statistician principally associated with Dorpat in Livonia, where he
studied from 1845 to 1849. He became Professor of Theology at its famous
University. His principal book is entitled, _Die Moralstatistik in ihrer
Bedeutung fur eine Sozialethik_.
{234e} Hartmann, Karl Robert Eduard von (1842-1906). Born in Berlin,
the son of General Robert von Hartmann, and served for some time in the
Artillery of the German Army. He has written many philosophical works.
His _Phanomenologie des sittlichlen Bewusstseins_ was published in Berlin
in 1879.
{235a} Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646-1716). Born at Leipzig and died
at Hanover. Visited Paris and London, and became acquainted with Boyle
and Newton. In 1676 appointed to a librarianship at Hanover. His
philosophical views are mainly derived from his letters. The edition of
the _Letters_, edited by Ouno Klopp (1822-1903), appeared at Hanover
between 1862 and 1884 in 11 volumes.
{235b} Brandis, Christian August (1790-1867). A philosopher and
philologist, born in Hildesheim, studied in Gottingen and Kiel.
Accompanied Niebuhr as Secretary to the Embassy to Rome in 1816. In 1822
became Professor of Philosophy in Bonn. His _Handbuch der Geschichte der
griechischromischen Philosophie_, doubtless here referred to by Lord
Acton, was published in Berlin at long intervals (1835-66) in 3 volumes.
{235c} Fischer, Kuno (1824-1907). Born at Sandewalde in Silesia.
Deprived of his professorship of philosophy at Heidelberg by the Baden
Government in 1853 on account of charge of Pantheism, but recalled to
Heidelberg in 1872. His principal book is _Geschichte der Neuern
Philosophie_ (1852-1903). His _Franz Baco von Verulam_ appeared in 1856,
and _Francis Bacon und seine Schule_ made the 10th volume of his
_Geschichte_.
{235d} Zeller, Eduard (1814- still living). Theologian and historian of
philosophy. Studied at Tubingen and Berlin, became Professor of Theology
at Berne, afterwards held chairs successively at Heidelberg and Berlin.
His many works include _The Philosophy of Ancient Greece_, _Platonic
Studies_ and _Zwingli's Theological System_.
{236a} Bartholomess, Christian (1815-1856). A French philosopher, born
at Geiselbronn in Alsace. From 1853 Professor of Philosophy at
Strassburg. Died at Nuremberg. Wrote a _Life of Giordano Bruno_, and
_Philosophical History of the Prussian Academy_, _particularly under
Frederick the Great_, as well as the _Histoire critique des doctrines
religieuses de la philosophie moderne_, published in 2 volumes in 1855.
{236b} Madame Guyon (1648-1717) was born at Montargis in France, and her
maiden name was Jeanne Marie Bouvieres de la Mothe. She married at 16
years of age Jacques Guyon. Left a widow, she devoted herself to a
religious mysticism which raised up endless controversies during the
succeeding years. She was compelled to leave Geneva because her
doctrines were declared to be heretical. She was imprisoned in the
Bastile from 1695 to 1702. Her works are contained in 39 volumes.
{236c} Ritschl, Albrecht (1822-1889). Professor of Theology, born in
Berlin, died in Gottingen. Became Professor of Theology in Bonn and
later in Gottingen. He wrote many books. His _Die Entstehung der
altkatholischen Kirche_ first appeared in 1850.
{236d} Loening, Edgar (1843- still living), was born in Paris. Has held
professorial chairs at Strassburg, Dorpat, Rostock, and at Halle. His
_Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenrechts_ first appeared in 1878.
{237a} Baur, Ferdinand Christian (1792-1860). Born at Schmiden, near
Kannstatt. Held various theological chairs before that of Tubingen,
which he occupied from 1826 until his death. He wrote a great number of
theological works, of which his _Vorlesungen uber die christliche
Dogmengeschichte_ was published in Leipzig in 3 volumes between 1865 and
1867.
{237b} Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe (1651-1715). Born in
Perigord in France, and famous alike as a divine and as a man of letters,
his _Telemaque_ living in literature. His controversy over Madame Guyon
is well known. Louis XIV made him preceptor to his grandson, the Duke of
Burgundy, and later Archbishop of Cambrai. His _Correspondence_ was
published between 1727 and 1729 in 11 volumes.
{237c} Newman, John Henry (1801-1890). A famous Cardinal of the Church
of Rome; born in London, educated at Trinity College, Oxford; first Vicar
of St. Mary's, Oxford; took part in the Tractarian Movement with some of
the _Tracts for the Times_. His _Apologia pro Vita Sua_ appeared in
1864, his _Dream of Gerontius_ in 1865. There is no _Theory of
Development_ by Newman. His _Essay on the Development of Christian
Doctrine_ appeared in 1845, and was replied to by the Rev. J. B. Mozley
in a volume bearing the title _The Theory of Development_.
{237d} Mozley, James Bowling (1813-1878). A Church of England divine;
born at Gainsborough, educated at Oriel College, Oxford; became Vicar of
Old Shoreham, Canon of Worcester, and, in 1871, Regius Professor of
Divinity at Oxford. His _Oxford University Sermons_ appeared in 1876.
{238a} Schneckenburger, Matthias (1804-1848). A Protestant theologian;
born at Thalheim and died in Berne, where he was for a time Professor of
Theology at the newly founded University. His _Vergleichende Darstellung
des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbegriffs_ was published in
Stuttgart in 2 volumes in 1855.
{238b} Hundeshagen, Karl Bernhard (1810-1872). A Protestant theologian
who held a professorship in Berne, later in Heidelberg and finally in
Bonn, where he died. His many works included one upon the Conflict
between the Lutheran, the Calvinistic, and the Zwinglian Churches. His
_Beitrage zur Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik
insbesondere des Protestantismus_ was published at Wiesbaden in 1864 in 1
volume.
{238c} Schweizer, Alexander (1808-1888). A theologian and preacher who
studied in Zurich and Berlin. He wrote his _Autobiography_ which was
published in Zurich the year after his death. His book, _Die
protestantischen Centraldogmen innerhalb der reformierten Kirche_,
appeared in Zurich in 2 volumes in 1854 and 1856.
{238d} Gass, Wilhelm (1813-1889). A Protestant theologian; born at
Breslau and died in Heidelberg, where he held a theological chair. His
best-known book is his _Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik_,
published in Berlin between 1854 and 1867 in 4 volumes, and to this Lord
Acton doubtless refers.
{238e} Cart, Jacques Louis (1826- probably still living). A Swiss
pastor; born in Geneva; the author of many books, of which the one named
by Lord Acton is fully entitled, _Histoire du mouvement religieux et
ecclesiastique dans le canton de Vaud pendant la premiere moitie du XIXe
siecle_. It appeared between 1871 and 1880 in 6 volumes.
{239a} Blondel, David (1590-1655). Born at Chalons-sur-Marne in France;
a learned theologian and historian who defended the Protestant position
against the Catholics. Was Professor of History at Amsterdam. His _De
la primaute de l'Eglise_ appeared in 1641.
{239b} Le Blanc de Beaulieu, Louis (1614-1675). A French Protestant
theologian who enjoyed the consideration of both parties and was
approached by Turenne with a view to a reunion of the churches. His
position was sustained before the Protestant Academy at Sedan with
certain theses published under the title of _Theses Sedanenzes_ in 1683.
{239c} Thiersch, Heinrich Wilhelm Josias (1817-1885). Born in Munich
and died in Basle; held for a time a Professorship of Theology in
Marburg, then became the principal pastor of the Irvingite Church in
Germany, preaching in many cities. He wrote many books. His
_Vorlesungen uber Katholizismus und Protestantismus_ appeared first in
1846.
{239d} Mohler, Johann Adam (1796-1838). Born in Igersheim and died in
Munich. A Catholic theologian and Professor of Theology at Tubingen. His
_Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgegensatze zwischen den Katholiken und
Protestanten_ was first published in Mainz in 1834.
{240a} Scherer, Edmond (1815-1889). A French theologian; born in Paris,
died at Versailles. Was for a time in England, then Professor of
Exegesis in Geneva. Was for many years a leader of the French Protestant
Church. His _Melanges de critique religieuse_ appeared in Paris in 1860.
{240b} Hooker, Richard (1554-1600). Born in Exeter. In 1584 was Rector
of Drayton-Beauchamp, near Tring, and the following year became Master of
the Temple. In 1591 became Vicar of Boscombe and sub-Dean of Salisbury.
His _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_ was published in 1594. In 1595 he
removed to Bishopsbourne, near Canterbury, where he died.
{240c} Weingarten, Hermann (1834-1892). Protestant ecclesiastical
historian, born in Berlin, where in 1868 he became a professor, later
held chairs successively at Marberg and Breslau. His book _Die
Revolutionskirchen Englands_ appeared in 1868.
{240d} Kliefoth, Theodor Friedrich (1810-1895). A Lutheran theologian;
born at Kirchow in Mecklenburg, and died at Schwerin, where he was for a
time instructor to the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and held
various offices in connexion with that state. He wrote many theological
works. His _Acht Bucher von der Kirche_ was published at Schwerin in 1
volume in 1854.
{240e} Laurent, Francois (1810-1887). Born in Luxemburg and died in
Gent, where he long held a professorship. His principal work, _Etudes
sur l'histoire de l'humanite_, _Histoire du droit des gens_ was published
in Brussels in 18 volumes between 1860 and 1870.
{241a} Ferrari, Guiseppe (1812-1876) was born in Milan, and died in
Rome. Achieved fame as a philosophical historian. Held a chair at Turin
and afterwards at Milan. As member of the Parliament of Piedmont he was
an opponent of Cavour's policy of a United Italy. His principal book is
entitled _Histoire des revolutions de l'Italie_, _ou Guelfes et
Gibelins_, published in Paris in four volumes between 1856 and 1858.
{241b} Lange, Friedrich Albert (1828-1875). Philosopher and economic
writer, born at Wald bei Solingen, died at Marburg. Held a professorial
chair at Zurich and later at Marburg. His most famous book, the
_Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedentung in der
Gegenwart_, first appeared in 1866. It was published in England in 1878-
81 by Trubner in three volumes.
{241c} Guicciardini, Francesco (1483-1540), the Italian historian and
statesman, was born at Florence. Undertook in 1512 an embassy from
Florence to the Court of Ferdinand the Catholic, and learned diplomacy in
Spain. In 1515 he entered the service of Pope Leo X. His principal book
is his _History of Italy_. The _Istoria d'Italia_ appeared in Florence
in ten volumes between 1561 and 1564. His _Recordi Politici_ consists of
some 400 aphorisms on political and social topics and has been described
by an Italian critic as "Italian corruption codified and elevated to a
rule of life."
{241d} Duperron, Jacques Davy (1556-1618), a Cardinal of the Church,
born at Saint Lo. He was a Court preacher under Henry III of France and
denounced Elizabeth of England in a funeral sermon on Mary Stuart. It is
told of him that he once demonstrated before the king the existence of
God, and being complimented upon his irrefutable arguments, replied that
he was prepared to bring equally good arguments to prove that God did not
exist. He became Bishop of Evreux in 1591.
{242a} Richelieu, Cardinal--(Armand-Jean Du Plessis)--(1585-1642). The
famous minister of Louis XIII; born in Paris, of a noble family of
Poitou. Was made Bishop of Lucon by Henry IV at the age of twenty-two.
Became Almoner to Marie de Medici, the Regent of France. Was elected a
Cardinal in 1622. He wrote many books, including theological works,
tragedies, and his own Memoirs. The authenticity of his _Testament
politique_ was disputed by Voltaire.
{242b} Harrington, James (1611-1677) was born at Upton,
Northamptonshire; was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He
travelled on the Continent, but was back in England at the time of the
Civil War, in which, however, he took no part. He published his _Oceana_
in 1656. He is buried in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, next to the
tomb of Sir Walter Raleigh. His _Writings_ in an edition issued in 1737
by Millar contained twenty separate treatises in addition to _Oceana_,
but concerned with that book.
{242c} Mignet, Francois Auguste Marie (1796-1884). The historian; was
born at Aix and died in Paris. Published his _History of the French
Revolution_ in 1824. His _Negociations relatives a la succession
d'Espagne_ appeared in 4 volumes between 1836 and 1842. He also wrote a
_Life of Franklin_, a _History of Mary Stuart_, and many other works.
{243a} Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712-1778), the famous writer, was born
in Geneva and died at Ermenonville. Much of his life story has been told
in his incomparable _Confessions_. In 1759 he published _Nouvelle
Heloise_; in 1762, _L'Emile ou de l'Education_. His _Considerations sur
la Pologne_ was written by Rousseau in 1769 in response to an application
to apply his own theories to a scheme for the renovation of the
government of Poland, in which land anarchy was then at its height. Mr.
John Morley (_Rousseau_, Vol. II) dismisses the pamphlet with a
contemptuous line.
{243b} Foncin, Pierre (1841- still living). A French Professor of
History; born at Limoges, and has long held important official positions
in connexion with education. He has written many books, including an
_Atlas Historique_. His _Essai sur le ministere Turgot_ appeared in
1876, and obtained a prize from the French Academy.
{243c} Burke, Edmund (1729-1797), the famous statesman, was born in
Dublin and died at Beaconsfield, Bucks, where he was buried. His
_Vindication of Natural Society_ appeared in 1756. Burke entered
Parliament for Wendover in 1765, sat for Bristol, 1774-80, and Malton,
1780-94. His _Collected Works_ first appeared in 1792-1827 in 8 volumes,
the first three of which were issued in his lifetime; his _Collected
Works and Correspondence_ was published in 8 volumes in 1852, but the
_Correspondence_ had appeared separately in 4 volumes in 1844.
{243d} Las Cases, Emmanuel Augustine Dieudonne Marir Joseph (1766-1842).
Educated at the Military School in Paris but entered the French navy;
emigrated at the Revolution; fought at Quiberon; taught French in London;
published in 1802 his _Atlas historique et geographique_ under the
pseudonym of "Le Sage." On his return to France he came under the notice
of Napoleon, who made him a Count of the Empire and sent him upon several
important missions. During the Emperor's exile in Elba he again went to
England. He returned during the Hundred Days and accompanied Napoleon to
St. Helena. Here he recorded day by day the conversations of the great
exile. At the end of eighteen months he was exiled by Sir Hudson Lowe to
the Cape of Good Hope. He returned to France after the death of Napoleon
and became a Deputy under Louis Philippe. His _Memorial de
Sainte-Helene_, published in 1823-1824, secured a great success.
{244a} Holtzendorff, Franz von (1829-1889), was Professor of
Jurisprudence first at Berlin and afterwards at Munich, where he died. He
wrote many books concerned with crime and its punishment, with the prison
systems of the world, etc. His _Enzyklopadie der Rechtswissenschaft in
systematischer und alphabetischer Bearbeitung_ was first published at
Leipzig in 1870 and 1871.
{244b} Jhering, Rudolph von (1818-1892), was for a time professor at
Basle, Rostock, Kiel and Vienna. His _Geist des romischen Rechts auf den
verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung_ appeared in Leipzig between
1852 and 1865, and is counted a classic in jurisprudence.
{244c} Geib, Karl Gustav (1808-1864). An eminent criminologist. Was a
Professor of Zurich and afterwards of Tubingen, where he died. Wrote
many books, of which the most important was his _Geschichte des romischen
Kriminalprozesses bis zum Tode Justinians_ in 1842. His _Lehrbuch des
deutschen Strafrechts_ appeared in 1861 and 1862, but was never
completed.
{245a} Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner (1822-1888). Jurist; born in
Kelso, Scotland; educated at Christ's Hospital, London, and at Pembroke
College, Cambridge; was Regius Professor of Civil Law at Cambridge, 1847-
54. In 1862 he became a legal member of Council in India and held the
office for seven years. In 1871 he became a K.C.S.I. and had a seat on
the Indian Council. In 1877 he was elected Master of Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, and in 1887 became Whewell Professor of International Law at
Cambridge. He died at Cannes. His principal work is his _Ancient Law_:
_its Connexion with the Early History of Society and its Relation to
Modern Ideas_, first published in 1861.
{245b} Gierke, Otto Friedrich (1841- still living), was born in Stettin;
was Professor of Law in Breslau, Heidelberg and Berlin successively.
Served in the Franco-German War of 1870. His principal work, _Das
deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht_, appeared in 3 volumes in Berlin, the
first in 1868, the third in 1881.
{245c} Stahl, Friedrich Julius (1802-1861), was born in Munich of Jewish
parents, died in Bruckenau. Held chairs of law and jurisprudence in
Berlin and other cities, and wrote many books. His _Die Philosophie des
Rechts und geschichtlicher Ansicht_ appeared at Heidelberg in 2 volumes
in 1830 and 1837.
{246a} Gentz, Friedrich von (1764-1832). A distinguished publicist and
statesman; born in Breslau, died at Weinhaus, near Vienna; studied
Jurisprudence in Konigsberg. One of his earliest literary efforts was a
translation of Burke's _Reflections upon the French Revolution_. Played
a very considerable part in the combination of the powers of Europe
against Napoleon in 1809-15. He was the author of many books. His
_Briefewechsel mit Adam Muller_ was published in Stuttgart in 1857--long
after his death.
{246b} Vollgraff, Karl Friedrich (1794-1863), was for a time Professor
of Jurisprudence at Marburg, where he died. His two most important books
were: (1) _Der Systeme der praktischen Politik im Abendlande_; (2)
_Erster Versuch einer Begrundung der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die
Anthropologie und der Staats und Rechts Philosophie durch die Ethnologie
oder Nationalitat der Volker_, published in 4 volumes in 1851 to 1855. It
is in this last volume that a section is devoted to Polignosie.
{246c} Frantz, Konstantin (1817-1891). Distinguished publicist; born at
Halberstadt and died at Blasewitz, near Dresden, where he made his home
for many years. Was for a time German Consul in Spain. His great
doctrine laid down in his _Die Weltpolitik_, 1883, was the union of
Central Europe against the growing power of Russia and the United States
of America. His _Kritik aller Parteien_ was published in Berlin in 1862.
{246d} Maistre, Joseph Marie Comte de (1753-1821). A distinguished
French publicist; born at Chambery; studied at the University of Turin.
Lived for some years at Lausanne, where he published in 1796 his
_Considerations sur la Revolution francaise_.
{247a} Donoso Cortes, Jean Francois (1809-1853). A famous Spanish
publicist; born in Estremadura; played a considerable part in Spanish
affairs under Marie-Christine and Queen Isabella. Was for a time Spanish
Ambassador to Berlin, and later to France, where he died in Paris. He
wrote much upon such questions as the Catholic Church and Socialism.
{247b} Perin, Henri Charles Xavier (1815- ), a Belgium economist, born
at Mons; became an advocate at Brussels and also Professor of Political
Economy in that city. His book _De la Richesse dans les Societes
Chretiennes_ appeared in Paris in 2 volumes in 1861.
{247c} Le Play, Pierre Guillaume Frederic (1806-1882). Born at
Honfleur. He directed the organization of the Paris International
Exhibitions of 1855 and 1867. He wrote many books. His _La reforme
sociale en France deduite de l'observation comparee des peuples
Europeens_ was published in two volumes in 1864.
{247d} Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich (1823-1897). A well-known author; born
at Biebrich-am-Rhein, died in Munich. He was associated with several
German newspapers, and edited from 1848 to 1851 the _Nassauische
Allgemeine Zeitung_, from 1851 to 1853 the _Augsburger Allgemeine
Zeitung_, and afterwards became a Professor of Literature at Munich. In
1885 he became the director of the Bavarian National Museum. He wrote
many books, the one referred to by Lord Acton having been published in
1851 under the title of _Die burgerliche Gesellschaft_.
{248a} Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard Sismonde de (1773-1842), the
distinguished historian of the Italian republics, was born at Geneva of
an Italian family originally from Pisa. He resided for a time in
England. His famous book the _Histoire des Republiques Italiennes de
Moyen-Age_ appeared between 1807 and 1818 in 16 volumes. His _Etudes sur
les Constitutions des Peuples Libres_, was one of many other books.
{248b} Rossi, Pellegrino Luigi Odoardo (1787-1848). An Italian
publicist; born at Carrara. Keenly sympathized with the French
Revolution and served under Murat in the Hundred Days, after which he
fled to Geneva. In later years he became a nationalized Frenchman,
occupied a Chair of Constitutional Law, and finally became a peer. As
Comte Rossi he went on a special embassy to Rome. He was assassinated in
that city during the troubles of 1848. His _Traite du Droit
Constitutionnel_ appeared in 2 volumes.
{248c} Barante, Aimable Guillaume Prosper Brugiere, baron de
(1782-1868), historian and politician, was born at Riom. He was made a
Counciller of State by Louis XVIII in 1815, and a peer of France in 1819.
He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1828. Under Louis
Philippe he became Ambassador first at Turin and afterwards at St.
Petersburg. After the revolution of 1848 he devoted himself entirely to
literature. He wrote many historical and literary studies, and
translated the works of Schiller into French. His _Vie politique de
Royer-Collard_ has several times been reprinted.
{249a} Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper (1798-1881), was a distinguished
French publicist, born at Rouen. He was parliamentary deputy for
Sancerre in 1831 and took part in most of the political struggles of the
following twenty years. He was exiled from France at the time of the
_Coup d'Etat_, but returned during the reign of Napoleon III. Henceforth
he devoted himself exclusively to historical studies. His _Histoire du
gouvernement parlementaire en France_, published in 1870, secured his
election to the French Academy.
{249b} Madison, James (1751-1836). The fourth President of the United
States; born at Port Conway, Virginia. Acted with Jay and Hamilton in
the Convention which framed the Constitution and wrote with them _The
Federalist_. He had two terms of office--between 1809 and 1817--as
President. He died at Montpelier, Virginia. His _Debates of the
Congress of Confederation_ was published in Elliot's "Debates on the
State Conventions," 4 vols., Philadelphia, 1861.
{249c} Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804). A great American statesman, who
served in Washington's army, and after the war became eminent as a lawyer
in New York. He wrote fifty-one out of the eighty-five essays of _The
Federalist_. He was appointed Secretary of the Treasury to the United
States in 1789. He was mortally wounded in a duel by Aaron Burr in 1804.
His influence upon the American Constitution gives him a great place in
the annals of the Republic.