-----------+----------------------------_The book of ice-cream

| |

| REAGENTS TO ADD, AND HOW TO SHAKE, FIRST EXTRACTION |

_Product +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Fresh |No water |1.5 c.c. |10 c.c. |Add 25 |Add 25 |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Skim- | „ |1.5 c.c. |Shake very| „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Whey_ | „ |1.5 c.c. | „ | „ | „ |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Butter- | „ |1.5 c.c. | „ | „ | „ |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Evaporated|Use 4 c.c. | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Bulk un- | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Bulk, |7 c.c. |1.5 c.c. |10 c.c. | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Sweetened |8 c.c. hot |1.5 c.c. | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Ice-cream |6 c.c. | „ | „ | „ | „ |

mix_ |Shake | | | | |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Cream |6 c.c. |1.5 c.c. |10 c.c. |Add 25 |Add 25 |

testing |Shake |Use 3.0 |Shake half|c.c. |c.c. |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Cream |8 c.c. | „ | „ | „ | „ |

25% b. f._ | | | | | |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Malted |10 c.c. |1.5 c.c. | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Milk | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Cocoa_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Cheese_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Butter_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Skimmed- |8.5 c.c. |1.5 c.c. |10 c.c. | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Whole-milk| „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

-----------+----------+----------------------------+----------+

| |SHAKE—SECOND EXTRACTION—Use | |

| |no ammonia, add water after | |

| |centrifuging as indicated. A| |

| |few drops of phenolphthalein| |

| |indicator will make a much | |

| |more distinct dividing line.| |

_Product |How long +---------+-------+----------+How long |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Fresh |30 turns |5 c.c. |15 c.c.|15 c.c. |30 turns |

| |sec. |20 sec.|sec. | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Skim- | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Whey_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Butter- | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Evaporated| „ | „ |25 c.c.|25 c.c. | „ |

| | |20 sec.|20 sec. | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Bulk un- | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Bulk, | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Sweetened |60 turns | „ | „ | „ |60 turns |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Ice-cream |30 turns | „ | „ | „ |30 turns |

mix_ | | | | | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Cream |30 turns |5 c.c. |25 c.c.|25 c.c. |30 turns |

less than | |sec. |20 sec.|sec. | |

25% b. f._ | | | | | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Cream | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

25% b. f._ | | | | | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Malted | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Milk | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Cocoa_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Cheese_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Butter_ | „ | „ | „ | „ | „ |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Skimmed- | „ | „ |15 c.c.|15 c.c. | „ |

powder_ | | |20 sec.|sec.| | |

| | | | | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

_Whole-milk| „ | „ |25 c.c.|25 c.c. | „ |

| | |20 sec.|sec. | |

-----------+----------+---------+-------+----------+----------+

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

| | || | | |

| |How long|| | | |How long

| |to keep || |Size of |Amount |to keep

|How to |sample ||How to |sample |of water |sample

_Product |raise |in ||weigh |to take |to add to|in

to be |dividing |oven and||solid |for |sample |oven and

tested_ |line |cooler ||sample |solids |in dish |cooler

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Fresh |If |5 min. ||Use cross|2 grams |none |10 min.

milk_ |necessary|in oven ||and 2 | | |in oven

|to raise |at ||gram | | |at

|dividing |135° C. ||pipette, | | |100° C.

|line, add|7 min. ||or | | |5 min.

|the |in ||pipette | | |in

|necessary|cooler ||about 2 | | |cooler

|distilled|at room ||grams | | |at room

|water |temp. ||directly | | |temp.

|just | ||into dish| | |

|before | ||upon | | |

|pouring | ||balance | | |

|off | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Skim- | „ | „ ++ „ | „ | „ | „

milk_ | | || | | |

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Whey_ | „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Butter- | „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

milk_ | | || | | |

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Evaporated| „ | „ ||Use cross|1 gram |1 c.c. | „

milk_ | | ||and 1 | | |

| | ||gram | | |

| | ||pipette, | | |

| | ||or | | |

| | ||pipette | | |

| | ||about 1 | | |

| | ||gram | | |

| | ||directly | | |

| | ||into dish| | |

| | ||upon | | |

| | ||balance | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Bulk un- | „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

sweetened | | || | | |

condensed | | || | | |

milk_ | | || | | |

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Bulk, | „ | „ ||Use cross|50 gram |2 c.c. | „

extra heavy| | ||and 5 | | |

unsweetened| | ||gram | | |

condensed | | ||pipette, | | |

milk_ | | ||or | | |

| | ||pipette | | |

| | ||about 5 | | |

| | ||grams | | |

| | ||directly | | |

| | ||into dish| | |

| | ||upon | | |

| | ||balance | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Sweetened | „ | „ ||Use cross|.25 gram| „ |90 min.

condensed | | ||and | | |in oven

milk_ | | ||pipette, | | |at 100°

| | ||or | | |C., or 20

| | ||pipette | | |min. and

| | ||about | | |deduct

| | ||quarter | | |.30% from

| | ||gram | | |total.

| | ||directly | | |5 min. in

| | ||into dish| | |cooler at

| | ||upon | | |room

| | ||balance | | |temp.

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Ice-cream | „ | „ ||Use cross|1 gram |1 c.c. |10 min.

mix_ | | ||and 1 | | |in oven

| | ||gram | | |at 100°

| | ||pipette, | | |C.

| | ||or | | |5 min. in

| | ||pipette | | |cooler at

| | ||about 1 | | |room

| | ||gram | | |temp.

| | ||directly | | |

| | ||into dish| | |

| | ||upon | | |

| | ||balance | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Cream |If |5 min. ||Use cross|1 gram |1 c.c. |10 min.

testing |necessary|in oven ||and 1 | | |in oven

less than |to raise |at 135° ||gram | | |at 100°

25% b. f._ |dividing |C. ||pipette, | | |C.

|line, add|7 min. ||or | | |5 min. in

|the |in ||pipette | | |cooler at

|necessary|cooler ||about 1 | | |room

|distilled|at room ||gram | | |temp.

|water |temp. ||directly | | |

|just | ||into dish| | |

|before | ||upon | | |

|pouring | ||balance | | |

|off | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Cream | „ | „ ||Use cross|.50 gram| „ | „

testing | | ||and 1 | | |

more than | | ||gram | | |

25% b. f._ | | ||pipette, | | |

| | ||or | | |

| | ||pipette | | |

| | ||about | | |

| | ||half gram| | |

| | ||directly | | |

| | ||into dish| | |

| | ||upon | | |

| | ||balance | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Malted | „ | „ ||Weigh |.30 gram|2 c.c. |20 min.

Milk_ | | ||sample | | |in oven

| | ||directly | | |at 100°

| | ||into dish| | |C.

| | ||upon | | |5 min. in

| | ||balance | | |cooler at

| | || | | |room

| | || | | |temp.

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Milk | „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

chocolate_ | | || | | |

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Cocoa_ | „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Cheese_ | „ | „ || „ |.50 gram|1.5 c.c. | „

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Butter_ | „ | „ || „ |1 gram |none |7 min. in

| | || | | |oven at

| | || | | |100° C.

| | || | | |5 min. in

| | || | | |cooler at

| | || | | |room

| | || | | |temp.

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Skimmed- | „ | „ || „ |.30 gram|3 c.c. |10 min.

milk | | || | | |in oven

powder_ | | || | | |at 100°

| | || | | |C.

| | || | | |5 min. in

| | || | | |cooler at

| | || | | |room

| | || | | |temp.

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

_Whole-milk| „ | „ || „ | „ | „ | „

powder_ | | || | | |

| | || | | |

-----------+---------+--------++---------+--------+---------+---------

=185. Savings and economies.=--By using the Mojonnier over-run tester

intelligently, the operator can insure the management an even uniform

product from day to day, at an economical cost. Many plants have

increased their over-run test, and at the same time turned out a more

satisfactory product.

Success depends on how carefully and consistently the tester is

operated. The operator can soon make himself very valuable to the

management of the ice-cream factory. The tester removes guess-work from

the freezer-room practice and places it on a scientific basis.

CHAPTER XV

_MARKETING AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT_

The question of a market for the product is most vital. If the

ice-cream is manufactured and a market cannot be found, the business is

a failure. This is more especially true with ice-cream than the other

dairy products since practically no middle-men or commission merchants

will handle it. Another vital question is the cost of marketing; if too

high, the apparent profits of manufacture may be required to meet this

cost and again the business is a failure.

=186. Demand for ice-cream.=--The growing demand for ice-cream is

indicated by the figures in Chapter XVII. The question might naturally

be asked why this demand is increasing. There are three possible

answers to this. The consumer in the past regarded ice-cream as a

delicacy to be indulged in only on special occasions. Now the food

value is recognized and it is being consumed in large quantities as a

food.

In the past it was often difficult to secure ice-cream in a

satisfactory condition. This was due to a poor delivery system and a

lack of knowledge regarding the handling. At present, however, these

difficulties have been overcome largely.

In the hot summer weather, persons like to eat or drink some substance

which is pleasing to the taste and at the same time has a cooling

effect on the body; and no dish can replace ice-cream for this purpose.

This condition, namely, the demand for ice-cream in summer and the

lack of it in winter, is a matter of great concern to the manufacturer.

It gives him an unequal distribution of his business throughout the

year. This is a decided disadvantage for several reasons: 1. It is

hard to secure satisfactory help for a short period of time; 2. It is

difficult to obtain milk products in sufficient quantities only for the

hot weather; 3. It requires a large investment in equipment which is

used only a part of the year. The usual result is that the ice-cream

manufacturer is forced to pay a higher price for his milk products, if

he takes them only during the summer. On the other hand, if the milk

products are purchased by the year, a profit is realized during the

period of large demand and the balance of the year they are handled in

some other way with a view of breaking even or reducing the loss as

much as possible. In order to be sure of help for the rush season, it

is usually necessary to keep at least a part of the necessary summer

force during the slack season. They can be employed in cleaning the

plant and making the necessary repairs for the next rush season.

The creating of a market for ice-cream in the winter is an unsolved

problem. It has been overcome partially in some plants by making fancy

or special ice-creams. They usually require more labor and hence sell

at a higher price and are in demand for various society functions which

are more common in the winter.

=187. Food value of ice-cream.=--Up to the present no investigations

have been made dealing with the food value or healthfulness of

ice-cream. It would seem that the previous statements about the food

value of milk, cream, and butter would apply to ice-cream. Miss

Rose[50] gives the following summary regarding the value of milk as a

food:

[50] Rose, Flora, “Milk a cheap food,” Cornell Reading Course, Lesson

III, 1917.

“With all the evidence in, no food bears the investigation of nutritive

properties better than does milk. It is impossible to escape the

conviction that not only is it a cheap food, but it is one whose value

can hardly be estimated in terms of dollars and cents. It has been

pointed out that:

1. Although milk is not the cheapest source of energy that can be

bought, it is nevertheless an important source of energy, and the

energy-yielding substances, the protein, the milk-sugar, and the

milk-fat, have special value.

2. Milk is a cheap source of protein because the protein that it

contains is of a kind particularly valuable for building tissue.

3. Ordinarily milk is the cheapest and most valuable source of lime,

unless it is discovered that lime in water can take the place of lime

in milk.

4. Milk is a valuable and cheap source of phosphorus.

5. Milk is deficient in iron, but the iron that it contains is

particularly well utilized by the body.

6. Milk is the most important of the three foods, milk, eggs, and

meat, which are the chief sources of a factor in foods that is soluble

in fat, that is essential to growth and health, and that is called

“fat-soluble A.”

7. Milk is one of the most important sources of a factor in foods that

is soluble in water, that is essential to growth and health, and that

is called “water-soluble B.”

Jerome Alexander[51] shows the effect of gelatine on the digestibility

of milk products. The chief constituents of ice-cream are crystalloids;

that is, substances that can form crystals, whereas gelatine is a most

characteristic member of the group of non-crystallizing substances

known as colloids. Research has shown that colloids or hydrosols as

they are sometimes known may be divided into two classes or groups;

depending on the way they behave when they dry out. The first group

which includes those that can be redissolved after being dried, such as

gelatine, are called the reversible colloids or reversible hydrosols.

The second group, which includes those that cannot be redissolved

after drying, such as pure colloidal metals, oxides and the like,

are known as irreversible colloids or irreversible hydrosols. The

reversible colloids are not sensitive but will stand the addition of

most substances without coagulation. In the case of ice-cream, the

addition of gelatine tends to prevent the coagulation of casein, which

is an irreversible colloid and the important proteid or nitrogenous

constituent of cows’ milk. For this reason gelatine renders ice-cream

more readily digestible and therefore more healthful; as is well known,

milk is immediately coagulated on coming in contact with the acid

juices of the stomach. But in the presence of gelatine the casein is

either prevented from coagulating or if it does coagulate the clots or

curds are so fine grained that they dissolve very easily in the process

of digestion.

[51] Alexander, Jerome, “The beneficial effect of gelatine upon the

digestion of milk and cream,” “Ice-cream Trade Journal,” Vol. 5, No. 2.

The composition of ice-cream varies with the materials used. The

flavoring material affects the percentage composition. The following

are fair examples of the chemical composition of commercial vanilla

ice-cream containing different percentages of fat:

TABLE XIV

Composition of Ice-cream Containing Different Percentage of Fat

_Sample _Carbo-

Number_ _Fat_ _Protein_ hydrates_ _Water_ _Ash_

1 8.5 3.0 22.50 65.0 1.0

2 14.0 2.2 20.00 63.0 0.8

3 8.0 4.0 21.10 66.0 0.9

Ice-cream is often considered a possible source of ptomaine poison and

typhoid fever. If not properly handled and allowed to melt and then

returned and refrozen or made from poor materials, there may be danger

of disease. But under the sanitary condition of most of the plants,

especially the large ones, there is no more danger from ice-cream

poisoning than from any other class of food.

=188. Locating a market.=--Believing that there is a general demand for

ice-cream, the question naturally follows where is the most desirable

location or market. Because of the large number of consumers, the

city naturally offers the best market. If a large plant is planned,

the usual system is to wholesale the ice-cream to the retailer. If a

smaller plant is desired, the market may be a retail business only;

in this case it may be a hotel, drug-store, soda fountain or summer

resort. Several creameries are located on trunk lines of improved roads

and make ice-cream as a side line, catering entirely to automobile

parties.

=189. Method of delivery.=--For the retailer the question of delivery

is very simple, but for the wholesaler it is a very perplexing problem.

There are three ways by which the wholesaler may make delivery: by

express, automobile truck, wagons and horses.

If the plant is in a large city, the ice-cream may be shipped by

express to retailers in the surrounding small towns. The distance

that shipments can be made by express depends on the facilities of the

railroad. If on a main line with fast trains, shipments may be sent

300-500 miles. Ice-cream should not be shipped so far that it will

soften before it reaches the retailer.

In the city, the manufacturer must decide which is the more economical,

to use horses and wagons or automobiles. Each has its advantages and

disadvantages, some of which are as follows:

Advantage of automobile truck:

1. Can make quicker delivery than horses and wagon.

2. Can carry larger load.

Disadvantage of automobile truck:

1. Large initial cost.

2. Requires higher salaried person to operate it than to drive horses.

3. Cannot be used year round in some snowy localities.

4. Engine may be left running while making delivery. This is

expensive.

5. Large loss in case of accident.

Advantage of horses and wagons:

1. Can be used year around.

2. Easy to get person to drive horses.

3. Not as expensive as large truck to purchase.

Disadvantages of horses and wagons:

1. Slower than automobile truck.

2. Liable to tire out in hot weather.

=190. Cost of delivery.=--This is so variable that even average figures

would be misleading. The cost of delivery should be based both on the

cost a gallon and the cost a load. These figures should be watched and

a reason found for a marked increase. Otherwise, the cost of delivery

may grow so that it will consume all profits. One of the large items is

the ice necessary to pack the ice-cream in the retailer’s cabinets.

[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Ice-cream packing tubs.]

=191. Packages used for delivery.=--When drawn from the freezer, the

ice-cream is placed in pack-cans or brick molds. When delivery is made

to the retailer, the ice-cream is usually left in the pack-can. For

delivery by express or to the individual consumer, the can is packed in

a tub with ice and salt. The size of the tub varies with that of the

pack-can. (Fig. 77.) The small tubs usually have bails and the large

tubs handles on the side. For city delivery of wholesale ice-cream, the

wagon or auto truck (Fig. 78) is equipped with a cabinet and the cans

packed in these cabinets. This eliminates the heavy tubs. Ice and salt

are carried for packing the ice-cream in the retailer’s cabinet. Most

manufacturers furnish the retailer with a cabinet (Fig. 79) in which

the ice-cream is packed until retailed. These cabinets are usually

insulated. They are made in various sizes to hold one or several

pack-cans of ice-cream. In the cabinet is usually a form which fits

around each can so that it may be removed and another full one put in

without the ice caving in. This form has numerous holes in it so that

the cold air and brine can get to the pack-can. The cabinet is fitted

with a large cover in which are smaller openings and covers for each

can. These smaller openings are used when dipping the ice-cream.

[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Auto delivery truck for ice-cream.]

Before delivery to the consumer or the retailer, the brick ice-cream

is usually taken from the mold and wrapped in paper. This eliminates

the return of the metal form. These bricks may then be packed in ice

and salt or simply wrapped in additional paper, depending on how long

the ice-cream must be kept before it is to be consumed. Several paper

carriers have been devised, but they are not in general use.

The retailer makes his deliveries directly to the consumer, either to

be eaten immediately or carried home.

When delivery is made to be consumed immediately, the ice-cream is

dished with a measuring disher and placed in an individual dish. There

are a large number of styles of these dishers. (Fig. 80.) Each has some

sort of a knife or scraper to remove the ice-cream from the disher.

The size is expressed in the number that it takes to make a quart. The

disher is used as the measure whether the ice-cream is sold by the

dish, in the soda glass or cone. A large amount is sold in the latter.

There is no objection to the cone itself if it is made of pure harmless

materials. It is often sold from push carts and venders’ wagons, where

there is great opportunity for dirt to get into the ice-cream both

before and after it reaches the consumers’ hands.

[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Ice-cream cabinet with sides cut away showing

insulation and perforated cylinders in which the pack-cans of ice-cream

set.]

Another device through which a large amount of ice-cream is sold is

the ice-cream sandwich machine. This places a slice of brick ice-cream

between two wafers.

When the ice-cream is sold by the retailer to the consumer to be

carried away and consumed later, it is packed in a heavy manilla paper

pail. These vary in size from a pint to two quarts. If the ice-cream is

hard and the pail wrapped in paper, it may be held for an hour or more

before it begins to melt.

While the ice-cream may be made of high grade materials and under the

most sanitary conditions, many of the places where it is retailed are

not clean. The single-service paper plate and spoon are to be desired

in preference to the dish and silver-plated spoon which is rinsed off

in cold water. It is to the advantage of the manufacturer to see that

the places where his ice-cream is sold are kept in a clean sanitary

condition.

[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Different styles of ice-cream dishers.]

=192. Advertising.=--The manufacturer must keep the attention of the

public centered on his ice-cream. This can be done only by advertising.

There are several ways, but the best is to let the product advertise

itself. If an ice-cream appeals to the desires of the consumer and is

uniform, it will be in demand.

The newspapers may be employed also as an advertising medium. In

some localities the advertisement has appeared for so long in some

particular space in the paper that the consumer has become accustomed

to look there to learn what special ice-creams will be made for

holidays and Sundays.

The paid reading advertisement in the newspaper is a form commonly

used. This differs from the ordinary form in being printed the same

as any news item. It should not be too long and should be concise and

clear to the reader.

The society columns should be watched and an effort made to sell one’s

ice-cream at any large gathering. This is especially true of church

functions. The person in charge may be communicated with either by

telephone or a neat attractive letter. Extra effort should be made

to have the ice-cream of good quality. It may not be profitable to

furnish ice-cream at these functions, but if the advertising feature is

considered it will be very valuable.

The bill-board is another means of advertising and is very effective

in impressing the name of the ice-cream on the public. It is usually

expensive.

The results of advertising are ordinarily hard to measure exactly, but

it is a necessary part of the business. The value of advertising in

the winter, when there is not a large demand for ice-cream and many

specialties have to be manufactured, should not be overlooked. There

are many schemes for advertising, and which will be tried and which

rejected will have to be determined by the manufacturer. The underlying

principle is the same in all. They should be attractive; they should

state some fact about the ice-cream; the wording should be such as to

induce the reader to try a dish. The value of advertising is especially

difficult for a beginner to see. The amount of money that can or should

be used for advertising will have to be determined by several facts,

such as number of local newspapers, number of towns where ice-cream is

sold, amount of education necessary to create a demand.

Under no circumstances, in any advertisement or in any other way,

should a manufacturer run down the quality of his competitors’ products.

It is often desirable to have some short attractive expression to use

with the advertisement.

=193. Salesmen.=--In the large plants, salesmen are necessary to call

on the trade to sell the ice-cream and adjust any differences that

may arise. The kind of salesman has much to do with the success of

the business. He should be neat and clean in appearance; he must have

the faculty of getting along with people; he must have good business

ability and be able to make sales. It is not the first sale that counts

but the repeated orders that are necessary to put the business on a

firm foundation.

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

The success of a plant is not alone in being able to make ice-cream

of good quality, although this may be the major item. The business

management is very important. This consists of the buying, handling the

workmen, making the sales and in general keeping track of the financial

end of the plant. In many cases it is necessary to check up the losses.

=194. Purchase of raw material.=--All raw materials used in the

ice-cream should be purchased on the basis of their composition

rather than by quantity. For example, it is very poor business to buy

milk and cream for a certain price a quart or gallon regardless of

the percentage of fat contained. The percentage of fat in the milk

is largely influenced by the season of the year and the lactation

period. Even more variable is the percentage of fat in the cream, the

fat-content varying from the same creamery or same separator. Some of

the causes of variation in the test of cream are: 1. Adjustment of the

cream screw; 2. Richness of milk separated; 3. Amount of material used

to flush the bowl; 4. Speed of the separator; 5. Temperature of milk

when separated; 6. Rate of flow of the milk to the machine.

The composition of the other materials will vary the same as does the

milk and cream. Each shipment should be tested to make sure that it is

of the proper composition. This may take some time, but it pays in the

end.

=195. Price of dairy products.=--There is no market quotation for

any except the manufactured dairy products such as butter and

cheese. Ordinarily the price of milk and cream follows that of these

manufactured products very closely. The price of butter and cheese

are quoted daily in New York City in the “Price Current” published by

the Urner Barry Company. From this the price of milk and cream can be

estimated. In some cases, the price of the fat in the cream is based on

the price of butter.

=196. Book-keeping system.=--A simple yet complete set of books should

be kept. A cost system seems best adapted and the most simple.

To obtain a cost system it is very essential that every penny should

be accounted for and charged to the account for which the expenditure

was made. The numerous accounts that will have to be maintained in

order to keep this system should be classified under the headings

of production costs and sales costs. In opening the accounts for

production cost, it is necessary that the following heads should be

carried:

1. Milk, cream, butter. Express should be added to the cost of the

above where any of the same is shipped.

2. Labor. Salaries for ice-cream maker, mixers, and helper. The

remaining help throughout the plant is carried under a different

heading which does not apply specifically to the production

department.

3. Supplies used. This account should be carried under several

different headings, as:

(a) Sugar

(b) Milk powder

(d) Gum

(e) Fruits

(f) Extracts

(g) Miscellaneous

4. Ice and salt (when ice and salt are used for the freezing of

the cream). But in case mechanical refrigeration is employed for

freezing and ice and salt for hardening, it should be charged to the

production cost; otherwise it should be figured into the sales cost

just the same as delivery or other expense.

5. Water and steam.

6. Sundry expense.

By keeping these accounts monthly, the production cost for every month

is computed for the year.

Sales cost should include:

1. Rent.

2. Salaries.

(a) Executive.

(b) Office.

(d) Delivery drivers.

(e) Labor. (Can-washers and such other help as is employed).

3. Advertising.

4. Ice (as used in packing for deliveries).

5. Miscellaneous expenses.

6. Taxes.

7. Insurance.

8. Bad debts.

9. Postage and stamps.

10. Trucks, or horse and wagon expense.

11. Traveling expense.

12. Telephone and telegraphic expenses.

13. Salt.

14. Depreciation.

15. Repairs and replacements.

16. Stationery.

17. Shrinkage.

18. Such other items of sales cost as you may see fit to carry under

separate headings.

Taking the number of gallons sold, it is an easy matter to divide

this into any one of the numerous accounts under either the head of

production or sales cost, which will give the cost a gallon of this

account and place the manager in a position to keep in touch with

every account as to the actual cost a gallon each month. By making

comparisons month after month, it will be easy to determine wherein the

costs are excessive.

=197. Shipping clerk.=--No ice-cream business is too small or too

large to have a shipping clerk. In a small plant, the shipping may

not require all one man’s time so that he may have other duties. The

shipping platform and office of the shipping clerk in a large ice-cream

plant is shown in Fig. 81. It is the duty of the shipping clerk to see

that the orders are properly put up and that they are delivered on

time. He must check the ice-cream to the drivers and see that each has

the correct amount of salt and ice. It is sometimes the custom of the

drivers to take extra ice and salt and sell it on the side. He must

also check back any ice-cream returned by the drivers. The position

of shipping clerk is one of the most important in the whole business

management.

[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Shipping platform and office of shipping clerk

in a large ice-cream plant.]

=198. Report blanks.=--Every person who has charge of any part of

the ice-cream business should make a report. By means of these daily

reports, any leaks or losses may be checked up. It also makes easy the

keeping track of the business. Forms for these reports are not included

because the demand in each plant would probably be different. The

receiving-room report should show the amount of milk and milk products

received and the percentage of fat in each and the total receipts.

The mixing-room report should indicate the amount of materials used.

The freezing-room report should show the number of freezers of

ice-cream made, the swell obtained in each and the total gallons. The

shipping-room report should tell the number of gallons shipped out.

The drivers’ report should show the amount of ice-cream received, the

amount returned and the amount sold, to whom sold, whether cash or

credit, and the cash and credit should equal the amount sold. These

reports may be combined more or less, depending on the size of the

plant. A loose-leaf or card system for filing in many cases would

reduce the office work.

=199. Losses.=--In any business there are more or less losses. These

are usually inversely in proportion to the efficiency of the business

management. In ice-cream marketing, certain leaks or losses are liable

to occur and these should receive special mention.

=200. Pack-cans and tubs.=--Undoubtedly there is no part of the

business that causes the manager more anxiety than the return of the

empty pack-cans and tubs. This is especially true when a considerable

part of the ice-cream is shipped by express. Many schemes have been

tried to return these tubs, such as paying the drivers a percentage

for the return of a certain number, charging the person to whom the

ice-cream was sold for the can and tub, hiring a special man to

look up the can and tub, and many others. The one commonly used by

manufacturers is to have a distinctive color on the tub, their name

and address and also a number. The shipping tags are made with a stub

that is perforated so that it can be detached easily. When the tag

is attached to the tub, the number is placed on both the tag and the

stub. The stub should contain date and name and address of the party

to whom shipped. It is often desirable to have the gallons and kind of

ice-cream shipped on both the stub and the tag. This stub is filed in

the office and when the tub is returned the tag is taken off and sent

in and the stub bearing the same tub number put with it, indicating

that tub has been returned. By looking at the stubs for which the

corresponding tags have not been returned, it can be seen readily to

whom, where, and when the tubs were shipped and what parties are not

returning the empties.

=201. Rusty pack-cans.=--Because of the salt that must be used to

harden the ice-cream, more or less gets on to the pack-cans and rusts

them, especially if they are not washed as soon as emptied. These rusty

cans may be retinned. Another satisfactory plan is to line the can with

heavy manilla paper. These liners may be purchased to fit any size

pack-can.

=202. Soft ice-cream.=--Often the top of the can of ice-cream will

become soft, due to the lack of salt and ice on top. Sufficient may

have been put on but it jarred off while handling. This loss can be

avoided by tying a piece of heavy paper or burlap over the top of the

can. Heavy canvas covers may be purchased.

Sometimes a large amount of refrigeration is lost by putting the

ice-cream into the hardening-room through the large door where persons

pass in and out. A small revolving door (Fig. 82) will reduce this

loss. There is a very rapid change of air when the hardening-room door

is opened. The greater the difference in temperature, the more rapid

the change. Soft ice-cream soon ruins the reputation of the business.

[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Revolving door used for putting the ice-cream

into the hardening-room.]

=203. Transferring.=--When drawn from the freezer, the ice-cream should

be put into the size pack-can in which it will be delivered to the

consumer or retailer. If it is necessary to transfer from one can to

another, there is a big loss in volume. This loss is probably caused by

squeezing the ice-cream into the other container, which closes the air

spaces.

When the ice-cream is handled in the retail store, a loss may be caused

by the heaping up of the dishes. Several scrapers or levelers have been

devised to insure a uniform sized dish. If the dishers are kept in

hot water, they will work much better in hard ice-cream. Some sort of

scraper, of which there are several on the market, should be used to

scrape the ice-cream from the sides of the can.

LAWS

Several laws apply to ice-cream. Some of these refer to the production

of the milk and the balance are standard of quality based on chemical

composition or standards for materials used.

=204. Sanitary conditions and adulterated milk and cream.=--Most of the

states have laws dealing with the sanitary conditions under which milk

and cream may be produced. The following law[52] of Wisconsin is a good

example:

[52] Dairy Laws of Wisconsin 1916, section 4607a.

“Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all prosecutions

under the preceding section, or any other section of these statutes, or

laws amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto, relating to the sale

of adulterated milk or adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk

shall mean: Milk containing less than three per centum of milk fat, or

milk containing less than eight and one-half per centum of milk solids

not fat, or milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four days

after parturition, or milk from which any part of the cream has been

removed, or milk which has been diluted with water or any other fluid,

or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any

coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy

substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or milk drawn from cows

kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any sick or

diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn

from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk in any stage of putrefaction,

or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or

other animals. The term adulterated cream shall mean containing less

than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken from milk drawn

from cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or

cream from milk to which has been added or introduced any coloring

matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance

or any foreign substance whatsoever, or cream from milk drawn from

cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or cream from milk

drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other

running sores, or cream from milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome

food, or cream contaminated by being kept in stable containing cattle

or other animals, or cream to which has been added or into which has

been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or

deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or

cream in any stage of putrefaction; provided, that nothing in this act

shall be construed to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or cream

to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added solely for the

purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the same be distinctly labeled

in such manner as to advise the purchaser of its true character; and

providing that nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting

the sale of milk commonly known as ‘skimmed milk,’ when the same is

sold as and for ‘skimmed milk.’ Milk drawn from cows within eight days

before or four days after parturition, or milk to which has been added

or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or

preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk drawn from

cows kept in a filthy or unclean condition, or milk drawn from any sick

or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk

drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being

kept in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream from any

such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction are hereby declared to

be unclean and unsanitary milk or unclean and unsanitary cream, as the

case may be.”

Most of the states have laws which determine the legal standard of

milk. Anyone selling milk which does not meet the legal standard is

liable to be fined. The laws of most states prohibit the taking of

anything from or the adding of anything to the milk. This prohibits

skimming and watering. Skim-milk must be sold as such.

=205. Babcock test.=--Some states have laws specifying that all

glassware used in the Babcock test shall be standardized. Standard

glassware shall bear a certain brand to identify it. This brand is

placed on it after being tested by the proper state official. Some of

the states have laws requiring the operator of the Babcock test to

procure a license.

=206. Purchasers or vender’s license.=--In some states a concern to

purchase milk or cream from the producer must have a license. This is

to prevent parties not financially responsible from buying milk and

later beating the producer. The license is given only on the filing of

a bond.

In some cities ice-cream cannot be sold without a license. This is for

the purpose of controlling sanitary conditions.

=207. Legal standards.=--Most states have legal standards for dairy

products. The standard for the different states is given in Table[53]

XV.

[53] Melvin, A. D., “Legal standards for dairy products,” A8, 1916.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY

A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau

LEGAL STANDARDS FOR DAIRY PRODUCTS

(_Revised to July 1, 1915_)

In the following statement, prepared in the Dairy Division of the

Bureau of Animal Industry, are given the standards for dairy products

as established in the several states, including Alaska, the District

of Columbia, Hawaii, the Philippines, and Porto Rico. In all cases,

unless otherwise expressed, the percentages stated represent minimum

standards.

The department publishes these figures as given by various state

authorities, but does not guarantee the correctness of the standards

given.

TABLE XV.--Legal Standards for Dairy Products.

TABLE XV--Legal Standards for Dairy Products--_Continued_.

--------------------+----------------------+--------+------+

| | | |

| | SKIM | |

| MILK | MILK | CREAM|

--------------------+-------+--------+-----+--------+------+

--------------------+-------+--------+-----+--------+------+

| Per| Per| Per| Per| Per|

| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.|

Alabama[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Alaska[55] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Arizona[56] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Arkansas[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

California | ...| 8.50| 3.00| 8.80| 18.0|

Colorado | ...| ...| 3.00| ...| 16.0|

Connecticut | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| ...| 16.0|

Delaware[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

District of Columbia| 12.50| 9.00| 3.50| 9.30| 20.0|

Florida | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Georgia | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Hawaii | 11.50| ...| 2.50| ...| 18.0|

Idaho | 11.20| 8.00| 3.20| 9.30| 18.0|

Illinois | ...| 8.50| 3.00| 9.25| 18.0|

Indiana | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Iowa | 12.00| ...| 3.00| ...| 16.0|

Kansas | ...| ...| 3.25| ...| 18.0|

Kentucky | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Louisiana | ...| 8.50| 3.50| 8.00|([60])|

Maine | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| ...| 18.0|

Maryland | 12.50| ...| 3.50| 9.25| 18.0|

Massachusetts | 12.15| ...| 3.35|[67]9.30| 15.0|

Michigan | 12.50| ...| 3.00| ...| 18.0|

Minnesota | 13.00| 9.75| 3.25| ...| 20.0|

Mississippi[60] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Missouri | 12.00| 8.75| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Montana | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| ...| 20.0|

Nebraska | ...| ...| 3.00| ...| 18.0|

New Hampshire | 12.00| ...| ...| 8.50| 18.0|

New Jersey | 11.50| ...| 3.00| 9.25| 16.0|

New Mexico[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Nevada | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

New York | 11.50| ...| 3.00| ...| 18.0|

North Carolina | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

North Dakota | 12.00| ...| 3.00| ...| 15.0|

Ohio | 12.00| ...| 3.00| ...| ...|

Oklahoma[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Oregon | 11.70| 8.50| 3.20| ...| 18.0|

Pennsylvania | 12.00| ...| 3.25| ([60])| 18.0|

Philippine Islands | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Porto Rico[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Rhode Island | 12.00| ...| 2.50| ...| ...|

South Carolina[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

South Dakota | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Tennessee | 12.00| 8.50| 3.50| 9.00| 20.0|

Texas | 12.00| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Utah | 12.00| 8.80| 3.20| ...| 18.0|

Vermont | 11.75| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Virginia | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

Washington | 12.00| 8.75| 3.25| 9.30| 18.0|

West Virginia[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Wisconsin | ...| 8.50| 3.00| 9.00| 18.0|

Wyoming[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

United States | ...| 8.50| 3.25| 9.25| 18.0|

See notes on page 269.

--------------------+-----------------------+-----------------+

| | |

| | CONDENSED MILK |

| BUTTER | (SWEETENED) |

--------------------+------+---------+------+-------+---------+

--------------------+------+---------+------+-------+---------+

| Per| Per| Per| Per| Per|

| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.|

Alabama[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Alaska[55] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Arizona[56] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Arkansas[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

California | 80.0| ...| ...| 24.5| 7.70|

Colorado | 80.0| 16.00| ...| 28.0| 7.70|

Connecticut |([60])| ([60])|([60])| 28.0|[57]31.00|

Delaware[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

District of Columbia| 83.0| 12.00| 5.00| ([61])| ([61])|

Florida | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0| 7.70|

Georgia | 82.5| 16.00| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

Hawaii | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Idaho | 82.5| 16.00| ...| 28.0|[57]27.60|

Illinois | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0| 7.70|

Indiana | 82.5| 16.00| ...| 34.3| 7.80|

Iowa | 80.0| ...| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

Kansas | 80.0| 16.00| ...| ...| ...|

Kentucky | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0|[57]27.66|

Louisiana |([60])| ([60])|([60])| ([60])| ([60])|

Maine | ...| ...| ...| 26.5|[57]29.50|

Maryland | ...| ...| ...| 34.3| 7.80|

Massachusetts | ...| ...| ...| ([68])| ([68])|

Michigan | 80.0| ...| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

Minnesota | ...| 16.00| ...| 28.0| 8.00|

Mississippi[60] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Missouri | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0|[57]27.67|

Montana | 82.5| 16.00| ...| ...| ...|

Nebraska | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

New Hampshire | 80.0| 16.00| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

New Jersey | 82.5| ...| ...| ...| ...|

New Mexico[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Nevada | 82.5| 16.00| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

New York | ...| ...| ...| ([72])| ([72])|

North Carolina | 82.5| ...| ...| 25.5| 7.80|

North Dakota |([60])| ([60])|([60])| ([60])| ([60])|

Ohio | ...| ...| ...| ([75])| ([75])|

Oklahoma[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Oregon | 80.0| 16.00| ...| ...| ...|

Pennsylvania |([60])| ([60])|([60])| ([60])| ([60])|

Philippine Islands | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

Porto Rico[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Rhode Island | 82.5| ...| ...| 25.0| 7.80|

South Carolina[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

South Dakota | 80.0| ...| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

Tennessee | 82.5| 15.99| ...| 25.5| 7.80|

Texas | 82.5| ...| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

Utah | 80.0| 16.00| ...| ([60])| ([60])|

Vermont | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

Virginia | 82.5| 16.00| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

Washington | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

West Virginia[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

Wisconsin | 82.5| ...| ...| 28.0| 8.00|

Wyoming[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|

United States | 82.5|[80]16.00| ...| 28.0|[57]27.50|

--------------------+-----------------+-------------+-------------

| | | ICE CREAM

| EVAPORATED MILK | ICE CREAM | (FRUIT

| (UNSWEETENED) | (PLAIN) | AND NUT)

--------------------+-------+---------+------+------+------+------

STATES |solids_| _Fat_| _Fat_| tine_| _Fat_| tine_

--------------------+-------+---------+------+------+------+------

| Per| Per| Per| Per| Per| Per

| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.| ct.

Alabama[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Alaska[55] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Arizona[56] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Arkansas[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

California | 25.5| 7.80| 10.0| 0.6| 8.0| 0.6

Colorado | ([59])| ([59])| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Connecticut | ([59])| ([59])| ...| ...| ...| ...

Delaware[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

District of Columbia| ([61])| ([61])| ...|([62])| ...|([62])

Florida | 24.0| 7.80| 12.0| ...| ...| ...

Georgia | ([60])| ([60])| 12.0| ...| 10.0| ...

Hawaii | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Idaho | ([60])| ([60])| 14.0|([63])| 12.0|([63])

Illinois | 25.5| 7.70| 8.0| ...| 8.0| ...

Indiana | 25.5| 7.80| 8.0| .7| 8.0| .7

Iowa | ([60])| ([60])| 12.0| 1.0| 10.0| 1.0

Kansas | ...| ...| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Kentucky | 28.0|[57]27.66| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Louisiana | ([60])| ([60])| 10.0| 1.0| 8.0| 1.0

Maine | 26.5|[57]29.50| 14.0|([66])| 12.0|([66])

Maryland | ...| ...| 4.0| ...| 6.0| ...

Massachusetts | ...| ...| 7.0| ...| 7.0| ...

Michigan | ([60])| ([60])| 10.0| .7| 8.0| .7

Minnesota | 25.5| 7.80| 12.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Mississippi[60] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Missouri | 28.0|[57]27.67| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Montana | ...| ...| 12.0| 1.0| 10.0| 1.0

Nebraska | ...| ...| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

New Hampshire | ([60])| ([60])| 14.0| .2| 14.0| .2

New Jersey | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

New Mexico[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Nevada | 25.5| 7.80| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

New York | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

North Carolina | 25.5| 7.80| 10.0| ...| 8.0| ...

North Dakota | ([60])| ([60])| 14.0|([73])| 12.0|([73])

Ohio | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Oklahoma[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Oregon | 32.3| 7.80| 12.0| 1.0| 9.0| 1.0

Pennsylvania | ([60])| ([60])| 8.0| .5| 6.0| .5

Philippine Islands | 25.5| 7.80| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Porto Rico[68] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Rhode Island | 25.0| 7.80| 8.0| 1.0| 8.0| 1.0

South Carolina[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

South Dakota | 28.0|[57]27.50| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Tennessee | 25.5| 7.80| 8.0| ...| 7.0| ...

Texas | ([60])| ([60])| 8.0| ...| 6.0| ...

Utah | ([60])| ([60])|([60])|([60])|([60])|([60])

Vermont | 34.3| 7.80| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Virginia | 28.0|[57]27.50| 8.0|([76])| 8.0|([76])

Washington | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

West Virginia[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

Wisconsin | 28.0| 8.00| 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

Wyoming[54] | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...

United States | 25.5| 7.8 | 14.0| ...| 12.0| ...

See notes on page 271.

[54] No state standards.

[55] No territorial standards.

[56] Federal standards for all food products. Fillers in ice-cream may

be used if large label is displayed in all places of sale.

[57] Percentage of fat based on total solids.

[58] Must be labeled.

[59] Classed as condensed.

[60] United States standard.

[61] United States food and drugs act of 1906 applies to the District

of Columbia.

[62] Should be labeled.

[63] Not allowed.

[64] Must be so branded.

[65] Defined, but no standard.

[66] Any amount if fat is maintained.

[67] Solids in fat.

[68] Must correspond on stated dilution to state standards for milk.

[69] Any less than 30.

[70] All below 45.

[71] Less than 13 marked skim; 13 to 18, medium skim; 18 or over,

special skim.

[72] Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk; one-fourth

to be fat.

[73] Two ounces in 10 gallons if labeled gelatine ice-cream.

[74] Full cream, 30. Standard, 21.

[75] Must correspond to 12 per cent of solids in crude milk; one-fourth

to be fat.

[76] Less than 7.5, skim; 7.5 to 15, three-fourths skim; 15 to 30, half

skim.

[77] Three-fourths cream, 24; one-half cream, 16; one-fourth cream, 8.

Skim, less than 8.

[78] Less than 30.

[79] Less than 30; less than 15 not allowed.

[80] Less than 16. This applies to all butter made in United States

territory.

No reports gave standards for powdered milk.

CHAPTER XVI

_CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE FACTORY_

The exterior construction of the ice-cream plant is of little

importance as long as the building is large and strong enough to hold

the business, and is neat and clean. The building may be of brick,

wood, hollow tile, cement block or any other satisfactory material.

The interior arrangement should receive careful study and planning. In

a new building, devoted to the manufacture of ice-cream, the details

usually can be included in the plans. However, it is often necessary

to use some building which was not especially constructed or arranged

for ice-cream-making. An old building usually can be rearranged so that

it will be suitable and fairly convenient. It should be large enough

to give sufficient room for the machinery and space for working. If

a new building is being constructed, the plans should be made with a

view of possible needs for enlargements. The building should not be so

large that there will be waste space. This causes unnecessary expense

and requires useless labor to keep clean. Certain considerations should

be kept in mind, whether building a new plant or rearranging an old

building. These are discussed in the following paragraphs.

=208. Location of the plant.=--For the ease of delivery, the plant

should be located as near the center of the city as possible. If it is

planned to ship much ice-cream by express, a location near the express

company is desirable. If it is a small plant and expects to conduct a

retail business principally, the location should be on one of the main

streets of the town in order to reach as many of the consuming public

as possible. Usually sewage connections can be secured in any part of

the city so this factor need not be considered. The question of a clean

atmosphere about the factory is of much importance; if located in a

manufacturing section of the city, it is almost impossible to keep the

factory clean because of the smoke and cinders.

[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Plan of small ice-cream plant.]

=209. Arrangement of machinery.=--Because of the large number of

difficult makes of the same kind of machine and the variation in size

of the different types, it is impossible to make exact plans without

knowing the exact size of the machine. In a small plant all the

machinery is usually located on the same floor. Such an arrangement

is shown in Fig. 83. This is intended as both a retail and wholesale

plant. The retail salesroom might be omitted and the plans used for a

small wholesale plant. A small boiler for heating water for washing

and sterilizing the utensils might be located in the basement. If

desired, tanks for the making of ice might also be placed in the

basement. Such a plan is shown in Fig. 84. The arrangement should

be such as to follow the natural sequence of the process as far as

possible. The second story or attic might be used as a storeroom.

[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Basement plan of large ice-cream plant.]

The exact location of the machines is not indicated, since this will

depend on their size. However, the rooms are large enough so that the

exact placing of the machines is not a difficult problem.

The basement, first and second floor plans of a wholesale plant are

shown in Figs. 84, 85, 86. For the reasons previously mentioned, the

exact location of the machines is not indicated.

[Illustration: FIG. 85.--First floor plan of plant shown in Fig. 84.]

[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Second floor plan of plant shown in Figs. 84

and 85.]

=210. Loading platform.=--There should be ample room for the loading

of the ice-cream and the unloading of the empties and the returned

ice-cream. The loading platform should be protected from the storms.

Such a platform in a large ice-cream plant is shown in Fig. 87; note

the chutes for the loading of crushed ice. Often the wagon or auto

storage is a part of the same space as the loading platform.

[Illustration: FIG. 87.--A loading platform in a large ice-cream plant.]

=211. Light.=--The question of proper light in the ice-cream plant has

been neglected. This may be because the buildings in the city are close

together and it is difficult to get light except from the ends of the

building which are exposed to the street or alley. Many of the smaller

plants are in the basement and in these it is impossible to have

anything but artificial light. The natural light may be secured from

windows or skylights. The sacrifice of space for skylights is shown

in Fig. 88. Light seems to be a stimulus to keep the plant clean. It

also makes it more pleasant and cheerful. It is believed that sunlight

tends to disperse disease germs. It would be a great benefit if it were

necessary for all ice-cream plants to have a certain amount of window

space in each room.

=212. Ventilation.=--Next to light, the question of proper ventilation

is neglected. The windows, doors and skylights may serve as a means. If

they are used for this purpose and are screened against flies, there is

danger of considerable dirt getting in. In some of the large plants,

a very extensive system of ventilation is employed. In these, no air

is allowed to enter except through this system, and all the entering

air is either filtered or washed or both. The air is circulated by a

large fan. This insures only clean pure air entering the manufacturing

rooms. The importance of pure air about food products cannot be

over-emphasized. It is difficult to ventilate a basement properly. All

doors and windows should be screened against flies. There should be no

stable in connection with the manufacturing rooms.

[Illustration: FIG. 88.--The value of skylights is shown by this well

lighted freezing-room, considerable floor space above being sacrificed

for this purpose.]

=213. Floors.=--The floors should be of some non-absorbent waterproof

material that can be cleansed easily. Concrete undoubtedly is the

best material, when both cost and adaptability are considered. The

floor should slope towards drains which will carry away the water.

These should be connected with the city sewage system, septic tank,

or cesspool. If sewage connections cannot be obtained, a cesspool or

septic tank must be installed, preferably the latter. The drains should

have sealed traps to prevent the escape of sewage gas into the plant.

Some prefer to have the drain in the center of the floor and others at

the side; this is immaterial so long as it works effectively.

=214. Ceilings and side-walls.=--The ceilings and side-walls should be

kept clean. If they are constructed of various tiles or plasters, they

can be washed. If made of wood, they should be kept painted. If painted

white or light colored, it helps to make the room lighter.

=215. Sinks and cupboards.=--Proper facilities should be provided

properly to wash and sterilize the utensils. There is usually a lack of

sinks for washing utensils in the ice-cream plants. After the utensils

are properly cleaned, there should be a place where they can be kept

until wanted again. Tables, shelves, and cupboards offer suitable

places to keep utensils when not in use.

=216. Locker-rooms.=--Every plant where food products are manufactured

should be provided with a locker-room in which the employees can

change their clothes. Each person should have a separate locker.

The locker-room should also contain a lavatory and shower-baths and

facilities for washing the hands and face. The locker-room should be

kept neat and clean.

=217. Cleanliness.=--The average consumer appreciates food products

produced in clean plants. There is no better advertisement than to

invite the public to see the factory. The plant and employees should

be so clean that it will make a strong impression and the visitors in

turn will tell others. The employees should wear clean white suits. If

the plant is large enough, a laundry for washing may be included in the

equipment.

=218. Cleaning utensils.=--Few ice-cream-makers know how to clean the

utensils thoroughly. The following is a good method: (1) Rinse off the

milk and grease with lukewarm water. (2) Wash in hot water as hot as

the hands can stand. To this water add some washing-powder to cut the

grease. There is a tendency to use too much washing-powder. Enough

to burn the hands should not be used. (3) Scrub the utensils in the

washing solution with a brush. Do not use a cloth. (4) Rinse with warm

water. (5) Scald with boiling water or live steam. The utensils may be

dipped in boiling water or boiling water may be poured over them. They

may be placed in a sterilizer and live steam applied. The heating kills

most of the bacteria and is usually sufficient to dry the utensils. In

no case should a cloth be employed for drying.

=219. Cleaning the floor.=--The proper cleaning of the floor is not

considered by many as a necessary part of the manufacturing process.

However, it is very important in the clean appearance of the plant

that the floor be clean. Often too much water is used and yet the

floor is not clean. The best method is as follows: (1) Rinse the floor

with water thrown from a pail; (2) sweep up all loose dirt; (3) make

a hot solution of washing-powder, a little stronger than for washing

utensils, and spread this on the floor and scrub with floor broom,

scrub toward the drain; (4) rinse with clean warm water thrown from a

pail. If the hose is used, too much time and water are wasted.

=220. Storeroom and workshop.=--No ice-cream plant is complete unless

it includes a storeroom and workshop. More or less supplies must be

stored and it helps the general appearance of the plant materially if

there is a special room for this purpose. More or less repairs are

necessary, so that a workshop should be provided. It is desirable to

have this near or a part of the storeroom.

=221. Sanitary codes.=--Many states have ice-cream-makers’

organizations or associations. The state organizations are united in a

National Association of Ice-Cream-Makers. Many of these associations

have adapted sanitary codes. Following are some samples:

_Ohio sanitary code:_

1. All factories or shops shall be open to the public at all times.

2. Workrooms must be thoroughly clean and free from dust, foul

atmosphere and contamination, and shall be well lighted, to the

end that there shall be no dark corners where rubbish or dirt may

accumulate.

3. One square foot of glass surface exposed to natural light,

unobscured by buildings or other devices nearer than ten feet, for each

ten square feet of floor surface of the workrooms must be provided.

Basements shall not be used as workrooms unless these provisions can be

met.

4. Garbage and all waste material subject to decomposition, must

be removed daily to the outside and deposited in a can provided

exclusively for this purpose, composed of impervious material and

provided with a tight fitting cover. Covers must be kept on the cans at

all times except when entering or removing the material.

5. The side-walls and ceilings of all workrooms shall be well

plastered, tiled or wainscoated or ceiled with metal or lumber and

shall be well painted to the end that they may be readily cleaned and

they shall be kept free from dust, dirt and foreign matter and clean at

all times.

6. The floors of all workrooms shall be impermeable and be made of

cement, tile laid in cement, or other suitable non-absorbent material

which can be flushed and washed clean with water. Floors shall be

sloped to one or more drains which must be properly connected to the

sewerage system.

7. Store and storage rooms for materials must be kept clean and free

from objectionable odors.

8. Doors, windows and other openings of every workroom shall be

screened during the fly season with screens not coarser than 14-mesh

wire gauze, or in any other manner equally effective keep the workrooms

free from flies and vermin at all seasons of the year.

9. All factories or shops shall have convenient toilet rooms, separate

and apart from the workrooms, and no toilet rooms shall be within or

connected directly with a workroom, either by a door, window or other

opening. The floors of the toilet room shall be of cement, tile or

other non-absorbent material, and shall be kept clean at all times.

Toilet rooms shall be furnished with separate ventilating flues or

pipes discharging into soil pipes or on the outside of the building in

which they are situated. Lavatories and washrooms shall be adjacent

to toilet rooms and shall be supplied with soap, running water and

clean towels and shall be maintained in a sanitary condition. Workroom

employees before beginning work and after visiting toilet rooms shall

wash their hands and arms thoroughly in clean water.

10. No person shall live or sleep in any building used as a factory

or shop, unless the factory or shop is separated by impervious walls,

without doors or windows or other openings from the parts of the

building used for living or sleeping purposes.

11. No horses, cows or other animals shall be stabled or kept in

any building where ice-cream is made, unless the factory or shop is

separated from the place where the horses, cows or other animals are

stabled or kept by impervious walls without doors, windows or other

openings.

12. No person suffering from an infectious disease, which can be

transmitted through ice-cream, shall work in an ice-cream manufacturing

plant.

13. All workroom employees shall be clean in person at all times and

shall wear clean washable clothing and caps. They shall not smoke or

chew tobacco while at work. They shall not touch the product with

their hands at any time. Employees may be specially designated to cut

and wrap brick ice cream and to fill fancy moulds and as this work

necessitates some handling of the product, such employees must be

scrupulously clean and wear clean, washable clothing and caps.

14. All wagons, trucks, drays, cans and tubs, platforms and racks,

shall be so constructed that they may readily be cleaned and they shall

be kept clean. Utensils must be of smooth non-absorbent material, as

tin, or tinned copper, the seams of which are flushed smooth with

solder.

15. Suitable means or appliances shall be provided for the proper

cleansing or sterilizing of freezers, vats, cans, mixing cans or

tanks, piping and all utensils used as containers for ice-cream or

raw material, and all tools used in making or the direct handling of

ice-cream, and all such apparatus, utensils, and tools after use shall

be thoroughly cleansed and scalded with boiling water or sterilized

with steam. The water supply for washing utensils must be free from

contamination.

16. No person shall use any vessel used in the manufacture and sale of

ice-cream for any other purpose.

17. Soft or melted ice cream or any other ice-cream shall not be

refrozen under any circumstances.

18. Milk and cream must be stored only in clean receptacles in clean

refrigerators. Milk or cream which has undergone various fermentations,

gaseous, bitter or otherwise, shall not be used in the manufacture of

ice-cream. Flavoring extracts, condiments, syrups, fruits, nuts and

other materials used as food must be securely protected from dust,

dirt, vermin, flies and other contamination, and must be kept and

stored only in clean receptacles. Decomposed, decayed, fermented or

rancid food material shall not be used. Ice-cream must be stored only

in clean receptacles in clean refrigerators.

19. It is expressly declared that the object of this code is to

insure a pure and clean product, made, stored and handled under clean

conditions, and no technical defect in the construction of any clause

shall relieve any person of the obligation of complying with the letter

and spirit of this code in its entirety.

20. All creamery and condensery operators, ice-cream manufacturers and

all other dealers in milk and cream, and their customers must cleanse

all receptacles used in shipping milk and cream as soon as they are

emptied, when same are to be returned by railroad, trolley, or boat, in

order to prevent the development of dangerous bacteria to threaten the

health of the consumers of the product.

_Sanitary code of the association of ice-cream manufacturers of New

York state._

1. All factories or shops shall be open to the public at all times.

2. Workrooms must be thoroughly clean and shall be well ventilated

and well lighted to the end that there shall be no dark or concealed

corners where rubbish or dirt may accumulate.

3. The side-walls and ceilings of all workrooms shall be well plastered

or tiled or ceiled with metal. If plastered or ceiled with metal, they

shall be kept well painted with oil paint to the end that they may

readily be cleaned and they shall be kept clean at all times.

4. The floors of all workrooms shall be impermeable and be made of

cement, tile laid in cement, or of other suitable non-absorbent

material which can be flushed and washed clean with water. Floors shall

be sloped to one or more drains which must be properly connected with

the sewerage system.

5. Storerooms for materials shall be kept clean and free from

objectional odors.

6. Doors, windows and other openings of every workroom shall be

screened during the fly season, and all workrooms and storerooms shall

be kept free from flies at all seasons of the year.

7. All factories or shops shall have convenient toilet rooms separate

and apart from the workrooms, and no toilet room shall be within or

connected directly with a workroom either by a door, window or other

opening. The floors of the toilet rooms shall be of cement, tile or

other non-absorbent material, and shall be kept clean at all times.

Toilet rooms shall be furnished with separate ventilating flues or

pipes, discharging into soil pipes or on the outside of the building

in which they are situated. Lavatories and washrooms shall be adjacent

to toilet rooms and shall be supplied with soap, running water and

clean towels, and shall be maintained in a sanitary condition. Workroom

employees beginning work and after visiting toilet room shall wash

their hands and arms thoroughly in clean water.

8. No person shall be allowed to live or sleep in any building used

as a factory or shop, unless the factory or shop is separated by

impervious walls, without doors or windows or other openings from the

parts of the building used for living or sleeping purposes.

9. No horses, cows or other animals shall be stabled or kept in any

building where ice-cream is made, unless the factory or shop is

separated from the places where the horses, cows or other animals are

stabled or kept by impenetrable walls without doors, windows or other

openings.

10. No person suffering from an infectious disease, which can be

transmitted through ice-cream, shall be employed in an ice-cream

manufacturing plant.

11. All workroom employees shall be clean in person at all times and

shall wear clean, washable clothing and caps. They shall not smoke

or chew tobacco while at work. They shall not touch the product with

their hands at any time. Employees may be specially designated to cut

and wrap brick ice-cream and to fill fancy molds, and as this work

necessitates some handling of the product, such employees must be

scrupulously clean, and wear clean, washable clothing and caps.

12. All wagons, truck, drays, cans and tubs, platforms and racks shall

be so constructed that they may be readily cleaned, and they shall be

kept clean.

13. Suitable means or appliances shall be provided for the proper

cleansing or sterilizing of freezers, vats, mixing cans or tanks,

piping and all utensils used as containers for ice-cream, and all

tools used in making or the direct handling of ice-cream, and all such

apparatus, utensils and tools after use shall be thoroughly cleansed

and rinsed with boiling water or sterilized with live steam.

14. Vessels used in the manufacture and sale of ice-cream shall not be

employed for any other purpose by any person.

15. No member shall take back any broken package of ice-cream, nor any

unbroken package which contains soft or melted ice-cream. No ice-cream

shall under any circumstances be melted and refrozen.

16. It is expressly declared that the object of this Code is to insure

a clean product, made, stored and handled under cleanly conditions, and

no technical defect in the construction of any clause shall relieve any

member of the obligation of complying with the letter and the spirit of

this Code in its entirety.

CHAPTER XVII

_HISTORY AND EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY_

The history of the development of the ice-cream industry is only

fragmentary. This may be because the industry has developed very

gradually. Exact figures showing the size of the industry are lacking,

no authentic figures ever having been brought together. The facts

relating to the history of the industry have been gathered and very

well put together by F. M. Buzzell, in an article in the “Ice-cream

Trade Journal,” Vol. 5, No. 3. The history as given here is a copy of

the above article.

=222. Early history.=--“From motives of comfort and health, the

instinct of man in all ages and climates has been to maintain his

physical (if not his mental) being at a temperature as nearly normal

as possible. Thus we find the natives of Iceland and other very cold

climates living upon heat-producing foods, fats, tallow candles, and

such delicacies, while the South Sea Islander lunches on a little fruit

or cereal, or other food producing a minimum of bodily heat. This rule

applies also to liquid refreshment. Hot weather creates a demand for

cooling drinks, and vice versa. And we, in our day, when we sit in

the coolest spot to be found on some sweltering August night, and sip

our favorite cold drink, are actuated by the same motive which has

influenced our ancestors from the more recent past back to the days of

Job and Solomon the Wise. For the Bible tells us indirectly that the

people of Palestine knew and appreciated the refreshing quality of snow

in time of harvest. The Jews, the ancient Greeks and Romans were all

accustomed to the use of snow for cooling wines and other beverages,

and it is to-day used in this way in certain parts of Spain and Turkey.

“Only those southern localities which were favored with the proximity

of snow-capped mountains could enjoy the luxury of a snow-cooled

beverage or dessert. Where snow is not obtainable, liquids were, and

still are, cooled in porous jars, and urns exposed to cool breezes,

or, in lack of a breeze, swung about to create a current of air. The

principle is a familiar one. The most common method of preserving snow

was to saturate it with water, having packed it closely into some

receptacle, of considerable size probably, and allowing it to freeze

into a kind of porous ice, from which blocks could be cut as required

for use. To chill a dessert or a liquid, the dish containing it was

imbedded in a larger vessel partly filled with snow and particles of

ice, and the open space closely packed with it. It was then allowed to

stand until it had become as cold as possible or as desired.

“Alexander the Great is said to have been very fond of iced beverages,

and one of our modern varieties, the Macedoine, it is said, was named

for the great Macedonian. Snow and ice were used at the table in the

court of Henry III of France in the hot summer months. The Italians,

it is claimed, made the first improvement in the original method of

cooling, which improvement was to dissolve saltpetre in water and

pour a little of the solution in with the snow and ice surrounding

the dish to be cooled. Later, it was found that better results were

attained by dropping the saltpetre directly into the snow and ice, and

at the same time revolving the vessel containing the substance to be

chilled. By this means the mixture in the vessel could be brought to a

fairly solid state. Wines were commonly iced in this way, then water,

sweetened and flavored with various juices or other flavorings, was

made into a sort of water ice. Water ices and such refreshments are

still the rule in the Orient, while ice-cream, as we know it, is rare.

“There is no reliable record of the first water ices. Dates and places

are either lacking altogether in the vague allusions made to them or

are so indefinite as to be of no value. It is probable that they were

brought to France from Italy by Catherine de Medici, who preferring

cookery to which she was accustomed, brought her staff of cooks with

her. The date is given as about 1550. Water ices are said to have been

made by Contreaux, an Italian who established a famous café in Paris.

Lemonade was invented about 1630: to whom the credit belongs is not

known. From water ices to mixtures containing milk or cream and eggs,

was apparently a logical progression, but history is vague on the

question of who first made ice-cream.”

=223. Development of ice-cream in the household.=--“It is recorded

that in Rome, a certain Quintus Maximus Gurges, nicknamed ‘The

Glutton,’ a well known writer of those times on subjects pertaining to

the table wrote a recipe in one of his books for a dish that somewhat

resembled ice-cream. The name ice-cream is one of modern origin, the

original terms being butter ice, or cream ice, the latter being to-day

favored in England. The earlier forms, after the ices containing milk

or cream, which were really the first ice-creams known, were called

butter ice probably because of their rich butter-like consistency,

being made from rich cream and spaddled. Cream ice is said to have been

known in Paris in 1774. Recipes for water ices and milk ices, it is

claimed, were brought from Asia by Marco Polo, who visited Japan in the

fifteenth century. Cream ice is mentioned in an account of a banquet

given by Charles I, of England. The dish was made by a French cook

named De Mireo, and it is related that the king was so well pleased

with the ‘frozen milk,’ as he called it, that he pensioned the cook

with twenty pounds a year on condition that he would not divulge the

secret of making the dessert, nor make it for anyone but him. Another

account says that the first ice-cream was set before the Duc de

Chartres on a hot day in August, 1774, by his chef, who had depicted

the duke’s coat-of-arms on the cream. Again we find in an account of an

entertainment given by Louis XIV, of France, that ‘toward the end of

the feast, his chef caused to be placed before each guest, in silver

gilt cup, what was apparently a freshly laid egg, colored like those of

Easter, but, before the company had time to recover from their surprise

at such a novelty at dessert, they discovered that the supposed eggs

were a delicious sweetmeat, cold, and compact as marble.’ It is also

claimed that a certain Carlo Gatti first introduced cream ices into

England.

“A French cook, Clermont, residing in London, gave instructions for

making sweet ices in a book he published in 1776. English cook books

one hundred and fifty years old give recipes for cream ices in which

cream and milk, sugar, eggs, arrowroot or flour and flavoring were

used. Recipes have always varied according to the whim or desire of the

maker, and there is no similarity in the amounts of cream or milk to be

used.

“It is a question whether Germany or England first made ice-cream, but

it is generally conceded that the Germans led the English in making

fancy moulded creams.

“We deduce from the foregoing bits of narrative that ice-cream was not

apparently discovered, but rather was the result of a slow process

of evolution or development, which was taking place in different

localities at about the same time. History states that ice-cream

was first sold in New York by a Mr. Hall, at 75 Chatham street, now

Park Row. Ice-cream is mentioned in an account of a ball given by a

Mrs. Johnson, December 12, 1789, and was introduced to the city of

Washington by Mrs. Alexander Hamilton at a dinner at which President

Jackson was present. She had become familiar with the dish in New York.

The first advertisement of ice-cream appeared in a New York paper,

the _Post Boy_, dated June 8, 1786, and reads as follows: ‘Ladies and

gentlemen may be supplied with ice-cream every day at the City Tavern

by their humble servant, Joseph Crowe.’ A negro, one Jackson who had

worked at the White House in Washington after Mrs. Hamilton introduced

ice-cream to President Jackson, learned the recipe and started a

confectionery. He sold his cream readily at one dollar per quart.

Others imitated him, but Jackson held his custom and prospered by

making the best goods and died wealthy.”

=224. Development of wholesale ice-cream.=--“Jacob Fussell is admitted

to be the father of the wholesale ice-cream business. The year 1851

found him in the milk business at Baltimore. His supply of milk came

into Baltimore on the Northern Central Railway from York county, Pa.

A few of his customers wanted cream, and finding that satisfactory

results were not obtained by ordering cream intermittently to supply

an unsteady demand, he made arrangements for a regular shipment.

Here again a difficulty presented itself, for at times he found

his stock of cream accumulating, which must be disposed of in the

best way possible. To utilize this surplus he conceived the idea of

making ice-cream, the retail price of which at this time by the few

confectioners who sold it was sixty cents per quart. The idea proved

an inspiration, for the ice-cream business soon overshadowed the milk

business, which was in time disposed of. Mr. Fussell believed in the

value of printers’ ink and advertised his new business, and then,

as now, intelligent advertising paid. Devoting his entire attention

to the ice-cream business, he prospered in it, and built up a large

business, the success of which has continued through three generations

to the present day. In 1852 and 1853 he tried out a scheme for making

his ice-cream at the source of supply of his raw material, rather than

at the distributing point, but it did not prove successful, for while

the ice-cream was actually produced cheaper in the country, the fact

that his own attention was divided between the two establishments, and

that the stock at the selling end could not be readily controlled,

counteracted the lesser manufacturing cost, and the result was that the

project was abandoned and not repeated. In 1856 the Baltimore business

was left with a partner and a factory was opened in Washington, D. C.

In 1862 Boston was added to the chain of plants. Here a large exporting

firm, who had made considerable money shipping ice to London, India,

and Brazil, saw a new outlet for ice in the ice-cream business. They

attempted to induce Mr. Fussell to go to Brazil and start a factory

there, and offered to back him with the necessary capital if he wanted

it, but he was not interested. Failing to get him to send one of his

men over, they arranged for one of their own men to learn the art of

making ice-cream, and paid a modest $500 for the formula. How the South

American venture fared is not recorded. In 1864 the New York house

of Fussell was started and continued with the usual success. Here

the prevailing price among confectioners was $1.25 per quart. A Mr.

Brazleton, of Iowa, a friend of Mr. Fussell, losing his fortune in the

panic of 1857, came to Washington and learned the ice-cream business.

He went back west and opened a factory in St. Louis, later going to

Cincinnati and Chicago.

“American enterprise was not long in taking up the new industry,

and the growth of the business had commenced. However, the real

development, the day of large figures in the business, had its

beginning not over fifteen years ago. The brine or refrigerating system

of freezing ice-cream has been efficiently applied only within the past

five years, and has now only fairly begun.

“The first real progress toward artificial refrigeration is said to

have been made by a German in 1867, and it was then used only in

breweries, and to a very limited extent. Ice making by artificial means

came next. The use of refrigerating processes for making ice-cream

was probably begun in a way by chance, for large ice manufacturing

establishments put on an ice-cream department to utilize the broken or

waste ice, and the possibility of applying mechanical refrigeration to

the making of ice-cream was no doubt thus discovered.

“Ice-cream is not today, as in past years, a luxury. Its lowered cost

brings it within reach of the masses: no longer is it something which

may be enjoyed only by the rich. It is fairly entitled to a place

in the class of necessities. Ice-cream is in high favor in England,

where the climate favors its use the year through. And it is used by

nearly all steamship lines, especially those making long trips in warm

climates. The passengers, who do not relish the indifferent quality

of most foreign made goods, demand American ice-cream. Every express

steamer of the North German Lloyd Line leaves New York with not only

a supply to care for the wants of its own passengers, but enough to

furnish the Japanese, Chinese, and Australian service of the company.

For the far eastern service the cream is carried in refrigerated

compartments to Bremerhaven and there transferred to ships sailing for

ports in India, China, Japan and Australia.

“It does not seem proper to close this paper without some allusion to

our friend of the lawn party, ice-cream wagon, and county fair--the

ice-cream cone. I have heard that it was introduced in this country

at the St. Louis exposition. I have found directions for preparing a

refreshment called ‘fried ice-cream,’ sometimes known as ‘Alaska pie,’

or ‘Alaska fritters.’ The method is, briefly to dip a cube of hard

ice-cream into a thin fritter batter and then plunge it into very hot

lard or olive oil. The pastry forms a good protector from the heat

and hardens so quickly that the cream is not softened in the least.

Another more elaborate form is said to be served in certain New York

cafés today. The fried ice-cream was introduced at the World’s Fair

in Chicago in 1893. It occurred to me that these freak varieties may

have suggested the idea of the ice-cream sandwich and ice-cream cone.

Whatever the origin, we will have to admit that the cone has sold many

a gallon of ice-cream and made many a dollar for those engaged in the

business.

“And I believe that the future historian of this business, who shall

recount the progress of its development during the years from 1900 to

1910, cannot but remark upon that decade as being epoch making in the

annals of the trade.”

=225. Extent of the industry.=--While no census figures of the

industry have ever been assembled, careful estimates and surveys

have been made by both T. D. Cutler of the “Ice-Cream Trade Journal”

and L. O. Thayer of the “International Confectioner.” The results of

these surveys are shown in Table XVI. In comparison to the value of

ice-cream, the 1910 census gives the following values for the year

1909, for butter, cheese, and condensed milk; value of all dairy

products, $596,413,463.00; value of butter, cheese, and condensed milk

made in factories, $274,557,718.00; total investment in equipment,

$71,283,624.00. Regarding the distribution of the wholesale plants in

the United States, the North Atlantic states have the most, with the

Middle West a close second. The production of ice-cream in the South is

growing very rapidly. This is possible because of the homogenizers and

emulsifiers and mechanical refrigeration.

TABLE XVI

Production and Value of Ice-cream in the United States

_Year_ _1911_ _1912_ _1913_

Made by retailers, gallons 25,000,000 30,000,000 35,000,000

Made by wholesalers, „ 113,000,000 124,000,000 137,380,000

Total gallons made 138,000,000 154,000,000 172,380,000

Average retail price per

gallon $1.40 $1.40 $1.40

Average wholesale price

per gallon 80c 77c 80c

Total paid by consumer at

$1.40 per gallon $193,200,000 215,600,000 241,332,000

Investment in wholesale

plants in dollars 50,000,000 60,000,000 68,000,000

Persons employed:

Rush season

Yearly

_Year_ _1914_ _1915_ _1916_

Made by retailers, gallons 31,190,000 35,767,690 40,059,800

Made by wholesalers, „ 132,571,000 139,682,400 168,260,000

Total gallons made 163,761,000 175,550,090 208,319,800

Average retail price per

gallon $1.50 $1.40 $1.40

Average wholesale price

per gallon 80c 80c 82c

Total paid by consumer at

$1.40 per gallon 229,265,400 245,770,000 291,646,600

Investment in wholesale

plants in dollars 73,500,000 78,200,000 83,600,000

Persons employed:

Rush season

Yearly

_Year_ _1917_ _1918_

Made by retailers, gallons 41,133,000 38,243,000

Made by wholesalers, „ 178,252,000 192,810,000

Total gallons made 219,385,000 231,053,000

Average retail price per

gallon $1.60 $1.65

Average wholesale price

per gallon 92c $1.04

Total paid by consumer at

$1.40 per gallon 307,139,000 381,237,450

Investment in wholesale

plants in dollars 93,450,000 96,050,000

Persons employed:

Rush season 40,000

Yearly 20,000

INDEX

Acid-coagulating group, 175

Acid-forming group, 175

Acid test, 200

Adulterated ice-cream, 4

Advertising, 255

Alexander, Jerome, 248

Ammonia machines, 116

Audels, 101

Automobile truck, 251

Available refrigeration, 110

Ayres, S. H., 11, 21

Ayres, S. H., and Johnson, W. T., Jr., 175

Babcock test, 183-197

cream, 192

laws, 266

modifications of, 197

skim-milk, 196

whole milk, 183

Bacilli, colon, 181

Bacteria, 15, 170

acid-coagulating group, 175

acid-forming group, 175

alkali group, 178

conditions for growth, 16

effect of temperature, 20

forms of, 16

freezing and hardening, 174

inert group, 177

number of, 171

peptonizing group, 179

prevention of growth, 18

sources of, 170

total acid group, 175

types of, 175

utensils, 174

Bacteriology, problems of, 181

study of, 181

Baer, A. C., 139, 163

“Batch,” 129

Baumé scale, 27

Benkendorf, G. H., 213

Benkendorf test, 213

Binders, 51

effect of, 167

Bisque ice-cream, 73

Boiled milk test, 203

Brainard, W. K., 167

Brick-cutting machine, 159

Brick molds, 159

Bricks, 145

Brine box, 148

freezer, 84

tanks, 119

British thermal unit, 101

Bookkeeping, 258

Bowen, John T., 101, 107, 111

Butter, 41

Butter testing for fat, 205

moisture, 205

salt, 207

Buying materials, 257

Buzzell, F. M., 287

Cabinet, 253

Can washers, 95

Caramel ice-cream, 72

Carpenter, M. R., 151

Census figures, 295

Chocolate and cocoa, 46

adulteration of, 49

composition of, 48

manufacture of, 47

standard for, 48

Chocolate ice-cream, 72

Chocolate sirup, 49

Clarifier, 22

Cleanliness, 278-280

Clemner, P. W., 21

Coffee ice-cream, 72

Colloids, 249

Color, 132

Composition, 249

Compressor, 117

Condensed milk, 25

marketing, 31

method of manufacture, 25

purchase of, 28

standard for, 27

Condenser, 27

Condensing coils, 117

Condensory, 28

amount of milk necessary, 29

capital necessary, 31

condition of milk, 30

location, 31

supply of milk for, 29

supply of water for, 29

Cook, L. B., 21

Cooked ice-cream, 70, 74

Cooling milk and cream, 18

methods of, 19

Cooper, Madison, 101

Corbett, L. C., 104

Corn sirup, 45

Corn starch, 55, 70, 76, 77, 169

Coumarin, 64

Cow, food for, 13

health of, 14

Cream, composition of, 23

emulsified, 41

homogenized, 41

standard for, 24

Creamers, 95

Crystallization, 167

Custards, 76

Cutler, T. D., 295

Dairy products, legal standards, 267-271

Defects, 165

appearance, 169

body and texture, 166

Defects, flavor, 165

package, 169

richness, 169

Defrosting the coils, 151

air blast system, 154

cold brine drip system, 153

Cooper system, 151

hot brine system, 154

hot gas system, 155

warm liquid system, 155

Delivery, cost of, 252

method of, 250

packages used, 252-254

Disc-freezer, 89

Disease, 250

Dishes, 254

Eggs, 55

Ekenberg Co., 39

Ekenberg process, 39

Ellenberger, H. B., 139, 172, 175

Emery Thompson freezer, 87

Emulsors, 95, 141

advantage of, 99

Emulsified milk and cream, 10, 13

English plum pudding, 76

Equipment, 81

cost of, 100

Evaporated milk, 25

Evaporating coils, 118

Expansion valve, 118

Factory, construction, 272

floors, 278

light, 276

location of, 272

plans, 273-275

ventilation, 277

Fat, churned, 166

Fillers, 51

starchy, 55

Flavors, 2

Flavoring extracts, 57

Food value, 247-250

Formaldehyde test, 203

Formulas, 45, 71

Fort Atkinson freezer, 88

Frandsen, J. H., 45

Frandsen, J. H., and Markham, E. A., 69, 163

Freezers, 81

brine, 84

disc, 89

Emery Thompson, 87

Fort Atkinson, 88

hand, 83

Perfection, 85

Progress, 86

tub and can, 83

Freezing process, 134

effect of sugar on, 137

proper method of, 137

purpose of, 134

rate of, 134, 137

Fruit, 132

extracts, 68

ice-cream, 73

pudding, 76

Fussell, Jacob, 291

Gelatine, 52, 132, 168

food value, 249

kettle, 53, 91

preparation of, 53

tests for, 52

Gum tragacanth, 132

Guthrie, E. S., and Ross, H. E., 204

Hammar, B. W., 172, 173, 174

Hammar, B. W., and Goss, E. F., 172

Hand freezer, 83

Hardening, 91, 145

effect on quality, 157

forced-air, 149

gravity-air, 149

ice and salt box, 146

method of, 145

time required, 157

Hardening-room, 149

still-air, 149

Heat, sensible, 102

latent, 102

specific, 102

History, 287-289

Holdaway, C. W., and R. R. Reynolds, 167, 215

Homogenizers, 95, 141, 167

advantage, of 99

Homogenized milk and cream, 10, 13

Horses and wagons, 251

Hot well, 26

Hunziker, O. F., 183

Ice, amount needed, 107

field, 103

saw, 106

storing and harvesting, 105

Ice and salt mixture, 107

amount used, 148

Ice-cream, appearance, 164

bacterial count, 164

body and texture, 164

classification of, 69

color, 2, 73, 132

composition of, 249

definition of, 2

demand for, 12, 246

desired standard, 5

factory development, 291

fancy molded, 158

Federal standard, 2

flavor, 164

household development, 289

ideal standard, 5

materials used, 1

package, 164

poison, 250

richness, 164

standards, 267-271

trowels, 158

when removed from freezer, 134

Ice-cream-making, a science, 6

problems, 6

Ice-cream mixers, 88

Ice-cream powders, 55

Ice-cream receipts, 45, 71

bisque, 73

caramel, 72

chocolate, 72

coffee, 72

custards, 76

fruit, 73

ices, 78

lacto, 80

maple, 72

milk sherbets, 80

mousse, 73

nut, 73

parfait, 74

puddings, 75

punches, 79

vanilla, 71

water sherbets, 78

Ice crushers, 93

Ice-house, 104

Iceland moss, 55

Ice plow, 106

Ices, 70, 78

freezing, 144

Ice shovel, 94

Ice spud, 94

Irish moss, 55

Joseph Burnett Extract Co., 57

Judging and defects, 163

Keeping quality, 167

Lacto, 71, 80

Lactometer, 198

Board of Health, 199

Quevenne, 199

Laws, 264-271

Lee, C. C., Hepburn, N. W., and Barnhart, F. M., 204

Legal standards, 267-271

Lemon extract, 65

adulteration of, 66

standard for, 65

Lemon oil, chemistry of, 66

preparation of, 65

License, 266

Loading platform, 276

Losses, 262

Machinery, quality of, 81

Manhattan pudding, 76

Maple ice-cream, 72

Marketing, 246

Market, location of, 250

McInerney, T. J., 18, 174

Mechanical refrigeration, 111

absorption system, 116, 122, 124, 126

compression system, 116

cost of operating, 121

direct expansion system, 118

evaporating coils, 119

materials used in, 113

operating, 120

parts of, 117

principles of, 111

Merrell-Soule Co., 34

Merrell-Soule process, 35

Michigan Agricultural Law, 15

Milk and cream, absorption of odors, 14

acidity of, 11

adulterated, 264

“aged,” 12

bacteria in, 15

contamination, 21

neutralization of, 11

proper care of, 22

purchase of, 24

quality of, 11, 13

Milk, composition of, 23

standard for, 24

Milk powder, 33

standards for, 33

Milk powder in ice-cream, 37, 40

Milk products, supply of, 8

method of securing, 9

Milk sherbets, 80

Milk, used, 8

Misbranded ice-cream, 5

Mix, 129

financial viewpoint, 130

step in preparation of, 131

temperature of, 133

Mixers, 88

Mojonnier tester, 218-240

Mojonnier over-run tester, 240

Molds, 15

brick, 159

center, 161

individual, 161

Mortensen, M., 69, 139, 142, 143, 158, 163

Mousse, 73

National Association of Ice-cream Manufacturers, 3

Nesselrode pudding, 75

New Jersey Agricultural Law, 15

Nut ice-cream, 73

Nuts, 50

Oil traps, 117

Orange extract, 65, 67

Orange extract, adulteration of, 68

standard for, 67

Organisms, disease, 11

Over-run, 134, 139

controlling, 242

factors effecting, 139

to obtain, 143

Over-run tester, 213, 240

Pack-cans, 91, 145

Packing tubs, 262

Parfait, 74

Pasteurization, 11, 140, 172

Peptonizing bacteria, 179

Perfection freezer, 85

Plans of factory, 273-275

Powdered milk processes, 34

“Price Current,” 258

Price of dairy products, 258

Progress freezer, 86

Ptomaine poison, 250

Pudding, 75

English plum, 76

fruit, 76

Manhattan, 76

Nesselrode, 75

Punches, 70, 79

Refrigeration, 101

terms used, 101

Rennet, 56

Report blanks, 261

Rice flour, 55

Rose, Flora, 247

Ross, H. E., 18, 23, 205

Ross, H. E., Guthrie, E. S., Fisk, W. W., 208

Ross, H. E., and McInerney, T. J., 183

Ruche, H. A., 43

Salesmen, 257

Sandwich machine, 254

Sanitary codes, 280-286

Score card, 163

Sediment test, 17

Sherbets, 70, 78, 80

freezing, 144

Shipping clerk, 260

Skimmed milk, composition, 24

standard for, 24

Slush box, 148

Smoothness, 167

Soft ice-cream, 263

Solids not fat, 200

Sproule, W. H., 197

Stabilizer, 2, 51, 95, 132

Standard ice-cream, 4

Standardization, 208-212

Stocking, W. A., Jr., 19

Sugar, 2, 43, 131, 173

invert, 43, 46

Sugar-saving substitutes, 45

Swell, 134, 139

Test, acid, 200

Babcock, 183

Benkendorf, 213

hardness, 215

Mojonnier, 218-240

viscosity, 208

Testing, 183

Thayer, L. O., 295

Transfer ladles or scoops, 146

Transferring, 263,

Troy, H. C., 183, 207

Tub and can freezer, 83

Tubs, 262

Urner Barry Co., 41

Utensils, cleaning, 279

Vacuum pump, 27

Vanilla beans, 59

Vanilla beans, curing of, 59

marketing, 59

production of, 60

Vanilla, chemistry of, 63

Vanilla extract, 57

adulteration of, 64

ingredients of, 62

Vanilla ice-cream, 71

Vanilla plant, 58

Vanillin, 63

Viscosity, test for, 208

Vogt refrigerating machine, 123

Washburn, R. M., 69, 138, 139, 142, 163

Water sherbets, 78

Wisconsin Agricultural Law, 15, 264

Yeasts, 15

Printed in the United States of America.

Transcriber’s Notes

The text as used in this e-text is as printed in the source document.

Unless listed below, inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, punctuation,

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Sorted lists and tables: irregularities in the sorting order have not

corrected.

Differences in wording between the Table of Contents and the section

headings in the text, and between the List of Illustrations and the

illustration captions, have not been standardised.

Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their

settings, not all elements may display as intended.

Page 94, Fig. 30, The perfection ice-cream can-washer and sterilizer:

presumably perfection is the brand, and might have been capitalised.

Page 179, Table XI, first column row Winter samples: there is no

integer printed before .17 in the source document, which is likely

erroneous (as shown by the value above).

Page 268-271: several of the footnotes listed ([58], [64], [65],

[69], [70], [71], [74], [77], [78] and [79]) do not occur in the

table.

Changes made:

Tables and illustrations were moved out of text paragraphs. Footnotes

have been moved to underneath the paragraph(s) where they are

referenced. Some illustrations have been rotated.

The table on pages 268-270 and the associated footnotes have been

recombined into a single table and list of footnotes. Some tables

have been split, recombined or otherwise re-arranged in order to fit

the available width.

Minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors were corrected

silently.

Page xiii, Fig. 12: Verticle belt driven... changed to Vertical belt

driven....

Page xv, item 36: opening bracket deleted from ...Sharples Separator

Co. (West Chester....

Page 71: ...ice-cream manufacterers employ... changed to ...ice-cream

manufacturers employ....

Page 77, Receipt 2: ...of vanilla to taste... changed to ...of

vanilla or to taste... as elsewhere; Follow directions given for No.

1 moved from ingredients list to directions.

Page 173: Hammer reaches the following conclusions... changed to

Hammar reaches the following conclusions....

Page 179, Table XI, bottom row: .17 changed to 0.17 for consistency.

Page 221: ...water cooled dessicator used... changed to ...water

cooled desiccator used....

Page 223: ...the cooling dessicators are kept... changed to ...the

cooling desiccators are kept....

Table after Page 244, heading column 16: ...keep sample in oven and

cooler in... changed to ...keep sample in oven and cooler...; row

Sweetened condensed milk, last column: 00 min. in oven... changed to

90 min. in oven....

Page 266: ...to indentify it changed to ...to identify it.

Page 267: Table[53] XV changed to Table XV[53].

Page 268-271: pages 269 and 270 (the list of footnotes) are, apart

from the final remark on page 269 (No reports gave standards for

powdered milk), identical and have been included once only.

Index: entry Andels changed to Audels; Ruche, H. A. changed to Ruehe,

H. A.

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