter, which, with the
washings, has been preserved in a sufficiently large beaker glass, is
colored with tincture of litmus, and decomposed with a test alkaline
solution until the blue color appears. The difference of the quantity of
alkali required to neutralize the sulphuric acid, and the quantity of
sulphuric acid used in the first instance, allows a calculation to be
made as to the quantity of effective alkali in the soap, for example:--
23.86 grms. of soap (partly cocoa-nut oil soap).
17.95 " fatty acids with filter.
04.44 " filter.
-----
13.51 grms. of hydrates of fatty acids = 56.62 per cent.
28.00 cub. cent. of the diluted sulphuric acid applied for the
decomposition of the soap, of which 100 cub. cent.
represent 2982 grms. of carbonate of soda.
17.55 cub. cent. of alkaline fluid, which were used for the
saturation of the above acid, and of which 100 cub.
cent. saturate an equal quantity of that acid.
----
10.45 cub. cent. of the sulphuric necessary for the alkali
contained in the soap, representing 0.1823 grms. of
soda = 7.64 per cent.
A determination of the alkali as a sulphate afforded in another portion
of soap 9.57 per cent. of soda, because the sulphate of soda and
chloride of sodium present in the soap gave up their alkali.
The alkaline fluid applied by me was a saccharine solution of lime,
which can be naturally replaced by a solution of soda, and must be if
the chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda mixed with the soap shall be
determined in the following way:--
The fluid again exactly neutralized with alkali is evaporated to
dryness, and the residue gently heated to redness. As in the above
manipulation, the fluid was not heated to the boiling point, the
original chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda are contained in the
weighed residue, besides the soda of the soap and that which has been
added with the sulphuric acid, forming sulphate of soda. A second
exposure to a red heat with sulphuric acid converts the whole residue
into sulphate of soda, and from the increase of weight, by a comparison
of the equivalents of NaCl and NaO, SO_{3} the quantity of the former
may be decided. According to the equivalents which Kopp furnished in
1850, the increase of weight to the chloride of sodium is as 1:4.68. The
original sulphate of soda must be, lastly, found by the subtraction of
the same salt formed plus the calculated chloride of sodium from the
first heated residue.
In practice, it is seldom necessary to proceed with the determination of
the chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda, except with stirred and
cocoa-nut oil soaps; certainly less of the truth is seen if, after the
above determination of the fatty acids and the effective alkali, the
absent per centage of water is introduced in the calculation, than if
the water is reckoned, which is never completely evolved from soap, even
technically prepared at 302° Fahr., and another determination made of
the fatty acids or alkali _en bloc_ the fatty acids, or even the
alkaline contents.
The method here given partakes of the usual imperfections, that the
fatty acids as well as the unsaponified soap are equally estimated, and
the mixed hydrate or carbonate of the alkali as well as the combined
alkali. The presence of the carbonate can be easily recognized by the
foaming of the soap solution, upon the addition of the sulphuric acid.
These imperfections, however, are of little importance.
It must be granted that the minutely correct determination of the
constitution of soap must be always yielded up to those who are
technically conversant with this department of chemistry, the estimation
of free alkali and unchanged fat excluded in, at least, by certain ages
of the soap. Further, a considerable excess of one or another ingredient
soon betrays itself by a corresponding departure in the soap of the
characteristic properties of a good product, and a small excess can be
judged sufficiently exact from the proportion of the alkali, which,
supposing soda present, should not amount to more than 13 per cent. with
a pure cocoa-nut oil soap, not less than 11.5 per cent. with a tallow
soap; but with palm oil and mixed soaps the one or the other limit
approximates.--_Journal für Praktische Chemie._
* * * * *
ON THE NATURAL FATS.
BY DR. CHARLES LÖWIG.
The fats which exist in nature can be divided into the general and the
special; the former exist in almost all plants and parts of plants; the
latter includes only some vegetable substances, as _laurostearine_,
_myristicine_, and _palmatine_. The consistence of fats of the general
kind depend upon the proportions of margarine, stearine, and oleine
contained in them. The former preponderate in the solid fats (butter,
lard, and tallow); and the latter in the fluid ones or oils. According
as an oil contains oleic acid or olinic acid, it is termed a fatty or
drying oil. To the class of fatty oils belong olive, almond, hazel-nut,
beech, rape oils, &c.; to that of drying oils, linseed, nut, hemp,
poppy, grape-seed, oils, &c.; which are used for varnishes.
In the vegetable kingdom the fats are chiefly in the seeds and in their
coverings, seldom in the perispemium (poppy), and in the fleshy
substance surrounding the seed (olive). The fat in the seed is mostly
enclosed in cells with a proteine compound. In the animal kingdom
certain parts of the body are quite filled with fat-cells, particularly
under the skin (_Paniculus adiposus_), in the cavities of the abdomen,
in the so-called _omentum_, in the kidneys and the tubulated canals of
the bones. Fat is also enclosed in cells (fatty globules) in milk.
It is established, without a doubt, that a greater portion of the fat
which exists in the animal kingdom originates from the vegetable
kingdom, for it is introduced into the body cotemporaneously with the
proteine compounds of that kingdom. A portion of the fat as well as wax
is formed in the animal organismus, as shown by a number of
observations, and in most cases it is unquestionable that the
non-nitrogenous nutriments, as starch, serve for the formation of fat by
a process of deoxidation; nevertheless, the formation of fat in the
animal body appears only to take place when the substances containing
starch enter the body simultaneously with fat.
If the fat existing in the animal body is contained in cellular tissue,
its separation may be simply effected by placing the incised tissue in
hot water. The cells burst and the fat collects itself on the surface of
the water. If vegetable substances contain fat in large quantity, as,
for example, seeds, it may be obtained by expression. The dried seeds
are bruised and expressed between either cold or hot metallic plates.
Olives are laid in heaps before expression; when they begin to ferment,
they can be completely expressed. If animal and vegetable substances
contain only a little fat, it must be extracted by ether.
In the pure condition the fats are mostly odorless and tasteless; when
they possess an odor, it arises mostly from the presence of small
quantities of volatile fatty acids, as butyric acid, capric acid, &c.;
which becomes free through the decomposition of their oxide of glycyl
combinations. This ensues by the presence of water and air through a
kind of fermentation, and as it appears, by the presence of a
nitrogenous substance. The fats are insoluble in water, and, with the
exception of castor oil, are taken up by cold alcohol in very small
quantities, however, more in proportion as they contain oleine. In
boiling alcohol they are dissolved, but are, for the most part, again
separated on cooling, particularly those rich in stearine. All fats are
taken up by ether but those containing stearine in the smallest
quantity.
Their specific gravities fluctuate between .91 and .93. When heated,
fats assume a dark color, and boil between 482° and 572° Fahr., but the
boiling-point continuously rises, while an uninterrupted decomposition
proceeds. From oxide of glycyl ensues acroline; oleic acid affords a
fatty acid, and among the decomposition products of fats containing
stearine and margarine are found pure margaric acid, and, at the same
time, some hydro-carbons are formed. When exposed quickly to a high
temperature, fats are completely decomposed. (Oil gas.) In closed
vessels the pure fats undergo no change, but, placed in thin layers in
the air, the fats containing oleine and oline rapidly absorb oxygen
under the strong evolution of heat, which will inflame porous bodies, as
cotton wool. The purer the fats are the more quickly their oxidation
results. When the fats contain slimy materials, these latter can be
destroyed with a little oxide of lead and water. (Preparation for the
application of varnishes.) The action of nitric acid, nitrous acid,
chlorine, sulphuric acid, &c., on fats is the same as that of these
bodies on the fatty acids. The fatty oils dissolve sulphur in the heat
which is again partly precipitated on cooling. When sulphur is heated
with fatty oils, namely, with linseed oil, it dissolves by degrees, and
a thick dark mass is formed, the so-called balsam of sulphur. By raising
the heat, a violent reaction ensues under the evolution of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and, at the same time, an oil resembling oil of garlic
volatilizes. This oil begins to boil at 160° Fahr., but its
boiling-point rises continually.
* * * * *
PERFUMES AS PREVENTIVES OF MOULDINESS.
An interesting paper on this subject has been published by Dr.
Macculloch. We presume our readers are aware that mouldiness is
occasioned by the growth of minute vegetables. Ink, paste, leather, and
seeds, are the substances that most frequently suffer from it. The
effect of cloves in preserving ink is well known; any of the essential
oils answer equally well. Leather may be kept free from mould by the
same substances. Thus Russian leather, which is perfumed with the tar of
birch, never becomes mouldy; indeed it prevents it from occurring in
other bodies. A few drops of any essential oil are sufficient also to
keep books entirely free from it. For harness, oil of turpentine is
recommended. Bookbinders, in general, employ alum for preserving their
paste; but mould frequently forms on it. Shoemakers' resin is sometimes
also used for the same purpose; but it is less effectual than oil of
turpentine. The best preventives, however, are the essential oils, even
in small quantity, as those of peppermint, anise, or cassia, by which
paste may be kept almost any length of time; indeed, it has, in this
way, been preserved for years. The paste recommended by Dr. Macculloch
is made in the usual way, with flour, some brown sugar, and a little
corrosive sublimate; the sugar keeping it flexible when dry, and the
sublimate preventing it from fermenting, and from being attacked by
insects. After it is made, a few drops of any of the essential oils are
added. Paste made in this way dries when exposed to the air, and may be
used merely by wetting it. If required to be kept always ready for use,
it ought to be put into covered pots. Seeds may also be preserved by
the essential oils; and this is of great consequence, when they are to
be sent to a distance. Of course moisture must be excluded as much as
possible, as the oils or ottos prevent only the bad effects of mould.
* * * * *
FUSEL OIL.
BY W. BASTICK.
This organic compound was first discovered by Scheele, as one of the
distillation products of the wort obtained from the fermentation of
potatoes. It has been subsequently examined by Pelletier, Dumas,
Cahours, and others. It is generally now termed the hydrate of the oxide
of amyl, from amyl being supposed to be its base or radical, as cyanogen
is regarded to be the radical of another series of compounds.
It passes over towards the termination of the distillation process in a
white turbid fluid, which consists of a watery and alcoholic solution of
the fusel oil. The crude oil, consisting of about one-half of its weight
of alcohol and water, may be purified, being shaken with water and
redistilled, with the previous addition of chloride of calcium. When the
temperature of the contents of retort reaches 296° Fahr., pure fusel oil
distils over.
Fusel oil is a colorless oily fluid, which possesses at first not an
unagreeable odor, but at last is very disgusting, producing oppression
at the chest and exciting cough. It has a sharp hot taste, and burns
with a white blue flame. It boils at 296° Fahr., and at temperature of
-4° Fahr. it becomes solid, and forms crystals. Its specific gravity at
59° Fahr. is 0.8124, and its formula C_{10}H_{12}O_{2}. On paper it
produces a greasy stain, which disappears by heat, and when exposed to
the action of the air it acquires an acid reaction. Fusel oil is
slightly soluble in water, to which it imparts its odor; and soluble in
all proportions in alcohol, ether, volatile and fixed oils, and acetic
acid. It dissolves phosphorus, sulphur, and iodine without any
noticeable change, and also mixes with caustic soda and potash. It
rapidly absorbs hydrochloric acid, with the disengagement of heat. When
mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid, the mixture becomes of a
violet-red color, and bisulphate of amyloxide is formed. Nitric acid and
chlorine decompose it. By its distillation with anhydrous phosphoric
acid, a fluid, oily combination of hydrogen and carbon results. By
oxidation with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, fusel oil yields
valerianic acid, which is used in medicine, and apple-oil, employed as a
flavoring ingredient in confectionery.
* * * * *
ESSENCE OF PINE-APPLE.
BY W. BASTICK.
The above essence is, as already known, butyric ether more or less
diluted with alcohol; to obtain which pure, on the large scale and
economically, the following process is recommended:--
Dissolve 6 lbs. of sugar and half an ounce of tartaric acid, in 26 lbs.
of boiling water. Let the solution stand for several days; then add 8
ounces of putrid cheese broken up with 3 lbs. of skimmed and curdled
sour milk and 3 lbs. of levigated chalk. The mixture should be kept and
stirred daily in a warm place, at the temperature of about 92° Fahr.,
as long as gas is evolved, which is generally the case for five or six
weeks.
The liquid thus obtained, is mixed with an equal volume of cold water,
and 8 lbs. of crystallized carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in
water, added. It is then filtered from the precipitated carbonate of
lime; the filtrate is to be evaporated down to 10 lbs., when 5-1/2 lbs.
of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with an equal weight of water, are
to be carefully added. The butyric acid, which separates on the surface
of the liquid as a dark-colored oil, is to be removed, and the rest of
the liquid distilled; the distillate is now neutralized with carbonate
of soda, and the butyric acid separated as before, with sulphuric acid.
The whole of the crude acid is to be rectified with the addition of an
ounce of sulphuric acid to every pound. The distillate is then saturated
with fused chloride of calcium, and redistilled. The product will be
about 28 ounces of pure butyric acid. To prepare the butyric acid or
essence of pine-apple, from this acid proceed as follows:--Mix, by
weight, three parts of butyric acid with six parts of alcohol, and two
parts of sulphuric acid in a retort, and submit the whole, with a
sufficient heat, to a gentle distillation, until the fluid which passes
over ceases to emit a fruity odor. By treating the distillate with
chloride of calcium, and by its redistillation, the pure ether may be
obtained.
The boiling-point of butyric ether is 238° Fahr. Its specific gravity,
0.904, and its formula,
C_{12}H_{12}O_{4}, or C_{4}H_{5}O + C_{8}H_{7}O_{3}.
Bensch's process, above described, for the production of butyric acid,
affords a remarkable exemplification of the extraordinary
transformations that organic bodies undergo in contact with ferment, or
by catalytic action. When cane sugar is treated with tartaric acid,
especially under the influence of heat, it is converted into grape
sugar. This grape sugar, in the presence of decomposing nitrogenous
substances, such as cheese, is transformed in the first instance into
lactic acid, which combines with the lime of the chalk. The acid of the
lactate of lime, thus produced, is by the further influence of the
ferment changed into butyric acid. Hence, butyrate of lime is the final
result of the catalytic action in the process we have here recommended.
* * * * *
PREPARATION OF CRUDE PELARGONATE OF ETHYL-OXIDE (ESSENCE OF QUINCE.)
BY DR. R. WAGNER.
It has been believed, until the most recent period, that the peel of
quinces contains oenanthylate of ethyl-oxide. New researches, however,
have led to the supposition that the odorous principle of quinces is
derived from the ether of pelargonic acid. In my last research on the
action of nitric acid on oil of rue, I found that besides the fatty
acids, which Gerhardt had already discovered, pelargonic acid is formed.
This process may be advantageously employed for the preparation of crude
pelargonate of ethyl-oxide, which, on account of its extremely agreeable
odor, may be applied as a fruit essence equally with those prepared by
Dobereiner, Hofmann, and Fehling. For the preparation of the liquid,
which can be named the essence of quince, oil of rue is treated with
double its quantity of very diluted nitric acid, and the mixture heated
until it begins to boil. After some time two layers are to be observed
in the liquid: the upper one is brownish, and the lower one consists of
the products of the oxidation of oil of rue and the excess of nitric
acid. The lower layer is freed from the greater part of its nitric acid
by evaporation in a chloride of zinc bath. The white flocks frequently
found in the acid liquid, which are probably fatty acids, are separated
by filtration. The filtrate is mixed with spirit, and long digested in a
gentle heat, by which a fluid is formed, which has the agreeable odor of
quince in the highest degree, and may be purified by distillation. The
spirituous solution of pelargonic ether may also be profitably prepared
from oleic acid, according to Gottlieb's method.--_Journal für
Praktische Chemie._
* * * * *
PREPARATION OF RUM-ETHER.
Take of black oxide of manganese, of sulphuric acid, each twelve pounds;
of alcohol, twenty-six pounds; of strong acetic acid, ten pounds. Mix,
and distil twelve pints. The ether, as above prepared, is an article of
commerce in Austria, being the body to which rum owes its peculiar
flavor.--_Austrian Journal of Pharmacy._
* * * * *
ARTIFICIAL FRUIT ESSENCES.
BY FEHLING.
_Pine-apple Oil_ is a solution of one part of butyric ether, in eight or
ten parts of alcohol. For the preparation of this ether, pure butyric
acid must be first obtained by the fermentation of sugar, according to
the method of Bensch. One pound of this acid is dissolved in one pound
of strong alcohol, and mixed with from a quarter to half an ounce of
sulphuric acid; the mixture is heated for some minutes, whereby the
butyric ether separates as a light stratum. The whole is mixed with half
its volume of water, and the upper stratum then removed; the heavy fluid
is distilled, by which more butyric ether is obtained. The distillate
and the removed oily liquid are shaken with a little water, the lighter
portion of the liquid removed, which at last, by being shaken with water
and a little soda, is freed from adhering acid.
For the preparation of the essence of pine-apple, one pound of this
ether is dissolved in 8 or 10 pounds of alcohol. 20 or 25 drops of this
solution is sufficient to give to one pound of sugar a strong taste of
pine-apple, if a little citric or tartaric acid has been added.
_Pear-oil._--This is an alcoholic solution of acetate of amyloxide, and
acetate of ethyloxide. For its preparation, one pound of glacial acetic
acid is added to an equal weight of fusel-oil (which has been prepared
by being washed with soda and water, and then distilled at a temperature
between 254° and 284° Fahr.), and mixed with half a pound of sulphuric
acid. The mixture is digested for some hours at a temperature of 254°,
by which means acetate of amyloxide separates, particularly on the
addition of some water. The crude acetate of amyloxide obtained by
separation, and by the distillation of the liquid to which the water has
been added, is finally purified by being washed with soda and water.
Fifteen parts of acetate of amyloxide are dissolved with half a part of
acetic ether in 100 or 120 parts of alcohol; this is the essence of
pear, which, when employed to flavor sugar or syrup, to which a little
citric or tartaric acid has been added, affords the flavor of bergamot
pears, and a fruity, refreshing taste.
_Apple-oil_ is an alcoholic solution of valerianate of amyloxide. It is
obtained impure, as a by product, when for the preparation of valerianic
acid, fusel-oil is distilled with bichromate of potash and sulphuric
acid. It is better prepared in the following manner:--For the
preparation of valerianic acid, 1 part of fusel-oil is mixed gradually
with 3 parts of sulphuric acid, and 2 parts of water added. A solution
of 2-1/4 parts of bichromate of potash, with 4-1/2 parts of water, is
heated in a tubulated retort, and into this fluid the former mixture is
gradually poured, so that the ebullition is not too rapid. The
distillate is saturated with carbonate of soda, and warmed, when a
solution of 3 parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, 2 parts of strong
sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal quantity of water, are added. The
valerianic acid separates as an oily stratum.
One part, by weight, of pure fusel-oil is carefully mixed with an equal
weight of sulphuric acid. The cold solution is added to 1-1/4 parts of
the above valerianic acid; the mixture is warmed for some minutes (not
too long or too much) in a water-bath, and then mixed with a little
water, by which means the impure valerianate of amyloxide separates,
which is washed with water and carbonate of soda. For use as an essence
of apples, one part of this valerianate of amyloxide is dissolved in 6
or 8 parts of alcohol.
* * * * *
VOLATILE OIL OF GAULTHERIA PROCUMBENS.
BY W. BASTICK.
The chemical history of this oil is one of great importance and
interest, affording, as it does, one of the examples where the progress
of modern chemistry has succeeded in producing artificially a complex
organic body, previously only known as the result of vital force.
This volatile oil is obtained from the winter-green, an American shrub
of the heath family, by distillation. When this plant is distilled, at
first an oil passes over which consists of C_{10}H_{8}, but when the
temperature reaches 464° Fahr., a pure oil distils into the receiver.
Therefore the essential oil of this plant, like many others, consists of
two portions--one a hydro-carbon, and the other an oxygenated compound;
this latter is the chief constituent of the oil, and that which is of so
much chemical interest, from the fact that it has been artificially
prepared.
It is termed, when thus prepared, the spiroylate of the oxide of methyl,
and is obtained when two parts of wood spirit, one and a half parts of
spiroylic acid, and one part of sulphuric acid are distilled together.
It is a colorless liquid, of an agreeable aromatic odor and taste; it
dissolves slightly in water, but in all proportions in ether and
alcohol; it boils between 411° and 435° Fahr., and has a specific
gravity of 1.173. This compound expels carbonic acid from its
combinations, and forms a series of salts, which contain one atom of
base and one atom of spiroylate of the oxide of methyl. It behaves
therefore as a conjugate acid. Its formula is C_{14}H_{5}O_{5} +
C_{2}H_{3}O.
The spiroylic acid may be separated from the natural oil by treating it
with a concentrated solution of caustic potash at a temperature of 113°
Fahr., when wood spirit is formed and evaporates, and the solution
contains the spiroylate of potash, from which, when decomposed with
sulphuric acid, the spiroylic acid separates and subsides in the fluid.
Spiroylic acid is also formed by the oxidation of spiroyligenic acid,
and when saligenin, salicin, courmacin, or indigo, is heated with
caustic potash.
* * * * *
ON THE APPLICATION OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY TO PERFUMERY.
BY DR. A.W. HOFMANN,
_Professor to the Royal College of Chemistry, London_.
Cahours' excellent researches concerning the essential oil of
_Gaultheria procumbens_ (a North American plant of the natural order of
the Ericinæ of Jussieu), which admits of so many applications in
perfumery,[I] have opened a new field in this branch of industry. The
introduction of this oil among compound ethers must necessarily direct
the attention of perfumers[J] towards this important branch of
compounds, the number of which is daily increasing by the labors of
those who apply themselves to organic chemistry. The striking similarity
of the smell of these ethers to that of fruit had not escaped the
observation of chemistry; however, it was reserved to practical men to
discover by which choice and combinations it might be possible to
imitate the scent of peculiar fruits to such a nicety, that makes it
probable that the scent of the fruit is owing to a natural combination
identical to that produced by art; so much so, as to enable the chemist
to produce from fruits the said combinations, provided he could have at
his disposal a sufficient quantity to operate upon. The manufacture of
artificial aromatic oils for the purpose of perfumery[K] is, of course,
a recent branch of industry; nevertheless, it has already fallen into
the hands of several distillers, who produce sufficient quantity to
supply the trade; a fact, which has not escaped the observation of the
Jury at the London Exhibition. In visiting the stalls of English and
French perfumers at the Crystal Palace, we found a great variety of
these chemical perfumes, the applications of which were at the same time
practically illustrated by confectionery flavored by them. However, as
most of the samples of the oils sent to the Exhibition were but small, I
was prevented, in many cases, from making an accurate analysis of them.
The largest samples were those of a compound labelled "pear-oil," which,
by analysis, I discovered to be an alcoholic solution of pure acetate of
amyloxide. Not having sufficient quantity to purify it for combustion, I
dissolved it with potash, by which free fusel-oil was separated, and
determined the acetic acid in the form of a silver salt.
0.3080 gram. of silver salt = 0.1997 gram. of silver.
The per centage of silver in acetate of silver is, according to
Theory, 64.68
Experiment, 64.55
The acetate of amyloxide, which, according to the usual way of preparing
it, represents one part sulphuric acid, one part fusel-oil, and two
parts of acetate of potash, had a striking smell of fruit, but it
acquired the pleasant flavor of the jargonelle pear only after having
been diluted with six times its volume of spirit of wine.
Upon further inquiry I learned that considerable quantities of this oil
are manufactured by some distillers,--from fifteen to twenty pounds
weekly,--and sold to confectioners, who employ it chiefly in flavoring
pear-drops, which are nothing else but barley-sugar, flavored with this
oil.
I found, besides the pear-oil, also an _apple-oil_, which, according to
my analysis, is nothing but valerianate of amyloxide. Every one must
recollect the insupportable smell of rotten apples which fills the
laboratory whilst making valerianic acid. By operating upon this raw
distillate produced with diluted potash, valerianic acid is removed, and
an ether remains behind, which, diluted in five or six times its volume
of spirits of wine, is possessed of the most pleasant flavor of apples.
The essential oil[L] most abundant in the Exhibition was the pine-apple
oil, which, as you well know, is nothing else but the butyrate of
ethyloxide. Even in this combination, like in the former, the pleasant
flavor or scent is only attained by diluting the ether with alcohol. The
butyric ether which is employed in Germany to flavor bad rum, is
employed in England to flavor an acidulated drink called pine-apple ale.
For this purpose they generally do not employ pure butyric acid, but a
product obtained by saponification of butter, and subsequent
distillation of the soap with concentrated sulphuric acid and alcohol;
which product contains, besides the butyric ether, other ethers, but
nevertheless can be used for flavoring spirits. The sample I analyzed
was purer, and appeared to have been made with pure butyric ether.
Decomposed with potash and changed into silver salt, it gave
0.4404 gram. of silver salt = 0.2437 gram. of silver.
The per centage of silver in the butyrate of silver is according to
Theory, 55.38
Experiment, 55.33
Both English and French exhibitors have also sent samples of cognac-oil
and grape-oil, which are employed to flavor the common sorts of brandy.
As these samples were very small, I was prevented from making an
accurate analysis. However, I am certain that the grape-oil is a
combination of amyl, diluted with much alcohol; since, when acted upon
with concentrated sulphuric acid, and the oil freed from alcohol by
washing it with water, it gave amylsulphuric acid, which was identified
by the analysis of the salt of barytes.
1.2690 gram. of amylsulphate of barytes gave 0.5825 gram. of sulphate of
barytes. This corresponds to 45.82 per cent. of sulphate of barytes.
Amylsulphate of barytes, crystallized with two equivalents of water,
contains, according to the analysis of Cahours and Kekule, 45.95 per
cent. of sulphate of barytes. It is curious to find here a body, which,
on account of its noxious smell, is removed with great care from
spirituous liquors, to be applied under a different form for the purpose
of imparting to them a pleasant flavor.
I must needs here also mention the artificial oil of bitter almonds.
When Mitscherlich, in the year 1834, discovered the nitrobenzol, he
would not have dreamed that this product would be manufactured for the
purpose of perfumery, and, after twenty years, appear in fine labelled
samples at the London Exhibition. It is true that, even at the time of
the discovery of nitrobenzol, he pointed out the striking similarity of
its smell to that of the oil of bitter almonds. However, at that time,
the only known sources for obtaining this body were the compressed gases
and the distillation of benzoic acid, consequently the enormity of its
price banished any idea of employing benzol as a substitute for oil of
bitter almonds. However, in the year 1845, I succeeded by means of the
anilin-reaction in ascertaining the existence of benzol in common
coal-tar oil; and, in the year 1849, C.B. Mansfield proved, by careful
experiments, that benzol can be won without difficulty in great
quantity from coal-tar oil. In his essay, which contains many
interesting details about the practical use of benzol, he speaks
likewise of the possibility of soon obtaining the sweet-scented
nitrobenzol in great quantity. The Exhibition has proved that his
observation has not been left unnoticed by the perfumers. Among French
perfumeries we have found, under the name of artificial oil of bitter
almonds, and under the still more poetical name of "essence de mirbane,"
several samples of essential oils, which are no more nor less than
nitrobenzol. I was not able to obtain accurate details about the extent
of this branch of manufacture, which seems to be of some importance. In
London, this article is manufactured with success. The apparatus
employed is that of Mansfield, which is very simple. It consists of a
large glass worm, the upper extremity of which divides in two branches
or tubes, which are provided with funnels. Through one of these funnels
passes a stream of concentrated nitric acid; the other is destined as a
receiver of benzol, which, for this purpose, requires not to be quite
pure; at the angle from where the two tubes branch out, the two bodies
meet together, and instantly the chemical combination takes place, which
cools sufficiently by passing through the glass worm. The product is
afterwards washed with water, and some diluted solution of carbonate of
soda; it is then ready for use. Notwithstanding the great physical
similarity between nitrobenzol and oil of bitter almonds, there is yet a
slight _difference in smell which can be detected by an experienced
nose_.[M] However, nitrobenzol is very useful in scenting soap, and
might be employed with great advantage by confectioners and cooks,
particularly on account of its safety, being entirely free from prussic
acid.
There were, besides the above, several other artificial oils; they all,
however, were more or less complicated, and in so small quantities, that
it was impossible to ascertain their exact nature, and it was doubtful
whether they had the same origin as the former.
The application of organic chemistry to perfumery is quite new; it is
probable that the study of all the ethers or ethereal combinations
already known, and of those which the ingenuity of the chemist is daily
discovering, will enlarge the sphere of their practical applications.
The capryl-ethers lately discovered by Bouis are remarkable for their
aromatic smells (the acetate of capryloxide is possessed of the most
intense and pleasant smell), and they promise a large harvest to the
manufacturers of perfumes.--_Annalen der Chemie._
* * * * *
CORRESPONDENCE FROM THE "JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS."[N]
CHEMISTRY AND PERFUMERY.
SIR,
When such periodicals as "Household Words" and the "Family Herald"
contain scientific matters, treated in a manner to popularize science,
all real lovers of philosophy must feel gratified; a little fiction, a
little metaphor, is expected, and is accepted with the good intention
with which it is given, in such popular prints; but when the "Journal of
the Society of Arts" reprints quotations from such sources, without
modifying or correcting their expressions, it conveys to its readers a
tissue of fiction rather too flimsy to bear a truthful analysis.[O]
In the article on Chemistry and Perfumery, in No. 47, you quote that
"some of the most delicate perfumes are now made by chemical artifice,
and not, as of old, by distilling them from flowers." Now, sir, this
statement conveys to the public a very erroneous idea; because the
substances afterwards spoken of are named essences of fruit, and not
essences of flowers, and the essences of fruits named in your article
never are, and never can be, used in perfumery. This assertion is based
on practical experience. The artificial essences of fruits are ethers:
when poured upon a handkerchief, and held up to the nose, they act, as
is well known, like chloroform. Dare a perfumer sell a bottle of such a
preparation to an "unprotected female?"
Again, you quote that "the drainings of cow-houses are the main source
to which the manufacturer applies for the production of his most
delicate and admired perfumes."
Shade of Munchausen! must I refute this by calling your attention to the
fact that in the south of France more than 80,000 persons are employed,
directly and indirectly, in the cultivation of flowers, and in the
extraction of their odors for the use of perfumers? that Italy
cultivates flowers for the same purpose to an extent employing land as
extensive as the whole of some English counties? that tracts of
flower-farms exist in the Balkan, in Turkey, more extensive than the
whole of Yorkshire? Our own flower-farms at Mitcham, in Surrey, need not
be mentioned in comparison, although important. These, sir, are the main
sources of perfumes. There are other sources at Thibet, Tonquin, and in
the West Indies; but enough has been said, I hope, to refute the
cow-house story. This story is founded on the fact that Benzoic acid
_can be_ obtained from the draining of stables, and that Benzoic acid
has rather a pleasant odor. Some of the largest wholesale perfumers use
five or six pounds of gum benzoin per annum, but none use the benzoic
acid. The lozenge-makers consume the most of this article when prepared
for commercial purposes; as also the fruit essences. Those of your
readers interested in what _really is used_ in perfumery, are referred
to the last six numbers of the "Annals of Pharmacy and Practical
Chemistry," article "Perfumery."
Your obedient servant,
SEPTIMUS PIESSE.
CHEMISTRY AND PERFUMERY.[P]
SIR,
The discussion about chemistry and perfumery, in reality amounts to
this: Mr. Septimus Piesse confines the term "perfumery" to such things
as Eau de Cologne, &c.; perfumed soaps, groceries, &c., he does not
appear to class as "perfumery." Now the artificial scents are as yet
chiefly used for the latter substances, which in common language, and, I
should say, in a perfumer's nomenclature also, would be included in
perfumery. The authority for cows' urine being used for perfumery is to
be found in a little French work called, I believe, "La Chimie de
l'Odorat" in which a full description is given of the collection of
fresh urine and its application to this purpose. I need scarcely say,
that it is the benzoic acid of the urine which is the odoriferous
principle.
Your obedient servant,
A PERFUMER.
[When benzoic acid is prepared by any of the wet processes, it is _free
from the fragrant volatile oil_ which accompanies it when prepared by
sublimation from the resin, and to which oil the acid of commerce owes
its peculiar odor. This fact completely nullifies the above
assertion.--SEPTIMUS PIESSE.]
CHEMISTRY AND PERFUMERY.[Q]
Sir,
If the author of the Letter on Chemistry and Perfumery, published in No.
50 of your Journal, and intended as a reply to mine--though none was
needed--which appeared in No. 49, really be a perfumer, as his signature
implies, he would know that I could not, though ever so inclined,
"confine the term perfumery" to various odoriferous substances, and
exclude scented soaps; because he would be aware that one-third of the
returns of every manufacturing perfumer is derived from perfumed soap. I
do however emphatically exclude from the term perfumery, "groceries,
&c.," the _et cætera_ meaning, I presume, "confectionery," because
perfumery has to do with one of the senses, SMELLING, while
groceries, &c., are distinguishable by another, TASTE; and had
not our physical faculties clearly made the distinction, commerce and
manufactures would have defined them: I therefore repeat, that the
artificial essences of fruits are not used in perfumery, as stated in
No. 47, from the quoted authorities. If any man can deny this assertion,
let him now do so, "or forever after hold his peace," at least upon
this subject. The "Journal of the Society of Arts" is not a medium of
mere controversy. If a statement be made in error, let truth correct it,
which, if gain-sayed, it should be done, not under the veil of an
anonymous correspondent, but with a name to support the assertion.
Science has to deal with tangible facts and figures, to the political
alone belongs the anonymous ink-spiller.
I am, sir, yours faithfully,
SEPTIMUS PIESSE.
42 Chapel Street, Edgware Road.
[If the word _flavor_ had been used by the various authors who have
written upon this subject, in place of the word _perfume_, the
dissemination of an erroneous idea would have been prevented: the word
perfume, applied to pear-oil, pine-apple oil, &c., implies, and the
general tenor of the remarks of the writers leads the reader to infer,
that these substances are used by perfumers, who not only do not, but
cannot use them in their trade.
But for _flavoring_ nectar, lozenges, sweetmeats, &c., these ethers, or
oils as the writers term them, are extensively used, and quite in
accordance with assertions of Hoffman, Playfair, Fehling, and Bastick.
However, the glorious achievements of modern chemistry have not lost
anything by this misapplication of a trade term.--SEPTIMUS
PIESSE.]
* * * * *
OTTOS FROM PLANTS.
QUANTITIES OF OTTOS, OTHERWISE ESSENTIAL OILS, YIELDED BY VARIOUS
PLANTS.
Pounds Of otto.
Orange-peel, 10 yield about 1 oz.
Dry marjoram herb, 20 " 3 oz.
Fresh " " 100 " 3 oz.
" Peppermint, 100 " 3 to 4 oz.
Dry " 25 " 3 to 4 oz.
" Origanum, 25 " 2 to 3 oz.
" Thyme, 20 " 1 to 1-1/2 oz.
" Calamus, 25 " 3 to 4 oz.
Anise-seed, 25 " 9 to 12 oz.
Caraway, 25 " 16 oz.
Cloves, 1 " 2-1/2 oz.
Cinnamon, 25 " 3 oz.
Cassia, 25 " 3 oz.
Cedar-wood, 28 " 4 oz.
Mace, 2 " 3 oz.
Nutmegs, 2 " 3 to 4 oz.
Fresh balm herb, 60 " 1 to 1-1/2 oz.
Cake of bitter almond, 14 " 1 oz.
Sweet flag root, 112 " 16 oz.
Geranium leaves, 112 " 2 oz.
Lavender flowers, 112 " 30 to 32 oz.
Myrtle leaves, 112 " 5 oz.
Patchouly herb, 112 " 28 oz.
Province rose blossom, 112 " 1-1/2 to 2 drachms.
Rhodium-wood, 112 " 3 to 4 oz.
Santal-wood, 112 " 30 oz.
Vitivert or kus-kus-root, 112 " 15 oz.
* * * * *
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
FRENCH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES COMPARED WITH ENGLISH.
_____________________________________________________________
| |Imperial | |Troy |Kilo- |Lbs. |
|Litres. |Gallons. |Grammes. |Grains. |grammes. |Avoird. |
| 1, | 0.22010 | 1, | 15.434 | 1, | 2.20486 |
| 2, | 0.44019 | 2, | 30.868 | 2, | 4.40971 |
| 3, | 0.66029 | 3, | 46.302 | 3, | 6.61457 |
| 4, | 0.88039 | 4, | 61.736 | 4, | 8.81943 |
| 5, | 1.10048 | 5, | 77.170 | 5, | 11.02429 |
| 6, | 1.32058 | 6, | 92.604 | 6, | 13.22914 |
| 7, | 1.54068 | 7, | 108.038 | 7, | 15.43400 |
| 8, | 1.76077 | 8, | 123.472 | 8, | 17.63886 |
| 9, | 1.98087 | 9, | 138.906 | 9, | 19.84371 |
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ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES COMPARED WITH FRENCH.
_____________________________________________________________
|Imp. | |Troy | |Lbs. |Kilo- |
|Gallons. |Litres. |Grains. |Grammes. |Avoird. |grammes. |
| 1, | 4.54346 | 1, | 0.06479 | 1, | 0.45354 |
| 2, | 9.08692 | 2, | 0.12958 | 2, | 0.90709 |
| 3, | 13.63038 | 3, | 0.19438 | 3, | 1.36063 |
| 4, | 18.17384 | 4, | 0.25917 | 4, | 1.81418 |
| 5, | 22.71730 | 5, | 0.32396 | 5, | 2.26772 |
| 6, | 27.26076 | 6, | 0.38875 | 6, | 2.72126 |
| 7, | 31.80422 | 7, | 0.45354 | 7, | 3.17481 |
| 8, | 36.34768 | 8, | 0.51834 | 8, | 3.62835 |
| 9, | 40.89114 | 9, | 0.58313 | 9, | 4.08190 |
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FOOTNOTES:
[A] Brother of the Author.
[B] See Appendix, "Benzoic Acid."
[C] See "Incense."
[D] The duty on eau de Cologne is now, according to the last tariff,
8_d._ per flacon of 4 oz., or 20_s._ per gallon.
[E] Simple syrup consists of 3 lbs. of loaf sugar, boiled for a minute
in one pint, imperial, of distilled water.
[F] The imperial measure only is recognized among perfumers.
[G] Annals of Pharmacy, vol. ii, pp. 168, 169.
[H] The deposit is nearly insoluble in water, is acid and astringent to
the taste, gives an acid reaction with litmus. Spirit of wine dissolves
out a small portion, which, on evaporation, leaves a thick oleo-resinous
substance, having a rancid smell. Ether leaves a pleasant-smelling
resin, somewhat resembling camphor. The remainder is nearly insoluble in
liq. ammoniæ, liq. potassæ, more soluble in nitric acid, and well
deserves to be further examined.
[I] Qy. Confectionery?
[J] Qy. Confectioners?
[K] Confectionery.
[L] The writer means ether!
[M] See "Almond."
[N] No. 49.
[O] If our Correspondent had carefully read the article he so fiercely
attacks, he would have seen that the authorities were Dr. Lyon
Playfair's Lecture, and Professsor Fehling, in the "Wurtemberg Journal
of Industry."--ED.
[P] No. 50.
[Q] No. 52.
End of Project Gutenberg's The Art of Perfumery, by G. W. Septimus Piesse