[135] The works in which this subject has been already treated are the
following:--Eberhartus de Weihe, de Speculi origine, usu et abusu.
A compilation formed without taste, of which I gave some account
in the Article on Chimneys.--Spanhemii Obs. in Callimachi hymn.
lavacr. Palladis, p. 615.--Académie des Inscriptions, t. xxiii. p.
140.--Recherches sur les Miroirs des Anciens, par Menard. A short
paper, barren of information.--Saggi di Dissertazioni Accad. dell’
Accad. Etrusca dell’ città di Cortona, vii. p. 19: Sopra gli Specchi
degli Antichi, del Sig. Cari. A translation from the French, with
the figures of some ancient mirrors. It contains an explanation of
some passages in Pliny, where he seems to speak of a mirror formed
of a ruby, and some conjectures respecting the mirror of Nero. An
anonymous member of the Academy, in an appendix, confirms the former,
and considers the latter, very properly, as improbable.--Caylus,
Recueil d’Antiquités, iii. p. 331, and v. p. 173. A description and
figures of ancient mirrors, with some chemical experiments on their
composition.--Amusemens Philosophiques. Par le père Bonaventure Abat.
Amst. 1763, 8vo, p. 433: Sur l’Antiquité des Mirroirs de Verre.
A dissertation worthy of being read on account of the author’s
acquaintance with the ancient writers, and his knowledge of technology;
but he roves beyond all proof, and employs too much verbosity to
decorate his conjectures.
[136] Passages of the poets, where female deities and shepherdesses are
represented as contemplating themselves in water instead of a mirror,
may be found in the notes to Phædri Fab. i. 4, in the edition of
Burmann.
[137] Chap. xxxvii. ver. 18.
[138] Exodus, chap. xxxviii. ver. 8.
[139] Historia Vitri apud Judæos, in Comment. Societat. Scient.
Gotting. iv. p. 330. Having requested Professor Tychsen’s opinion on
this subject, I received the following answer:--“You have conjectured
very properly that the mirrors of the Israelitish women, mentioned
Exod. xxxviii. 8, were not employed for ornamenting or covering the
washing-basins, in order that the priests might behold themselves in
them; but that they were melted and basins cast of them. The former
was a conceit first advanced, if I am not mistaken, by Nicol. de Lyra,
in the fourteenth century, and which Michaelis himself adopted in
the year 1754; but he afterwards retracted his opinion when he made
his translation of the Old Testament at a riper age. In the Hebrew
expression there is no ground for it; and mirrors could hardly be
placed very conveniently in a basin employed for washing the feet.
I must at the same time confess that the word (מראת) which is here
supposed to signify a mirror, occurs nowhere else in that sense.
Another explanation therefore has been given, by which both the women
and mirrors disappear from the passage. It is by a learned Fleming,
Hermann Gid. Clement, and may be found in his Dissertatio de Labro
Æneo, Groning. 1732, and also in Ugolini Thesaurus, tom. xix. p. 1505.
He translates the passage thus: Fecit labrum æneum et operculum ejus
æneum cum _figuris ornantibus_, quæ ornabant ostium tabernaculi. This
explanation however is attended with very great difficulties; and as
all the old translators and Jewish commentators have here understood
mirrors; and as the common translation is perfectly agreeable to the
language and circumstances, we ought to believe that Moses, not having
copper, melted down the mirrors of his countrywomen and converted them
into washing-basins for the priests.”
[140] Oneirocrit. lib. iii. cap. 30. p. 176.
[141] Joh. Sarisberiensis, i. cap. 12.
[142] Plin. lib. xxxiii. cap. 9. Seneca, Quæst. Nat. i. cap. 5.
[143] Vita Probi, cap. iv. p. 926: “Patinam argenteam librarum decem
specillatam.” Salmasius chooses rather to read _specellatam_. I am
inclined to think that this word ought to be read in Suetonius instead
of _speculatum_, where he speaks of an apartment which Horace seems to
have been fond of. That historian, in his Life of Horace, says, “Ad
res venereas intemperantior traditur: nam _speculato_ cubiculo scorta
dicitur habuisse disposita, ut quocunque respexisset, ibi ei imago
coitus referretur.” Lessing, who in his Miscellanies (Vermischten
Schriften, Berlin 1784, 12mo, iii. p. 205) endeavours to vindicate
the poet from this aspersion, considers the expression _speculatum
cubiculum_, if translated _an apartment lined with mirrors_, as
contrary to the Latin idiom, and thinks therefore that the whole
passage is a forgery. Baxter also before said that this anecdote had
been inserted by some malicious impostor. This I will not venture to
contradict, but I am of opinion that _specillatum_ or _specellatum
cubiculum_ is at any rate as much agreeable to the Roman idiom as
_patina specillata_. This expression Salmasius and Casaubon have
justified by similar phrases, such as _opera filicata_, _tesselata_,
_hederata_, &c. The chamber in which Claudian makes Venus ornament
herself, and be overcome by the persuasion of Cupid, was also covered
over with mirrors, so that whichever way her eyes turned, she could
see her own image. Did Claudian imagine that this goddess knew how to
employ such an apartment, not only for dressing, but even after she was
undressed, as well as Horace? I have seen at a certain court, a bed
entirely covered in the inside with mirrors.
[144] Iliad. lib. xiv. ver. 166.
[145] Hymnus in Lavacrum Palladis, v. 15, 21. It was however customary
to ascribe a mirror to Juno, as Spanheim on this passage proves; and
Athanasius, in Orat. contra Gentes, cap. xviii. p. 18, says that she
was considered as the inventress of dress and all ornaments. Should
not therefore the mirror, the principal instrument of dress, belong to
her? May it not have been denied to her by Callimachus, because he did
not find it mentioned in the description which Homer has given of her
dressing-room?
[146] De Natur. Deorum, iii. 22.
[147] Licetus de Lucernis Antiq. lib. vi. cap. 92.
[148] Lib. xxxiv. cap. 17, p. 669.
[149] Quæst. Nat. at the end of the first book.
[150] Mostell. act i. sc. 3. v. 101.
[151] Arrianus in Epictet. i. cap. 20, p. 79.
[152] Among the remaining passages of the ancients with which I am
acquainted, in which mention is made of silver mirrors, the following
deserves notice. Chrysostom, Serm. xvii. p. 224, who, in drawing a
picture of the extravagance of the women, says, “The maid-servants
must be continually importuning the silversmith to know whether
their lady’s mirror be yet ready.” The best mirrors therefore were
made by the silversmiths. It appears that the mirror-makers at Rome
formed a particular company; at least Muratori, in Thesaur. Inscript.
Clas. vii. p. 529, has made known an inscription in which _collegium
speculariorum_ is mentioned. They occur also in Codex Theodos. xiii.
tit. 4, 2. p. 57, where Ritter has quoted more passages in which they
may be found. But perhaps the same name was given to those who covered
walls with polished stones, and in latter times to glaziers.
[153] Lib. xxxiii. c. 9. p. 627, and lib. xxxiv. c. 17, p. 669.
[154] Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxvii. p. 296.
[155] Quomodo Historia sit conscrib. cap. 51, Bipont edition, iv. p.
210, 535. Commentators have found no other way to explain κέντρον (a
word which occurs in Lucian’s description of the mirror), than by the
word _centre_, to which, according to their own account, there can be
here no allusion. In my opinion κέντρον signifies those faulty places
which are not capable of a complete polish, on account of the knots or
cracks which are found in them. Lucian therefore speaks of a faultless
mirror which represents the image perfect, as he afterwards informs us.
[156] As the account of these experiments is given only in an expensive
work, which may not often fall into the hands of those who are best
able to examine it, I insert it here. “The ancient mirror, which I
examined, was a metallic mixture, very tender and brittle, and of a
whitish colour inclining to grey. When put into the fire, it remained
a long time in a state of ignition before it melted. It was neither
inflammable nor emitted any smell like garlic, which would have been
the case had it contained arsenic. It did not either produce those
flowers which are generally produced by all mixtures in which there is
zinc. Besides, the basis of this mixture being copper, it would have
been of a yellow colour had that semi-metal formed a part of it. I took
two drams of it and dissolved them in the nitrous acid. A solution was
speedily formed, which assumed the same colour as solutions of copper.
It precipitated a white powder, which I carefully edulcorated and
dried. Having put it into a crucible with a reductive flux, I obtained
lead very soft and malleable.
“Having filtered the solution, I took a part of it, upon which I poured
an infusion of gall-nuts, but it produced no change. A solution of
gold, which I poured upon another part, made it assume a beautiful
green colour; but no precipitate was formed: which is sufficient to
prove that there was neither iron nor tin in the mixture.
“On the remaining part of the solution I poured a sufficient quantity
of the volatile alkali to dissolve all the copper that might be
contained in it. The solution became of a beautiful sapphire blue
colour, and a white precipitate was formed. Having decanted the liquor,
and carefully edulcorated the precipitate, I endeavoured to reduce
it; but whether it was owing to the quantity being too small, or to
my not giving it sufficient heat, I could not succeed. I had recourse
therefore to another method.
“I took the weight of two drams of the mixture, which I brought to
a high state of ignition in a cuppel. When it was of a whitish-red
colour, I threw upon it gradually four drams of sulphur, and when the
flame ceased, I strengthened the fire in order to bring it to complete
fusion. By these means I obtained a tender brittle regulus, whiter
than the mixture, in which I observed a few small needles. Being
apprehensive that some copper might still remain, I sulphurated it a
second time, and then obtained a small regulus which was almost pure
antimony.
“It results from these experiments, that the metal of which the
ancients made their mirrors was a composition of copper, regulus of
antimony, and lead. Copper was the predominant, and lead the smallest
part of the mixture; but it is very difficult, as is well known, to
determine with any certainty the exact proportion of the substances
contained in such compositions.”
[In the examination of an Etruscan mirror, which was placed in my hands
for analysis by Professor Gerhardt of Berlin, it was found to consist,
in 100 parts, of 67·12 copper, 24·93 tin, and 8·13 lead, approximating
closely to an alloy of eight parts of copper to three of tin and one of
lead. The oxide of tin obtained in the course of analysis was carefully
examined, before the blowpipe, for antimony, but I did not succeed in
detecting a trace of that metal. A similar mirror had been likewise
analysed by Klaproth; he found 62 per cent. copper, 32 tin, and 6 per
cent. lead, but no trace of antimony.--W. F.]
[157] Of such large mirrors Seneca speaks in his Quæst. Nat. lib. i.
Of the like kind was the mirror of Demosthenes mentioned by Plutarch,
Lucian, and Quintilian.--Institut. Orat. xi. 3, 68, p. 572.
[158] Lib. xxxvi. c. 26, p. 758.
[159] Sueton. in Vita Domit. cap. xiv. p. 334.
[160] Lib. xxxvi. 22, p. 752.--“Cappadociæ lapis, duritia marmoris,
candidus atque translucidus, ex quo quondam templum constructum
est a quodam rege, foribus aureis, quibus clausis claritas diurna
erat.”--Isidor. Origin. 16, 4. Our spar is transparent, though clouds
and veins occur in it, like the violet and isabella-coloured, for
example, of that found at Andreasberg. Compare this explanation with
what Salmasius says in Exercitat. Plin. p. 184.
[161] Lib. xxxvii. cap. 5, p. 774.
[162] Lib. xi. cap. 37, p. 617.
[163] This dissertation of Abat may be found translated in Neuen
Hamburg. Magazin. i. p. 568.
[164] Academia di Cortona, vii. p. 34.
[165] Origin. xvi. 7.
[166] Goguet, ii. p. 111. Fabricii Biblioth. Græca. vol. i. p. 70.
[167] Keyssler, i. pp. 17 and 441.
[168] Lib. xxxvii. cap. 7.
[169] De Lapid. § 61.
[170] [This stone acquired its name from its being much used in
ornaments by the Incas or Princes of Peru.]
[171] De la Vega, ii. 28.
[172] Montamy in Abhandlung von den Farben zum Porzellan, Leipzig,
1767, 8vo, p. 222, asserts that he saw, in a collection of antiquities,
glass mirrors which were covered behind only with a black foil.
[173] Lib. xxxvi. cap. 26, p. 758.
[174] Lib. xxxiii. cap. 9, p. 627.
[175] Trebell. Pollio, Vita Gallien. cap. 12.
[176] Chemical Essays, vol. iv. p. 246.
[177] Plin. lib. xxxiii.: Æs inaurari argento vivo, aut certe
hydrargyro, legitimum erat. The first name here seems to signify
native quicksilver, and the second that separated from the ore by an
artificial process.
[178] Hist. Nat. Supplem. i. p. 451.
[179] Stob. Eclog. Antv. 1575, fol. p. 56.
[180] De Placitis Philos. ii. cap. 20.
[181] In Aratum, cap. 19.
[182] Lib. i. cap. 8.
[183] It is undoubtedly certain, that ὕαλος, which is translated
_vitreous_ or _glassy_, means any smooth polished body capable of
reflecting rays of light. Originally it signified a watery body; and
because watery bodies have a lustre, it was at length used for glass.
See Salmas. ad Solin. p. 771.
[184] More observations respecting the opinion of Philolaus may be
found in the edition of Plutarch’s work De Placitis Philosophorum by
Ed. Corsinus, Flor. 1750, 4to, p. 61, and p. 23.
[185] Professor Heeren having given me his opinion on this passage of
Stobæus, I shall here insert it for the satisfaction of the learned
reader. The critics, says he, will hardly be persuaded that the words
καὶ τὸ ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ πυροειδὲς κατὰ τὸ ἐσοπτροειδὲς are correct, as they
can be translated different ways. With regard to the explanation of
the matter, I build only on the plain meaning of the words. The author
tells us, that Philolaus thought the sun to be a mirror; but we must
conclude that he speaks of a mirror such as were then in use; a smooth
plate of metal, and not a globe. In this case the first explanation of
a glass globe falls to the ground. This is confirmed by Eusebius, who
calls it ὑαλοειδὴς δίσκος, though it is possible that the latter word
may be a gloss added by some grammarian, or by Eusebius himself. If
we enter further into the explanation, we must adopt the plain idea,
that the rays of the sun fall upon this plate, and are reflected to us.
I am however of opinion, that ὕαλος ought to be translated _glass_,
ὑαλοειδὴς _glassy_ or _vitreous_; for the intention of Philolaus
evidently was to define the substance of the sun’s body. The result of
the whole is, Philolaus considered the sun as a plain plate of glass
which reflected the rays or brightness of the æthereal fire. But that
he was acquainted with a proper glass mirror does not thence follow
with certainty.
[186] Pourquoy reluient les fenestres de verre si fort? Pourtant que
la nature de l’estain, duquel elles sont basties par dedans, fort
clere, meslée avec le verre cler aussi de lui mesme reluyst d’avantage;
et le quel estain outrepassant ses raïons par les petits pores du
verre, et augmentant doublement la face extérieure du dit verre, la
rend grandement clere.--Problemes d’Alexandre Aphrod., traduit par M.
Herret. Paris 1555, 8vo, p. 50.
[187] Origin. lib. xvi. 15, p. 394.
[188] Origin. lib. xvi. 18, p. 396.
[189] Lib. xxxvi. cap. 26, p. 759.
[190] Bayle, Diction. Histor. vol. iv. p. 462.
[191] Printed at Leipzig, 1504, in small folio. There is an edition
also printed at Cologne in 1624, and Fabricius quotes a Venetian
edition. Pisanus seems to have been a by-name given by some one to
Peckham.
[192] Specul. Natur. ii. 78, p. 129.
[193] Ars Magna, cap. lxvii. p. 517, in Lullii Opera. Argent. 1607, 8vo.
[194] Opus Majus, ed. Jebb. Lond. 1733, fol. p. 346.
[195] Franc. Assisiatis et Ant. Paduani Opera. Lugd. 1653, fol.
[196] Nicephori Schol. in Synesium, in Synesii Op. Par. 1612, fol. p.
419.
[197] In the collection of antiquities at St. Denis, an ancient mirror
was shown, which was said to have belonged to Virgil. It was oval, and
before Mabillon let it fall, was fourteen inches in length and twelve
in breadth, and weighed thirty pounds. It is transparent, and of a
brownish-yellow colour. According to experiments made on purpose, it
was found to consist of artificial glass, mixed with a considerable
portion of lead; and as it had been preserved in the above collection
from the earliest periods, the practice of adding lead to glass must be
very old. But whether this mirror was covered at the back, and how it
was covered, though these are the most important points, I find nowhere
mentioned. In the collection of the Grand Duke of Tuscany there is a
piece of the same kind, said also to have been the mirror of Virgil.
See Le Veil, Kunst auf Glas zu malen, Nurnb. 1779, 4to, p. 23, and
Hist. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1737, p. 412.
[198] Villaret, Hist. de France. Par. 1763, xi. p. 142.
[199] In Miscellanea Berolinensia, i. p. 263; but nothing further
is said respecting the art, than that it was daily used in the
glass-houses. Had I an opportunity, I should make experiments of every
kind in order to discover a method of forming plane mirrors also in the
like manner.
[200] Wecker, in his book De Secretis, lib. x. p. 572, seems to say,
that one must lay the saturated tin leaf so carefully on the glass
plate, that no air can settle between them. According to Garzoni, the
tin leaf is spread out on a smooth stone table, and after it has been
rubbed over with quicksilver, the glass is placed above it.
[201] Tome iii. p. 87, art. _Glace_.
[202] Dict. Géog. de la France. Amst. 1762, fol. v. pp. 415, 672.
[203] A furnace for casting large glass plates, before it is fit to be
set at work, cost, it is said, 3500_l._ It seldom lasts above three
years, and even in that time it must be repaired every six months. It
takes six months to rebuild it, and three months to repair it. The
melting-pots are as big as large hogsheads, and contain above 200 cwt.
of metal. If one of them burst in the furnace, the loss of the matter
and time amounts to 250_l._--TRANS.