THE AFTER-THROES OF THE WAR.
Sufferings of the Prisoners--The Arena--Cruelty of
Titus--Enmity of the Antiochians--Triumph of the Emperor
on the occasion of the Conquest of Judæa--End of Simon
Bar-Giora and John of Gischala--Coins to Commemorate the
Roman Triumph--Fall of the Last Fortresses: Herodium, Masada,
and Machærus--Resistance of the Zealots in Alexandria
and Cyrene--End of the Temple of Onias--The Last of the
Zealots--Death of Berenice and Agrippa--Flavius Josephus and
his Writings.
70-73 C. E.
It would, indeed, be difficult to describe the sufferings of those who
were taken captive in the war, estimated at the number of nine hundred
thousand. The surviving inhabitants of Jerusalem were driven into the
site of the Temple, and placed under the guardianship of a certain
Fronto and a freed slave. All those who were recognized as insurgents
were crucified, the princes of Adiabene alone being spared and sent
as hostages to Rome, to secure the loyalty of the king of Adiabene.
Seventeen thousand prisoners died of hunger, many of them being
neglected by Fronto, whilst others indignantly refused the food which
their conquerors offered them. From amongst the youths above seventeen
years of age, the tallest and handsomest were selected for the Roman
triumphs, whilst others were sent to labor in the mines for the rest of
their lives, or were relegated to the Roman provinces, to take their
part in the fights of the arena. Youths under the age of sixteen and
most of the female captives were sold into slavery at an incredibly low
price, for the market was glutted. How many scenes of horror must have
been witnessed and enacted by those unfortunate ones! They had, it is
true, one ray of comfort left. Possibly they might be carried to some
Roman town where a Judæan community existed; their own people would
assuredly give any sum to purchase their freedom, and would then treat
them with brotherly sympathy.
Vespasian now declared that all Judæa was his property by conquest, and
bade the Roman officials divide the country into lots, offering them to
the highest bidder. And why should he not do so? Had he not fertilized
the land with blood? Besides which, the sale would realize great
profits, and Vespasian cared even more for gold than for honor.
And what was the work of the merciful Titus after ordering the
execution of thousands, and consigning thousands to slavery? In his
march through Syria he was followed by the most vigorous of his
captives in chains. When he held his court in Cæsarea, and entertained
his friends in true Roman style, wild beasts were brought into the
arena, and Judæan captives fought with them until they were torn to
death; or they were forced to fight one against another, dying by
each other's hands. Thus at Cæsarea, two thousand five hundred brave
Judæan youths perished in this manner to celebrate the birthday of
Domitian, the brother of the conqueror. And at Cæsarea Philippi, on
Mount Hermon, the residence of King Agrippa, this terrible spectacle
was renewed before the eyes of that monarch and of the Princess
Berenice. Vespasian's birthday was honored in the same way at Berytus,
the sand of the arena being literally soaked with Judæan blood. In
fact, the gentleness and humanity of Titus were strangely displayed in
all cities of Syria by a repetition of these barbarities. The Judæan
communities in Syria, Asia Minor, Alexandria, and Rome, very nearly
shared the fate of their brethren in Judæa. For the war had aroused the
hatred of the entire heathen world against the unfortunate children
of Israel--a hatred which was fanatical in its intensity, its object
being the entire destruction of the whole race. Titus' inmost feelings
must have coincided with those of his people. But strange to say, his
love for Berenice, so deeply implanted in his heart, made him, upon one
occasion, extend his mercy to her race. When he approached the city of
Antioch, the whole populace turned out to meet him and demanded nothing
less than the expulsion of the Judæan colony. But Titus replied that
"The Judæans having no country left to them, it would be inhuman to
expel them from Antioch--they had no retreat." He even refused sternly
to cancel their existing privileges. The Alexandrian Judæans also were
left undisturbed in their adopted city.
Titus determined to celebrate his triumph over Judæa in the capital
of the empire. For this purpose seven hundred of the flower of the
Judæan captives and the two leaders of the Zealots, John of Gischala,
who had surrendered to the enemy when fainting with hunger, and Simon
Bar-Giora, were sent to Rome. At the close of the siege of Jerusalem
the dauntless Simon had leaped, with some of his followers, into one
of the vaults beneath the city, and provided with workmen's tools,
had attempted to hew his way out; but coming upon a great rock he was
prevented from accomplishing his purpose, and his slender stock of
provisions failing him, he determined to die as became a hero. In a
white robe, covered with a purple mantle, he suddenly appeared before
the Roman sentinels who were reposing amongst the ruins of the Temple.
They gazed at him with terror. He merely addressed them with the
following words: "Take me to your general." When Rufus appeared at the
sentinels' call, the leader of the Zealots presented himself before
his astonished gaze, saying: "I am Simon Bar-Giora." He was instantly
thrown into chains, and calmly awaited the fate that he knew was in
store for him.
Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, celebrated their
triumph over Judæa, in the imperial city of Rome. In front of the
emperor were borne the vessels of the Temple, the seven-branched
candlestick, the golden table, and a roll of the Law. The Romans were
further gladdened by the pageant of a long train of Judæan captives
heavily chained, and by the wonderful representations of all the
horrors and misery of the war--a kind of theatrical entertainment,
devised with much ingenuity for the occasion. Simon Bar-Giora (the
terrible foe of the Roman legions), with a halter round his neck, was
dragged through the streets of Rome, and finally hurled as a human
sacrifice to the gods, from the Tarpeian rock. John of Gischala met
with his fate in a dungeon. Tiberius Alexander, the conqueror of his
own race, shared in the triumph, and a statue was erected in his
honor in the Forum. Josephus was but a spectator of the scene. This
magnificent triumph, the like of which had not been witnessed for many
years in Rome, was a proof of the exultant joy, which passed like
a wave over the heathen world, at the fall of Judæa, for the Roman
legions had but rarely met with so obstinate a foe. To commemorate
this great victory, coins were struck, upon which Judæa was variously
represented, as a sorrowing woman under a palm tree, either standing
with fettered hands, or seated in a despairing attitude upon the
ground. The coins bore these inscriptions, "the Conquered" or "the
Captive Judæa" ("Judæa devicta," "Judæa capta"). Later on, a beautiful
arch was erected to Titus, which is still standing, and upon which the
carved reliefs of the candlestick and vessels of the Temple are plainly
visible. The Roman Judæans, not only at that time, but in years to
come, would take a longer or more circuitous route, to avoid seeing
this trophy. The rich spoils of the Sanctuary were deposited in the
Temple of Peace, and the roll of the Law in the imperial palace; but at
a later time, when Rome was expiating her heavy sins, these relics of
the glory of Jerusalem were carried to other countries.
Judæa was not yet entirely subjugated, for three strong fortresses were
still in arms: Herodium, Machærus, and Masada. The governor, Bassus,
sent by Vespasian to Judæa, was commanded to take them. Herodium
surrendered immediately, but Machærus offered a stubborn resistance.
This fortress, built by Alexander Jannæus, was well defended from the
enemy by its natural position. Steep precipices and yawning ravines
made it impregnable. But it fell--and in this way: The young commander,
Eleazer, a valiant hero, was captured by the Romans, whilst fearlessly
standing without the gates, proudly reliant upon the terror of his
arms. Bassus ordered him to be scourged within view of the besieged,
and then made semblance of having him crucified. A wail of despair went
up from the fortress; the besieged, determined to save their beloved
comrade, offered to give up their citadel if his life were spared.
Bassus agreed to this proposal, and the garrison was saved; but of
the inhabitants of the lower town, the men and youths were inhumanly
butchered, to the number of 1700, and the women and children sold into
slavery.
Three thousand Zealots, under Judas ben Jair, who had escaped by one
of the subterranean passages from Jerusalem, were hiding in a wood
on the outskirts of the Jordan. There they were, however, discovered
and surrounded by the Romans, who mercilessly destroyed them. The
death of Bassus, taking place at this time, caused the difficult task
of the conquest of Masada to devolve upon his successor Silva. This
hill-fortress was, if possible, still more inaccessible than that of
Machærus. The garrison consisted of 1000 Zealots, with their wives
and children, commanded by Eleazer ben Jair, a descendant of Judas
the founder of the Zealots. They were amply provided with provisions,
water and weapons, and were, moreover, men of heroic resolve. But a
Roman battering-ram destroyed one of the protecting walls, and a second
wall of wooden beams, built by the besieged, was set on fire by the
assailants. The situation was a hopeless one. Eleazer realized this,
and determined upon persuading the garrison to die by their own hands
rather than to fall into the power of the Romans. The heroes agreed
to this proposal, even with enthusiasm, and on the first day of the
great Feast of Passover, after slaying their wives and children, they
all perished on their own swords. When the Romans entered the citadel,
prepared for the last desperate struggle with their victims, they stood
amazed at the ominous silence, and their shouts brought forth only two
trembling women and five children, who came creeping out from a cavern.
And it was thus that the last Zealots fell on Judæan ground.
The Judæans who had tried to shake off the Roman yoke had, indeed,
been severely punished. Not only the inhabitants of Judæa, but also
the Judæan community in Rome were made answerable for the rebellion.
The two drachmæ which they had annually given to their Sanctuary were
now demanded for the Capitoline Jupiter. Vespasian's greed soon caused
this tax to be swept into his private treasury; and this first tax,
inaugurated and imposed by the emperor upon the Judæans, was called the
Judæan fiscal tax (Fiscus Judaicus). On the other hand, those Judæans
who had been friendly to Rome, and had given Vespasian assistance
during the war, were richly recompensed. Berenice was received with the
highest honors at the Imperial court. Titus' passion for this beautiful
woman was so great that once, in a fit of jealousy, he ordered the
strangulation of a Roman Consul, Cacina, his own table-companion. To
flatter his vanity the Council of the Areopagus, the Six Hundred and
the people of Athens erected a statue to Berenice, dedicated to "the
great Queen, daughter of the great King, Julius Agrippa." He was on the
eve of making her his wife, when an indignant outburst from the people
of Rome forced him to let her depart. Her brother Agrippa shared her
fall.
More fortunate was Josephus, whom Vespasian and Titus could not
sufficiently reward for his services. He accompanied the emperors
on their triumphal processions, looked on the humiliation of his
nation with revolting coldness, and showed undisguised delight in the
death of her heroes. Vespasian not only granted him extensive landed
possessions, but also placed his private palace at his disposal, and
raised him to the citizenship of Rome. So high did he stand in the
favor of the imperial house, that he was anxious to adopt their name,
and is known to posterity as "Flavius Josephus." On the other hand, he
was hated by the Judæan patriots, who exerted themselves to disturb him
in the tranquil enjoyment of his possessions.
But the war against the Zealots did not terminate with the fall of the
last fortress. They transplanted their hatred of Rome whithersoever
their flying feet carried them--to the provinces of the Euphrates,
to Arabia, Egypt, and Cyrene. The Zealots who had taken refuge in
Alexandria persuaded their co-religionists of that city to revolt
against their rulers. Many of the Alexandrian Judæans, still smarting
from the severe persecutions which they had suffered some years
previously from the Romans, were ready for revolt; but this mad scheme
was opposed by the wealthy members of the community and the Council.
They turned indignantly upon the Zealots, delivering six hundred into
the hands of the governor, Lupus, who executed them upon the spot.
Others fled to Thebes, where they were pursued, seized, and put to
the torture to make them acknowledge the emperor's authority. But
unflinchingly they bore the most horrible agonies, men and boys vying
with each other in steadfast adherence to their Zealot principles, and
dying at last under torture. Vespasian, fearing that Egypt might become
a new center of revolt, ordered the Temple of Onias to be closed,
thus taking from the people their religious focus. The annual gifts,
dedicated to the service of the Sanctuary, found their way, as a matter
of course, into the imperial treasury.
Some of the Zealots who had fled to the towns of Cyrenaica, now
attempted to endanger their peace. Jonathan, one of their number,
collected a multitude of the lower classes about him, and leading them
into the Lybian Desert, announced some miraculous interposition. But
here, again, the chief Judæans denounced their fanatical brethren to
Catullus, the Roman governor, who seized them, and had many of them
executed. Jonathan, however, evaded their pursuit for some time, and
at last, when captured, revenged himself by accusing many of the
wealthy Judæans of being his accomplices. He was thrown into chains
and sent to Rome. In the imperial city he ventured to declare that
Josephus and some of the Roman Judæans were disloyal to the emperor.
Titus indignantly refused to believe this, and appeared to defend his
favorite, whose innocence, together with that of his co-religionists,
he clearly established. Jonathan was then scourged and burnt alive.
Thus ended the Zealot movement which had spread with evil results among
a large portion of the Judæan people in the Roman Empire. But the
Zealots who had escaped to North Arabia to the vicinity of Medina were
the most fortunate; for they succeeded in founding a community of their
own, which lasted until the seventh century. Upon another occasion,
they played no unimportant part.
So great was the sensation produced throughout the Roman Empire by this
long and desperate resistance of the Judæans, that several writers
felt themselves called upon to give a detailed description of the
war. The heathen authors were, of course, partial in their treatment
of the subject; and, with due deference to the feelings of the Roman
generals, underrated the heroism of the Judæans. But Josephus, who,
in spite of his Roman proclivities, had some spark of patriotism
left, could not brook hearing his people stigmatized as cowards; so,
collecting all the facts of the long struggle that had come under his
own notice, he wrote an account of the war in seven books, at first in
the Syro-Chaldaic tongue, and afterwards in Greek (75-79). But this
version could not turn out to be any more impartial, seeing how deeply
his own interests had been involved. He laid his work before Titus,
who gave him permission to offer it to the public, a clear proof that
the Emperor was satisfied with its tendency. Justus of Tiberias had
preceded Josephus with a history of the Judæan war, in which he accused
that historian of hostility to Rome, of having been party to the revolt
in Galilee, and of having invented his descent from the Hasmonæan house.
When the war of the sword was at an end, the war of the pen was carried
on by the two writers. But Justus can hardly be commended for exemplary
conduct; for he had once led a revolt in Galilee, and had then headed
a sally against the neighboring Greek population; after which he
presented himself boldly before Agrippa. Berenice having obtained
his pardon, he was taken into the king's service and most generously
treated. But for some later offense he was imprisoned, and banished,
then recalled, pardoned, and made the king's secretary. He was at
length banished again for some unknown reason. Justus, having received
a thoroughly Greek education, was able to write the history of the war
in a more correct and elegant style than it was possible for Josephus
to do.
Jeremiah, uttering his lamentations amidst the ruins of Jerusalem,
fitly ends the first period of Jewish history; whilst Flavius Josephus,
writing the story of his people in the quiet of Cæsar's palace,
concludes the second period.
THE TALMUDIC EPOCH.