THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
177. By the term WHOLE COMPOSITION or THEME is meant a composition
consisting of a number of related paragraphs all dealing with one
general subject, whether the composition be a narration, a description,
or an exposition.
The following general principles applying to the construction of the
whole composition are stated for the guidance of the inexperienced
writer.
178. STATEMENT OF SUBJECT. Care should be used in the statement of
the subject. It should not be so stated as to be more comprehensive
than the composition, but should be limited to cover only what is
discussed. For a small essay, instead of a big subject, take some
limited phase of that subject:
Too broad: _College, Photography, Picnics_.
Properly limited: _A College Education as an Aid to Earning Power,
Does College Life Make Loafers? Photography as a Recreation, How
Picnics Help the Doctor._
179. THE OUTLINE. Just as in the building of a house or of a machine,
if anything creditable is to be attained, a carefully made plan is
necessary before entering on the construction; so in the writing
of an essay or theme, there should be made some plan or outline,
which will determine what different things are to be discussed,
and what is to be the method of developing the discussion. By the
inexperienced writer, at least, a composition should never be begun
until an outline has been formed for its development. As soon as
the material for the composition is in hand, the outline should be
made. It should be an aid in the construction of the composition,
not a thing to be derived after the composition is completed. Only
by the previous making of an outline can a logical arrangement be
gained, topics properly subordinated, and a suitable proportion
secured in their discussion.
In the previous chapter on the paragraph the following different
subtopics, were discussed:
Definition of Paragraph. How to Secure Unity.
Length of Paragraph. How to Secure Coherence.
The Topic Sentence. Too Frequent Paragraphing.
Unity in the Paragraph. Paragraphing of Speech.
Coherence in the Paragraph. Paragraphing for Emphasis.
Examples of Unity. Examples showing how Unity is
Purpose of the Paragraph. Destroyed.
Emphasis in the Paragraph. The Paragraph Theme.
If the topics had been taken up in the above irregular order, a
sorry result would have been obtained. Compare the above list of
topics with the following arrangement of the same topics in a logical
outline.
THE PARAGRAPH
1. Its definition and purpose.
2. Its length.
Paragraphing of speech.
Paragraphing for emphasis.
Too frequent paragraphing.
3. Its essential qualities.
A. Unity.
Definition.
Examples showing how unity is destroyed.
How to secure unity.
The topic sentence.
Development of topic sentence.
Examples showing unity.
B. Coherence.
Definition.
How to secure coherence.
Examples showing coherence.
C. Emphasis.
Places of emphasis in the paragraph.
4. Practical construction of the paragraph.
5. The paragraph theme.
180. USE AND QUALITIES OF THE OUTLINE. The use of the outline is
not restricted to an expository composition, as above, but is also
necessary in narration and description. Usually, in a narration,
the order of time in which events occurred, is the best order in
which to present them, though other arrangements may frequently
be followed with very good reason.
In a description different methods may be followed. Often a general
description is given, and then followed by a statement of various
details. Thus, in describing a building, one might first describe
in a general way its size, its general style of architecture, and
the impression it makes on the observer. Then more particular
description might be made of its details of arrangement and
peculiarities of architecture and ornamentation.
The whole object of the outline is to secure clearness of statement
and to avoid confusion and repetition. To secure this end the outline
should present a few main topics to which all others either lead
up or upon which they depend. These topics or subtopics should all
bear some apparent and logical relation to one another. The relation
may be that of chronology; that of general statement followed by
details; that of cause and effect; or any other relation, so long
as it is a logical and natural one.
The outline should not be too minute and detailed. It should be
sufficient only to cover the various divisions of the subject-matter,
and to prevent the confusion of subtopics. A too detailed outline
tends to make the composition stiff and formal.
The outline should have proportion. The essential features of the
subject should be the main topics. Minor subjects should not be
given too great prominence, but should be subordinated to the main
topics.
181. THE BEGINNING OF THE COMPOSITION. To choose a method of beginning
a composition often causes trouble. Usually a simple, direct beginning
is the best. But sometimes an introductory paragraph is necessary
in order to explain the writer's point of view, or to indicate
to what phases of the subject attention is to be given. Examine
the following methods of beginning.
THE INDUSTRY OF LAWYER
Oddly enough, hardly any notice is taken of an industry in which
the United States towers in unapproachable supremacy above all
other nations of the earth. The census does not say a word about
it, nor does there exist more than the merest word about it in
all the literature of American self-praise.
MY CHILDHOOD FEAR OF GHOSTS
Nothing stands out more keenly in the recollection of my childhood,
than the feelings of terror which I experienced when forced to go
to bed without the protecting light of a lamp. Then it was that
dread, indefinite ghosts lurked behind every door, hid in every
clothes-press, or lay in wait beneath every bed.
THE USES OF IRON
No other metal is put to so many uses and is so indispensable as
iron.
The opening sentences of a composition should be able to stand
alone; their meaning or clearness should not depend upon reference
to the title.
Bad:
THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
There is a rapidly growing belief _that this study_ has too large
a place in our high-school courses of study.
Good:
THE VALUE OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOL
There is a rapidly growing belief _that Latin_ has too large a place
in our high school courses of study.
182. UNITY IN THE COMPOSITION. Unity is an essential element of
the whole composition as well as of the paragraph, and its demands
here are in general the same. Nothing must be brought into the
composition which does not fall well within the limits of the subject.
In the different subdivisions, also, nothing must be discussed
which properly belongs to some other division of the topic.
As in the paragraph, a definite point of view should be adopted
and adhered to. There must not be a continual changing of relation
of parts of the composition to the subject, nor of the writer's
relation to the subject.
A consistent point of view is especially necessary in a narrative.
If the writer is telling of events within his own experience, care
must be taken not to bring in any conversation or occurrence, at
which, by his own story, he could not have been present. A continual
changing back and forth between present and past tenses must also
be avoided. One or the other should be adopted consistently.
183. COHERENCE IN THE COMPOSITION. A composition must also be coherent.
Its different parts must be closely knit together and the whole
closely knit to the subject. Just as in the paragraph, words of
reference and transition are needed, so in the composition, words,
or sentences of reference and transition are needed, in order to
bind the whole together and show the relation of its parts.
For this purpose, the beginning of a new division or any definite
change of topic should be closely marked, so as to prevent confusion.
There should be transition sentences, or sentences which show the
change of topic from paragraph to paragraph, and yet at the same
time bridge the thought from paragraph to paragraph. These transition
sentences may come at the end of a preceding paragraph, or at the
beginning of a following one, or at both of these places.
Examine the following parts of paragraphs in which the words or
phrases showing transition from part to part are italicized:
(Last sentence of first paragraph)
... The American War was pregnant with misery of every kind.
(Second paragraph)
_The mischief, however,_ recoiled on the unhappy people of this
country, who were made the instruments by which the wicked purposes
of the authors were effected. The nation was drained of its best
blood, and of its vital resources of men and money. The expense
of the war was enormous--much beyond any former experience.
(Third paragraph)
_And yet, what has the British nation received in return_ for this
expense....
... I was now enabled to see the _extent and aspect of my prison.
In its size_ I had been greatly mistaken....
(Beginning of paragraph following one on Unity in the paragraph)
_The second of the essentials of the paragraph_, coherence, demands
that....
Frequently, in the longer compositions, a separate paragraph is
devoted to accomplishing the transition from part to part. Observe
the following:
(Paragraph 7)
... The only other law bearing on this matter is the Act of Assembly
of last year authorizing the receipts from the automobile taxes
to be used in the construction of roads. This then completes the
enumeration of what has already been done toward building good
roads.
(Paragraph 8. Transitional paragraph)
_There are, however, several promising plans for the securing of
this important result, which are now being seriously discussed._
(Paragraph 9)
_The first of these plans is_ ...
The following are a few of the words and phrases often used to
indicate transition and to show relation between the paragraphs:
_So much for, It remains to mention, In the next place, Again,
An additional reason, Therefore, Hence, Moreover, As a result of
this, By way of exception._
Examine the selection under §187.
184. THE ENDING OF THE COMPOSITION. In a longer composition, the
ending should neither be too abrupt, nor, on the other hand, should
it be too long drawn out. It should be in proportion to the length
of the composition. Usually, except in the case of a story, it
should consist of a paragraph or two by way of summary or inference.
In a story, however, the ending may be abrupt or not. The kind of
ending depends entirely upon the nature and the scheme of development
of the story. Examine the following endings:
Ending of a theme on _The Uses of Iron_:
Only some of the more important uses of this wonderful metal, iron,
have been mentioned. There are hundreds of other uses to which it
is constantly put--uses which no other metal could fill. Gold may
once have been called the king of metals, but it has long since
lost its claim to that title.
Ending of a story:
John heard her answer, and began to move slowly away from the gate.
"Good-bye," he said.
And then he was gone, forever.
Suggested subjects for the making of outlines and compositions.
1. How I Spent my Vacation.
2. Shall Final Examinations be Abolished?
3. The Subjects which Should be Taught in High Schools.
4. My Qualifications for a Position.
5. The Uses of Iron.
6. Paul Revere's Ride.
7. The City Park.
8. My Town as a Place of Residence.
9. The Value of Railroads.
10. Why I Believe in Local Option.
11. A Winter's Sleigh Ride.
12. Shall Foreign Immigration be Restricted?
13. My Youthful Business Ventures.
14. Why I Belong to the X Political Party.
15. Various Methods of Heating a House.
185. Below is given in full Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_. It is
perfect in its English and its construction. Study it with especial
reference to its coherence, unity, and emphasis. Some of the words
of coherence have been italicized.
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers, brought forth upon this
continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal. _Now_ we are engaged
in a great civil war, testing whether _that nation_, or any nation
so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure.
We are met on a great battle-field of _that war_. We have come
to dedicate a portion of _that field_ as the final resting-place
for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live.
It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do _this. But_
in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we
cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who
_struggled here_ have consecrated it far above our power to add
or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what
we say here; but it can never forget what _they did here_.
It is for us, the living, _rather_, to be dedicated here to the
unfinished work which _they who fought here_ have thus far so nobly
advanced. _It is rather for us_ to be here dedicated to the great
task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take
increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last
full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that _these
dead_ shall not have died in vain; that _this nation_, under God,
shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people,
by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
186. _Small Economies_, from Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_.
I have often noticed that everyone has his own individual small
economies--careful habits of saving fractions of pennies in some
one peculiar direction--any disturbance of which annoys him more
than spending shillings or pounds on some real extravagance.
An old gentleman of my acquaintance, who took the intelligence of
the failure of a Joint-Stock Bank, in which some of his money was
invested, with a stoical mildness, worried his family all through a
long summer's day because one of them had torn (instead of cutting)
out the written leaves of his now useless bank-book. Of course, the
corresponding pages at the other end came out as well, and this
little unnecessary waste of paper (his private economy) chafed
him more than all the loss of his money. Envelopes fretted his
soul terribly when they first came in. The only way in which he
could reconcile himself to such waste of his cherished article
was by patiently turning inside out all that were sent to him,
and so making them serve again. Even now, though tamed by age, I
see him casting wistful glances at his daughters when they send
a whole inside of a half-sheet of note paper, with the three lines
of acceptance to an invitation, written on only one of the sides.
I am not above owning that I have this human weakness myself. String
is my foible. My pockets get full of little hanks of it, picked up
and twisted together, ready for uses that never come. I am seriously
annoyed if any one cuts the string of a parcel instead of patiently and
faithfully undoing it fold by fold. How people can bring themselves
to use india-rubber bands, which are a sort of deification of string,
as lightly as they do, I cannot imagine. To me an india rubber band
is a precious treasure. I have one which is not new--one that I
picked up off the floor nearly six years ago. I have really tried
to use it, but my heart failed me, and I could not commit the
extravagance.
Small pieces of butter grieve others. They cannot attend to conversation
because of the annoyance occasioned by the habit which some people
have of invariably taking more butter than they want. Have you not
seen the anxious look (almost mesmeric) which such persons fix on
the article? They would feel it a relief if they might bury it out
of their sight by popping it into their own mouths and swallowing
it down; and they are really made happy if the person on whose
plate it lies unused suddenly breaks off a piece of toast (which
he does not want at all) and eats up his butter. They think that
this is not waste.
Now Miss Matty Jenkins was chary of candles. We had many devices
to use as few as possible. In the winter afternoons she would sit
knitting for two or three hours--she could do this in the dark, or
by firelight--and when I asked if I might not ring for candles to
finish stitching my wristbands, she told me to "keep blind man's
holiday." They were usually brought in with tea; but we only burnt
one at a time. As we lived in constant preparation for a friend
who might come in any evening (but who never did), it required
some contrivance to keep our two candles of the same length, ready
to be lighted, and to look as if we burnt two always. The candles
took it in turns; and, whatever we might be talking or doing, Miss
Matty's eyes were habitually fixed upon the candle, ready to jump
up and extinguish it and to light the other before they had become
too uneven in length to be restored to equality in the course of
the evening.
One night, I remember this candle economy particularly annoyed me.
I had been very much tired of my compulsory "blind man's holiday,"
especially as Miss Matty had fallen asleep, and I did not like to
stir the fire and run the risk of awakening her; and so I could
not even sit on the rug, and scorch myself with sewing by firelight,
according to my usual custom....
187. A LIST OF BOOKS FOR READING. These books are of a varied character
and are all interesting and of recognized excellence in their English.
Most of them are books that, as a matter of general education,
should be read by everyone.
Fiction:
Treasure Island--Stevenson.
Kidnapped--Stevenson.
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde--Stevenson.
The Scarlet Letter--Hawthorne.
Twice Told Tales--Hawthorne.
The Luck of Roaring Camp--Bret Harte.
Tales of Mystery and Imagination--Poe.
Silas Marner--Eliot.
Robinson Crusoe--Defoe.
Ivanhoe--Scott.
Henry Esmond--Thackeray.
Pilgrim's Progress--Bunyan.
The Spy--Cooper.
The Man without a Country--Hale.
Tales of a Traveller--Irving.
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow--Irving.
Rip Van Winkle--Irving.
Lorna Doone--Blackmore.
Uncle William--Lee.
The Blue Flower--Van Dyke.
Non-fiction:
Sesame and Lilies--Ruskin.
Stones of Venice--Ruskin.
The American Commonwealth--Bryce.
A History of the English People--Green.
Views Afoot--Taylor.
The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table--Holmes.
Conspiracy of Pontiac--Parkman.
Autobiography--Franklin.
Lincoln--Douglas Debates.
Critical Periods of American History--Fiske.
Certain Delightful English Towns--Howells.
The Declaration of Independence.
Bunker Hill Oration--Webster.
On Conciliation with America--Burke.
The Sketch Book--Irving.