THE HERODIANS.
The Family of Herod--Partition of the Kingdom of Judæa--Revolt
against Archelaus--Sabinus and Varus--The Adventurer-Chief,
Judas the Galilæan--Confirmation of Herod's Will--Archelaus
as Ruler--His brief Reign and his Banishment--Judæa becomes
a Roman Province--The Revolt against the Census--The
Schools of Hillel and Shammai--Judas Founder of the
Party of Zealots--Onerous Taxation--Fresh Hostility of
the Samaritans--Expulsion of the Judæans from Rome by
Tiberius--Pontius Pilate.
3 B. C. E.--37 C. E.
However unfortunate the reign of Herod may have been, it yet contrasted
favorably with that which followed. Herod's rule was at all events
distinguished by external splendor, and by a certain amount of
animation in the direction of public affairs. The boundaries of
Judæa now extended far beyond the limits assigned to them in the
most prosperous days of the Hasmonæans. Those tracts of land beyond
the Jordan and the Hermon, which Aristobulus I and Alexander I had
only partially conquered after years of useless fighting, fell into
the possession of Herod merely by the stroke of a pen; but the new
territories were less welcome, perhaps, on that account than if they
had been won with toil and difficulty. The towns of Judæa had been
restored with great magnificence, they were adorned with beautiful
specimens of Greek sculpture and architecture; but the monuments
which were erected perpetuated the fame of Roman dignitaries and the
Herodian family, and not the greatness of the nation. The seaports, and
especially the port of Cæsarea, were crowded with shipping, and trade
was consequently encouraged, but the imports which naturally increased
did not help to enrich the nation. The Temple was resplendent in
its renovated glory, and outwardly recalled the days of Solomon, but
the priests were forced to offer sacrifices for the welfare of those
whom they hated in their hearts. The country even enjoyed a certain
amount of independence, for the Roman fetters were not visible at a
superficial glance. All this outward show--because it was only outward
show--disappeared with the death of the one man who knew how to make
use of it. As soon as death had torn the reins from Herod's hands,
public affairs fell into an unsettled and disjointed state, which was
the beginning of more lasting misfortunes. The edifice, superficially
constructed, soon gave way, burying among its ruins everything that
remained in Judæa of freedom and national existence.
Herod had left several daughters and six sons. Some of them he favored
in his will, others he slighted. The publication of this will (the
contents of which were known to Ptolemy, the brother of the celebrated
historian, Nicolaus of Damascus) proved how little he cared for the
interests of Judæa, and how constantly he was actuated by the most
selfish motives. Instead of keeping the unity of the country intact,
he dismembered it, so as to subdivide it between three of his sons.
The other three were not mentioned; these were--Herod, his son by
the second Mariamne; another Herod, by Cleopatra of Jerusalem; and
Phasael, by his wife Pallas. He bequeathed to his son Archelaus (whose
mother was Malthace the Samaritan) the countries of Judæa and Samaria,
with the title of sovereign. Herod Antipas (also the son of Malthace)
became the possessor of the lands of Galilee and Peræa; Philip,
the son of Cleopatra of Jerusalem, another tetrarchy--Gaulanitis,
Batanæa, Trachonitis, and the country called Panias, which contained
the source of the Jordan. He bequeathed to his sister Salome, as a
reward for her faithfulness, the revenues of the towns of Jamnia,
Azotus, and Phasaelis (to the north of Jericho). However, these last
bequests were only expressed in the form of wishes, for he left to the
emperor Augustus the right of deciding whether they should be put into
execution, or whether the land should be otherwise divided, and another
successor appointed to the throne.
The sons, who had received but scanty proofs of affection from their
father during his lifetime, were not united by any ties of brotherly
love, and each envied the share which had fallen to his brother.
Antipas grudged the large territories and the regal title of Archelaus,
because in an earlier will he had been nominated as successor to
the throne. Salome, in spite of her large possessions, was equally
embittered against Archelaus, and did all in her power to dispute the
succession. The discord which divided the house of Herod was handed
down to their children and children's children. As the fulfilment of
Herod's bequests depended on a higher authority, all the disputants
tried to ingratiate themselves with the people, who, they hoped,
would intercede in their favor with Augustus. Salome and her husband
actually countermanded an order given by Herod for the execution of
the imprisoned nobles, and persuaded the officers of the Herodian
body-guard that Herod himself had disapproved of an execution on so
large a scale.
Archelaus, who had still more causes for currying favor with the
people, appeared in the Court of the Temple after the period of
mourning had expired, and addressing the multitude from a throne
erected for the occasion, promised to abolish all the unjust laws
sanctioned in his father's reign, and to resettle public affairs, so
as to promote general peace and well-being. Emboldened by so much
condescension, the people would not rest contented with royal promises;
they insisted upon stating their grievances in a definite form, and
demanded speedy and certain redress. There were five points on which
the people were particularly resolute. They desired that the oppressive
yearly taxes should be reduced, whilst the duties upon public sales
and purchases should be completely taken off; that the prisoners who
had languished for years in dungeons should be liberated; that the
counselors who had voted the death-sentence when the Roman eagle had
been destroyed be punished; and finally that the unpopular High Priest,
Joaser, should be deposed, and one more worthy of his important office
be named in his stead.
All this was really nothing short of demanding both a new and a
popular form of government and a public condemnation of the Herodian
tyranny. However little Archelaus cared at heart for the reputation
of his father, he could not possibly agree to all these requests.
Nevertheless, he assented to everything, but he could not promise that
their wishes should be accomplished until Herod's will had received
the imperial sanction. But the crowds of people, consisting of several
thousands, who had congregated from every part of Judæa to celebrate
the Feast of Passover, incited by the Pharisees, who worked upon their
feelings by picturing to them the martyrdom of Judas and Matthias, the
destroyers of the eagle, would not be put off, and came forward full of
anger and defiance. What their intentions may have been is not known.
Archelaus, who feared a revolt, sent a troop of soldiers to quell any
disturbance, but they were assailed with stones and forced to take to
flight. In the meantime midday approached, and the people allowed their
anger to cool. They were occupied with the rites of the festivals, and
made no preparations either for defense or for commencing hostilities.
Archelaus took advantage of their inactivity; he commanded all the
infantry in Jerusalem to fall upon the sacrificing multitude, and to
hew them down; the cavalry were to remain in the open plains to arrest
the fugitives. Three thousand were killed on that day on the Mount of
the Temple and in the surrounding country; those that escaped the sword
of the enemy destroyed themselves. Heralds thereupon proclaimed to the
whole town that Archelaus forbade the celebration of the Passover for
that year, and no one was allowed to approach the Temple. This was the
inauguration of the reign of Archelaus.
Although his relatives would probably not have acted with more humanity
than he did, they cried out against his cruelty, and made use of it as
a weapon with which to serve their own purposes when in the presence of
Augustus. The whole house of Herod traveled to Rome to lay the land of
Judæa at the feet of the emperor, and to petition, according to their
respective interests, for the alteration or the confirmation of the
will.
During their absence unexpected events took place, and the prize for
which they were all contending very nearly escaped their possession
altogether. Judæa became a huge battle-field, the arena of furious
encounters. Men threw themselves into the affray, assuming the titles
of kings or leaders of the people. The blood of the slain warriors, the
groans of unarmed, wounded citizens, the smoke issuing from burning
cities, filled every heart with dismay and with horrible forebodings of
the downfall of Judæa. The tragical events which took place during the
first year after the death of Herod are described in the Chronicle as
the "War Period of Varus," the Governor of Syria.
At the desire of Archelaus, Quintilius Varus had remained in Jerusalem
after the departure of the Herodian family, so as to crush any attempt
at revolt which might occur during the absence of the princes. The
task was an easy one, for the patriots who were hostile to the
Herodians had no decided plan of action, were insufficiently armed, and
allowed themselves to be led away by their fierce hatred into unwise
and useless demonstrations. Varus, seeing no further necessity for
remaining in the Judæan capital, returned to Antioch, but he left a
considerable number of troops to be in readiness in case of any signs
of hostility.
As soon as the governor Varus had left Jerusalem another cause of
annoyance was given to the people by the arrival of Sabinus, the
treasurer of Augustus. He had been sent to claim the treasures of
Herod, and probably also all those belonging to the Temple, as if the
emperor had been the acknowledged heir to Herod's possessions. Sabinus
must have had some malevolent intention, for he hastened his journey
to Jerusalem, notwithstanding that he had promised Varus to remain at
Cæsarea until the Herodian disputes were settled. He took advantage of
the reluctance with which the custodians complied with his demands to
create a disturbance among the people, and thus obtain a pretext for
entering the city.
The Feast of Pentecost was drawing near, and, as usual, multitudes
of people congregated from all parts of the country at Jerusalem.
This time, the greater part of them were animated by hostile feelings
against the Romans and the Herodians. The strife was not delayed. The
people soon chose their leaders, and succeeded in occupying the Mount
of the Temple and the Hippodrome, whence they defied the Romans, who
had taken up their quarters in the palace of Herod. Sabinus, thinking
himself lost, encouraged the Romans to besiege the Temple, and sent
messages to Varus for more reinforcements. The Judæans, well protected
behind the Temple walls, hurled their weapons and their huge stones
down upon the Romans. Victory would have been theirs had not the enemy,
with burning materials, set fire to the colonnade. The flames spread
so rapidly that escape was impossible. Of the unfortunate combatants,
some were victims of the fire, others fell before the swords of the
Romans, and many of them killed themselves in reckless despair.
As soon as the Temple was left unprotected, the Romans, tempted by
the treasures which they knew it contained, rushed into the courts.
Sabinus alone is said to have appropriated four hundred talents from
the treasures of the Temple. The plunder of these treasures, the
desecration of the Holy of Holies, and the destruction of the halls
of the Temple, barely ten years after the sacred edifice had been
completed, roused all the indignation and, at the same time, all the
valor of the Judæans. Even a great part of the Herodian troops went
over to the malcontents, and assisted them against the Romans. Thus
strengthened, they besieged the palace of Herod, laid mines under
the towers, and threatened the Romans with destruction if they did
not retire immediately. Sabinus, anxiously awaiting the expected
reinforcements, but vacillating between fear of the besiegers and a
longing to obtain the mastery over them, remained for the time in the
citadel of the palace.
Thus all the horrors of anarchy were let loose in Judæa. Had the
insurgents found skilful and trustworthy leaders their united efforts
might have brought about such momentous events that the Herodian
dispute would have come to a most unexpected termination. But there
was no organization to give shape and purpose to all this patriotic
fervor. It was nurtured by selfish adventurers, and was therefore
hurtful to the country itself rather than dangerous to the enemy.
Two thousand soldiers, probably Idumæans, whom Herod had dismissed
shortly before his death, disturbed the regions of the south. A certain
Simon, a slave of Herod, distinguished by great beauty and an imposing
presence, collected a troop of malcontents, who hailed him as their
king, and, at his command, burned to the ground many royal castles
in the country, including the royal palace at Jericho. The palace of
Betharamata was destroyed by a band of men, the name of whose leader
is unknown. A third adventurer was a shepherd named Athronges, a giant
in strength and stature, who was accompanied into the field of battle
by four brothers, all of the same colossal build. After assuming the
royal title, he fell upon the Romans, cut off their retreat, and fought
valiantly till, after a long and fierce struggle, he was forced to
yield. There was but one leader of all these free troopers who had a
decided aim in view, and who might have proved a formidable foe, both
to Romans and Herodians, had fortune favored him, or his countrymen
given him their cordial help. This was Judas, known by the name of "the
Galilean," a native of Gamala in Gaulanitis, and a son of Ezekias,
fighting against whom Herod had won his first laurels. Judas had been
imbued, from his birth, with a passionate love for his country, and
as passionate a hatred towards the Romans. He became the leader of
a faction which gradually came to rule the country, and eventually
gave the Romans more difficulties to contend with than even the Gauls
and the Germans. Judas was at this period in the prime of life. His
intense zeal proved contagious, and he gained a considerable number of
partisans among the powerful Galileans. With their assistance he took
possession of the arsenal in Sepphoris, the Galilean capital. He then
armed his followers, gave them stipends from the money found in the
arsenal, and soon became the terror of the Romans and of all those who
were favorably disposed towards them.
Events in the region bordering on Syria were even more pressing than
Sabinus in urging the governor to suppress the revolt, and to hasten
to the rescue of the Roman troops. The terror of Varus himself was so
great that he not only ordered all the Roman troops that were at his
disposal (over twenty thousand men) to march against the insurgents,
but summoned the armies under the command of the neighboring princes.
Aretas, the king of the Nabathæans, placed his troops at the command of
the Roman general, and as they formed the vanguard of the Roman army,
they burnt and plundered all the villages through which they passed.
Varus sent one division of his troops to Galilee to commence operations
against Judas. There seems to have been a severe struggle at the town
of Sepphoris; ultimately Varus set fire to it and sold the inhabitants
as slaves, but Judas escaped. The town of Emmaus, where Athronges had
established himself, shared the same fate, though the inhabitants had
taken to flight. On his arrival at Jerusalem, Varus found that his task
had become a light one, for the besiegers were alarmed at the report
of the approach of his army, and had abandoned their struggle against
Sabinus. Notwithstanding this, two thousand prisoners were crucified at
the command of Varus.
Such was the end of a revolt which had been fanned into existence by a
natural feeling of anger and indignation, but had failed through the
absence of wise and judicious guidance. It had only been successful
in bringing the nation into a state of more humiliating dependence
upon Rome, for a legion was retained to keep guard over the rebellious
citizens of Jerusalem.
During all this time the Herodians were still discussing their claims
to the sovereignty of Judæa before the throne of Augustus, and their
servile behavior and mutual accusations only convinced the Emperor
how unworthy one and all were of holding the reins of government.
Before Augustus could come to any decision, a Judæan embassy arrived,
consisting of fifty men of position and importance, whose mission had
been approved by Varus. They brought accusations against the Herodian
government, and implored the Emperor to proclaim Judæa a Roman province
in conjunction with Syria, but to grant the nation full liberty to
conduct her own internal affairs. As the petition had the support
of eight thousand Roman-Judæans, the Emperor was obliged to listen
to it. However, after having heard both the demands of the embassy
and the arguments of the pretenders to the throne, he decided upon
confirming Herod's will, with this exception, that he did not grant the
sovereignty immediately to Archelaus, but only recognized him as ruler
(Ethnarch), promising him, however, that if he proved worthy of the
royal title it should be granted to him eventually. Augustus could not
entirely disregard the last wishes of a prince who had been his friend,
and who had served the Romans with a devotion only equaled by the zeal
with which he furthered his own egotistical ends. The imperial treasury
suffered no diminution whether Judæa was called an ethnarchy or a
province dependent upon Rome.
The reign of Archelaus was short and uneventful (4 B. C.-6 C. E.).
Herod's children had inherited little of their father's disposition,
excepting his fancy for building and his cringing policy towards Rome.
In other respects they were insignificant, and there was something
small and contemptible even in their tyranny. At first Archelaus (who
appears also under the name of Herod) attempted to conciliate the
discontented members of the community, whose indignation he had aroused
at the assembly in the courts of the Temple. He gave way to the general
desire to depose the unpopular High Priest Joasar, and appointed in his
stead the latter's brother, Eleazer, who was soon succeeded by Joshua
of the family of Sié or Seth. But he in turn was replaced by Joasar,
and thus three High Priests followed one another in the short space of
nine years. The only war carried on by Archelaus was fought against
Athronges, who had been able to hold his own for some time after the
death of his four brothers; and such was the incapacity of Archelaus
that he was long unable to subdue an adventurer, whose powers were
almost exhausted, but who was still able to dictate the conditions of
his own surrender.
Archelaus offended the feelings of the pious Judæans by his marriage
with his sister-in-law Glaphyra, the widow of Alexander, who had been
executed. This daughter of the king of Cappadocia had had two sons; one
of these, Tigranes, and his nephew of the same name, became, in later
years, kings respectively of Greater and Lesser Armenia. Indifferent to
the melancholy fate of her husband, she married, after his death, Juba,
the king of Numidia; but was soon divorced from him, and contracted an
alliance with Archelaus, the brother of her first husband, an alliance
forbidden by Judæan laws. Little is known of the life of Archelaus;
his acts of tyranny called forth the opprobrium of the Judæans and the
Samaritans. He was taken before Augustus to answer for his misdeeds,
but being unable to defend himself, he was dethroned and sent into
exile among the Allobrogian races (6 C. E.). The principalities
belonging to Herod Antipas and to Philip remained in their former
condition, but the towns which had been in the possession of Salome
came also under the Imperial sway, for Salome had bequeathed them at
her death to the Empress Livia.
Thus after enjoying a hundred and fifty years of real or apparent
independence, Judæa became entirely subjugated to Roman authority,
and was united with the province of Syria. Matters remained in this
condition, with the exception of a short interval, till the final
revolt. The Imperial representative in Judæa, who henceforth received
the title of Procurator, had his seat of government in the seaport
Cæsarea, which from that time became the hated rival of Jerusalem. The
duties of the Procurator consisted in maintaining order in the country,
and in enforcing the punctual payment of all taxes. He had even the
power of pronouncing the death sentence, and also of supervising the
Synhedrion's administration of the criminal law.
The authority of the Synhedrion became more and more limited, and
the political importance of that assembly, which had considerably
diminished during the reign of Herod, dwindled entirely away. The
Romans interfered in all the functions of the Synhedrion, and also
in the installations of the High Priests. The Procurator named and
deposed the High Priests according to their friendly or unfavorable
inclinations towards Rome; he took charge of the sacerdotal ornaments,
and only gave them up on the chief festivals. The vestments of the High
Priests were kept under lock and key in the fortress of Antonia; they
were removed in time for the festival by the officials of the Temple,
and returned to their place of preservation in the presence of a Roman
overseer. A light was burning constantly before the case containing the
priestly vestments.
The first Procurator whom Augustus sent to Judæa was the captain of the
horse, Coponius. The Syrian Governor, Quirinius, came at the same time
(6-7) to lay claim to the confiscated property of Archelaus. He was
also instructed to take a census of the population, and to estimate the
property of the country for the purpose of the new method of taxation.
A tax was to be levied upon every individual, inclusive of women
and slaves; however, female children under twelve and male children
under fourteen years of age and very old people were to be exempt.
Furthermore, an income tax was levied, and those who kept cattle were
called upon to give up a part of their herds. The taxes on the land
were to be paid out of the produce of the harvest.
This method of levying imposts roused the indignation of all classes
alike. Every one resented such interference in private as well as
political affairs, and felt as if the land and property, and the very
person of each individual were in the hands of the emperor, and made
use of according to his pleasure. It is not surprising that, in their
ignorance of the Roman constitution, the people should have looked
upon the census as the herald of slavery, and anticipated with terror
a repetition of the Babylonian captivity. Their dread of the census,
exaggerated perhaps, but not wholly unjustifiable, caused greater
agitation than any previous statute, and aroused new disputes, in
which the old differences between Pharisee and Sadducee were entirely
forgotten. New points of discussion were raised. The question of the
supremacy of the oral law disappeared before the burning question of
the day--whether the people should become slaves to the Romans, or
whether they should offer stubborn and energetic resistance. This
question brought dissension into the camp of the Pharisees. The new
faction to which this discussion on the census had given rise sprang
from the very center of the Synhedrion, and was connected with the
names of Hillel, Shammai, and Judas of Galilee.
Hillel and Shammai did not live to see the catastrophe which made Judæa
a province of Rome. Hillel's death caused wide-spread mourning, and
the oration at his grave began with the sad cry: "O pious, O gentle,
O worthy follower of Ezra." The people, in their great affection for
him, continued to distinguish his descendants with their favor, and
the presidency of the Synhedrion became hereditary in his family for
more than four centuries. Of Hillel's son and successor, Simon I,
nothing but his name has been preserved. All the greatness which
encircled Hillel's name was bequeathed to the school which he formed,
and which inherited and faithfully preserved the spirit of its founder.
The disciples of this school evinced in all their public dealings
the peacefulness and gentleness, the conciliatory spirit which had
distinguished their great master. They were guided and supported by
these characteristic qualities during the political storms which long
convulsed their unhappy country. There were about eighty members of
this school who were most devotedly attached to Hillel, and were called
the elders of the school. The names of only two of these have been
recorded: Jonathan, the son of Uziel, and Jochanan ben Zaccai. The
former is reputed, but without actual proof, to have been the author
of a Chaldaic translation of the Prophets. He was disinherited by his
father in favor of Shammai, probably from displeasure at his having
joined the school of Hillel.
In the same way as the school of Hillel endeavored to preserve the
characteristic gentleness of their master, the followers of Shammai
emulated and even exceeded the stern severity of the founder of
their school. It seemed impossible to the school of Shammai to be
sufficiently stringent in religious prohibitions; the decisions which
they arrived at, in their interpretations of the law, were so generally
burdensome that those which were milder in character were treasured up
as rare exceptions. Thus, according to their opinion, no work should be
attempted which, if commenced before the Sabbath, would, even without
the aid of a Judæan, be completed on the Sabbath. It was prohibited on
the Sabbath day to give sums of money for charitable purposes, to make
arrangements for marriage contracts, to instruct children, to visit the
sick, or even to bring comfort to the sorrowing. In their regulations
concerning the purity of the Levites in their person and apparel,
their exaggerations brought them very near the excesses of the Essenes.
They were equally severe concerning matrimonial laws, and only allowed
divorce to be granted in the case of the unchastity of the wife.
In the school of Shammai, the Pharisaic principles were carried to
the very extreme. It was only due to the yielding disposition of the
followers of Hillel that peace was not disturbed, and that a friendly
relationship existed between two schools of such opposite views and
characters. The school of Shammai were not only severe in their
explanations of the laws, but entertained very stern and rigid opinions
on nearly all subjects; they were particularly harsh and repellant
towards proselytes to Judaism. Any heathen who came to the school of
Shammai, requesting to be received into the community might expect but
a very cold and repellant reception. The school of Shammai cared not
for proselytes. How dangerous to Judaism lukewarm proselytes may be,
they had too often seen in the case of the converted Herodians. But in
spite of their own rigid obedience to the Law, they did not exact the
same obedience from the Judæan troops who were fighting against the
national enemy. Originally there had been some hesitation about making
war on the Sabbath, but now the school of Shammai were unreservedly
in favor thereof; the siege of a hostile city, commenced before the
Sabbath, was not to be raised, in spite of the transgressing of the
Sabbath law, until the fortress surrendered. These ordinances were
instituted by Shammai himself, in whom hatred of the heathen was even
greater than religious devotion. The school of Shammai had a large
number of adherents in the Synhedrion, as well as among the people.
Their religious austerity, and their hatred of the heathens, found more
sympathizers than the moderation and peacefulness of the followers of
Hillel. They consequently formed the majority, and were able to carry
all their resolutions. Among the followers of Shammai, several names
have been preserved--Baba ben Buta, Dostai from Itome, and Zadok.
It is possible that this Zadok may be the same of whom it is related
that, excited by a fanatical hatred of the Romans, he joined with Judas
the Galilean, and placed himself at the head of a religious republican
faction who called themselves the _Zealots_ (Kannaim). The members
of this faction were also called the Galileans. The watchword which
Judas gave the party of the Zealots, and which was eagerly endorsed by
Zadok, was that obedience to the Roman law was disregard of the Divine
law, for God alone was ruler, and could alone demand obedience; that
it became, therefore, a clear and solemn duty to strain every nerve,
and sacrifice property, and life, and family in this struggle against
the usurper, who exacted submission due to God alone. And they set up
as an exemplar Phineas, the slayer of the chief Zimri, the only one
who, in the presence of a neglectful tribe and a slothful nation, had
served his God with zeal. Furthermore, Judas proclaimed that the Judæan
state must be a republic, recognizing God alone as sovereign and His
laws as supreme. This teaching found favor all the more readily as the
Roman yoke was becoming more and more intolerable. The great purpose
they had in view--the recovery of their freedom--electrified young and
old, and the Zealots, a faction which at first only comprised followers
of Shammai, soon included a great number of Judæans, who chafed
indignantly under the weight of the Roman fetters.
As soon as the law was passed that every one should give an accurate
description of his family, his lands and his property, Zadok and Judas
gave the signal for energetic resistance. In some places a conflict
seems to have ensued. The more moderate, however, including the
High Priest Joasar, tried to pacify the malcontents by explaining
that the census would not be the precursor of slavery or of the
confiscation of property, but was simply necessary in order to control
the arrangements for taxation. It was useless, and the census was
regarded with such suspicion and dislike that every fine was now called
census (Kenas). Even the moderate party, although they endeavored to
stem the agitation, were indignant at the encroachments made upon
their liberties. The school of Hillel considered the taxation so
unjustifiable that, conscientious as they were, they acceded to all
measures by which it might be escaped.
Such was the general abhorrence for this system of taxation, that
all those who were officially occupied in carrying it out, whether
as tax-collector (Moches) or as treasurer (Gabbai), were looked upon
as dishonorable men; they were not tolerated in the higher ranks of
the community, and their testimony as witnesses was discredited. Only
mercenary motives and utter indifference to public opinion could
induce any one to undertake the despised office. The designations of
tax-gatherer and overseer became henceforth terms of opprobrium.
Another change also originated with the Roman occupation of Judæa.
All public documents, deeds of divorce, etc., were now to be dated
according to the year of the reign of the Roman Emperor, and not, as
formerly, that of the Judæan rulers. The Zealots were much annoyed at
this innovation, and they accused the more moderate Pharisees, who had
yielded to it, of indifference in matters of religion. "How could such
an ignominy be perpetrated as to write the words, 'according to the
laws of Moses and Israel'" (the usual formula in the separation deeds)
"next to the name of the heathen ruler, and thus permit the holy name
of the greatest prophet to be placed by the side of the name of the
heathen ruler." In one matter Quirinius was forced to yield to the
wishes of the people. He deposed the unpopular High Priest Joasar, and
named in his stead Anan of the family of Seth, whose four sons also
became high priests.
Under Coponius, who entered upon his office of Procurator when
Quirinius left, the old enmity between the Judæans and Samaritans
revived. Several days before the Feast of Passover, the doors of the
Temple were thrown open at midnight, on account of the great number of
offerings which took place during that time. A few Samaritans stole
into the first outer court, and threw some human bones in among the
pillars, with the object of polluting the Temple. Henceforth the hatred
between these two races became fiercer than ever, and the guards of the
Temple, who were under the charge of the Levites, were strengthened,
so as to prevent the recurrence of such a desecration. Not long after
these events Coponius was recalled. He was followed by Marcus Ambivius,
who in a short time was also recalled, and was succeeded by Annius
Rufus. Thus there were three overseers in the short space of seven
years (7-14), a disastrous circumstance, as each one was intent upon
draining, as far as possible, all the wealth from the nation.
The death of Augustus brought little change to Judæa; the latter simply
became, with other provinces, the possession of Tiberius. Outwardly,
these provinces may not have suffered under the new emperor's reign,
for he was just to the people, though antagonistic to the aristocracy,
which he endeavored to suppress. He listened to the complaints of
the Judæans, and lightened the burdens of their almost unendurable
taxation. He appointed as procurator Valerius Gratus, who occupied this
post for eleven years (15-26) In reality, however, the antipathy of
Tiberius to the Judæans was even greater than that of his predecessor
and adopted father; it would seem as if the representative of
imperialism in Rome had a foreboding of the mortal blow which Rome was
destined to receive from Judaism. This antipathy had probably been
stimulated by the fact that the Romans, and particularly the Roman
women, had a leaning towards Judaism. The enthusiasm of the Judæans
for their religion presented a striking contrast to the indifference
with which the Romans, both the priests and the laity, regarded their
national worship. The loss of freedom in imperial Rome had carried
away with it that ideality which inspires highly-gifted souls; ardent
and emotional minds sought in vain for some lofty interest to satisfy
their longings. Several Roman proselytes, during the reign of Tiberius,
gave evidence of their religious enthusiasm by sending offerings to the
Temple at Jerusalem. It may have been a feeling of superstition, rather
than conviction, which gave rise to conversions; for from the converts
gained for the cult of Isis in Rome, it was evident that the unknown,
the strange, the mystical exercised a strong fascination over those
from whose lives all idealism was banished.
The displeasure of Tiberius was incurred by the Roman proselytes for
the first time under the following circumstances:--Fulvia, the wife of
a very highly respected senator, had been converted to Judaism, and had
sent offerings to the Temple through the agency of her teachers, who,
however, had retained these offerings for themselves. As soon as these
facts came to the ears of Tiberius, he presented a law against Judæans
to the Senate. That body consequently resolved that Judæans must leave
the city of Rome, on pain of becoming slaves for life, unless they
abjured Judaism within a given time. This measure is said to have been
urgently recommended by the minister Sejanus, who exercised a most
powerful influence over Tiberius. Thousands of Judæan youths were,
then and there, banished to Sardinia, to fight against the hordes of
brigands that infested that island. Banishment to so uncongenial a
climate was almost certain to be fatal to the unfortunate youths; but
this consideration did not lead the Emperor, as hard-hearted as his
senators, to take a milder course. The Judæans throughout Italy were
threatened with banishment if they did not forsake their religious
observances; all young men, in the prime of life, were forced to come
armed into the camp on the Sabbath-day; severe punishment followed if
religious scruples dictated a refusal. This was the first time that
the Judæans had suffered religious persecution in Rome--their first
martyrdom--destined to be the precursor of countless others.
The Procurator Gratus, whom Tiberius had appointed, took as active
a part as his predecessors in the internal affairs of Judæa. During
the eleven years that he occupied his post he installed as many as
five high priests, of whom some only retained their office during one
year. These changes were sometimes due to the unpopularity of the high
priests, but were far more often the result of bribery or of wanton
arbitrariness.
Although Judæa and the neighboring lands of Idumæa and Samaria were
ruled by Procurators, the tetrarchy of Galilee and Peræa enjoyed
a semblance of independence under the reign of Herod Antipas, and
the lands of Batanæa and Trachonitis under that of Philip. These
two princes were distinguished only for their passion for building
and their submissiveness to Rome. Herod Antipas had at first made
Sepphoris the capital of his tetrarchy, but as soon as Tiberius became
emperor he built a new city in the lovely neighborhood of the lake of
Gennesareth, which he named Tiberias, and where he established his
court (24-26). But the pious Judæans objected to living in this new
city; it had probably been built upon a site which had once served as
a battle-field, as a quantity of human bones were discovered there.
The inhabitants were consequently prevented by the strict Levitical
regulations from visiting the Temple, and performing various religious
observances. Antipas induced the Judæans to settle there only by
holding out the most tempting offers and by using force; and a century
actually elapsed before the more conscientious members of the people
consented to take up their abode in the city of Tiberias.
The town of Beth-Ramatha, in a situation similar to that of Jericho,
and also rich in the produce of balsam plants, was renamed Livia, in
honor of the wife of Augustus. Philip, whose revenue from the country
only amounted to one hundred talents, also built two cities. One of
these he built in the beautiful district near the source of the Jordan,
and named it Cæsarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the seaport town
of Cæsarea; the other, to the northeast of the Lake of Gennesareth,
he named Julias, after the daughter of Augustus. Indeed, Judæa teemed
with monuments erected in honor of the Cæsars. Philip's disposition
was gentle, and seemingly unmarred by fierce passions, and his reign,
which lasted seven-and-thirty years (4 B. C.-33 A. C.), was quiet
and uneventful. Antipas, on the contrary, had inherited some of his
father's wild and bloodthirsty nature.
The successor to the Governor Valerius Gratus was Pontius Pilate, whose
tenure of office (26-36) embraced a decade memorable in the history
of the world. As soon as he was in power, he showed the determination
to subject the Judæans to further humiliation, and to convince them
that they must drink the cup of suffering to the dregs. The mere facts
that Pilate was the creature of the deceitful minister Sejanus, before
whom emperor and senate trembled alike, and that he was sent by him to
Judæa, would suffice to describe his disposition. Pilate was worthy
of his master; he certainly went far beyond any of his predecessors in
wounding the susceptibilities of the Judæan nation. He attacked their
religious scruples by endeavoring to induce them to pay homage to the
emblems and insignia of imperialism. Till now the leaders of Roman
troops had respected the aversion with which the Judæans were known to
regard all images, and on entering Jerusalem the obnoxious emblems had
always been removed from the Roman standards. Herod and his sons had
never failed to observe this practice. Although Pilate well knew that
the feelings of Judæans had never before been outraged on this subject,
he paid no heed to them. It is not known whether he had received
secret injunctions on this point from Sejanus, or whether he acted on
his own authority, with the anticipation of a satisfactory bribe. He
sent privately for all the imperial emblems in order to replace them
upon the standards which were in Jerusalem. The command that these
representations of human beings were to be worshiped as deities caused
the deepest indignation throughout the land. Delegates from the people,
who were even joined by members of the Herodian family, hastened to the
Procurator at Cæsarea, and implored him to command the removal of the
hated images.
During five days the petitioners remained before the palace of the
Procurator, sending up ceaseless supplications. On the sixth day
Pilate attempted to terrify them, and threatened that they should
be cut down by his legions if they did not immediately disperse.
However, when he found that the Judæans were determined to sacrifice
their lives, if necessary, rather than their religious convictions,
and perhaps afraid of the disapproval of Tiberius, he at last gave
way, and issued a command that the cause of their anger should be
removed. But he provoked the indignation of the inhabitants of
Jerusalem against himself a short time after. He purposed making an
aqueduct from a spring at a distance of four geographical miles from
the town of Jerusalem. In order to meet the necessary expenses, he
possessed himself of the treasures in the Temple (the korban). He was
in Jerusalem at the time, and was surrounded by an angry populace,
who assailed him with execrations. He did not venture to call out his
legions, but ordered a number of soldiers to disguise themselves in
the Judæan dress, and to mingle with the crowd and attack them. The
multitudes rapidly dispersed, but not before great numbers of them had
been killed and wounded.