Algaroth, Powder of
Alkali
Alkali Manufacture
Alkaline Earths
Alum
Aluminium
Amalgam
Ammonia
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Azoimide, or Hydrazoic Acid
Azoth
Barium
Base
Beryllium, or Glucinum
Bichromates and Chromates
Bismuth
Bittern
Borax
Boric Acid, or Boracic Acid
Boron
Brimstone
Bromine
Cadmium
Caesium
Calcium
Calomel
Carbide
Carbon
Carbonates
Carbon Bisulphide
Carbonic Acid
Carborundum
Caustic
Cerium
Charcoal
Chlorates
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Colcothar
Columbium, or Niobium
Copper
Copperas
Corrosive Sublimate
Didymium
Earth
Epsom Salts
Erbium
Europium
Fluorine
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Glauber’s Salt
Glucinum
Gold
Gunpowder
Halogens
Hartshorn, Spirits of
Helium
Hydrate
Hydrazine
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen
Hydroxylamine
Hyposulphite of Soda
Ice
Indium
Iodine
Iron
Kelp
Kermes
Lamp-black
Lanthanum
Lead
Lime
Lithium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Microcosmic Salt
Molybdenum
Nickel
Niobium
Nitre
Nitric Acid
Nitrogen
Ochres
Orpiment
Osmium
Oxide
Oxygen
Oxyhydrogen Flame
Ozone
Palladium
Phosphates
Phosphorus
Plaster of Paris
Platinum
Potashes
Potassium
Radium
Rare Earths
Rhodium
Rouge
Rubidium
Rust
Ruthenium
Sal Ammoniac
Salt
Saltpetre
Samarium
Scandium
Schlippe’s Salt
Selenium
Silica
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Steam
Strontium
Sulphur
Sulphuric Acid
Tantalum
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Ultramarine
Umber
Uranium
Vanadium
Vermilion
Vitriol
Ytterbium (Neo-ytterbium)
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Acenaphthene
Acetic Acid
Aceto-acetic Ester
Acetone
Acetophenone
Acetylene
Acid Amides
Acridine
Adenine
Adipocere
Albumin, or Albumen
Alcohol
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Alizarin
Alkahest
Alkaloid
Alkanet
Allantoin
Alloxan
Alloxantin
Allyl Alcohol
Amidines
Amines
Amygdalin
Amyl Alcohols
Amyl Nitrate
Aniline
Anthracene
Anthraquinone
Antipyrine
Argol
Asparagine
Azo Compounds
Azoximes
Benzaldehyde
Benzene
Benzidine
Benzoic Acid
Benzoin
Benzophenone
Benzyl Alcohol
Berberine
Betaïne
Brucine
Butyl Alcohols
Butyric Acid
Caffeine
Camphors
Carbazol
Carbohydrate
Carbolic Acid, or Phenol
Carvacrol
Cellulose
Chloral
Chloroform
Chlorophyll
Chlorpicrin
Chrysene
Cinnamic Acid
Cinnolin
Citric Acid
Coal-tar
Cocaine
Collodion
Conine
Coumarin
Coumarones
Creosote
Cresols
Crotonic Acid
Cyanamide
Cyanic Acid and Cyanates
Cyanide
Cyanogen
Cytisine
Dextrine
Diazo Compounds
Diphenyl
Durene
Dynamite
Ecgonine
Erythrite
Esters
Ether
Ethers
Ethyl
Ethyl chloride
Ethylene
Eugenol
Eupion
Flavin
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Fluorescein
Formalin, or Formaldehyde
Formic Acid
Fructose, or Fruit-sugar
Fuchsine
Fulminic Acid
Fumaric and Maleic Acids
Furazanes
Furfurane, or Furane
Fusel Oil
Gallic Acid
Gelatin or Gelatine
Glucose
Glucoside
Glutaric Acid
Glycerin
Glycols
Guanidine
Guncotton
Hippuric Acid
Hydantoin
Hydracrylic Acid
Hydrastine
Hydrazone
Hydrocarbon
Imidazoles or Glyoxalines
Indazoles, or Glyoxalines
Indazoles
Indene
Indigo
Indole
Indulines
Inulin
Iodoform
Isatin
Isoxazoles
Ketenes
Ketones
Lactic Acid
Lactones
Laevulinic Acid
Litmus
Malic Acid
Malonic Acid
Mandelic Acid
Marsh Gas
Mellitic Acid
Mercaptans
Mesoxalic Acid
Methyl Alcohol
Mucic Acid
Murexide
Mustard Oils
Naphtha
Naphthalene
Naphthols
Naphthylamines
Nicotine
Nitrobenzene
Nitro Compounds
Nitroglycerin
Olefine
Oleic Acid
Orcin
Oxalic Acid
Oxazoles
Oximes
Palmitic Acid
Paraffin
Paraldehyde
Phenacetin
Phenanthrene
Phenazine
Phenolphthalein
Phthalazines
Phthalic Acids
Picene
Picric Acid
Pilocarpine
Piperazin
Piperine
Piperonal
Polymethylenes
Primuline
Propiolic Acid
Propyl Alcohols
Prussic Acid
Purin
Pyrazines
Pyrazoles
Pyrene
Pyridine
Pyrimidines
Pyrocatechin
Pyrogallol
Pyrones
Pyrrol
Pyruvic Acid
Quercitron
Quinazolines
Quinoline
Quinones
Quinoxalines
Resorcin
Retene
Saccharic Acid
Saccharin
Safranine
Salicylic Acid
Stearic Acid
Styrolene
Succinic Acid
Sugar
Sulphonal
Sulphonic Acids
Tannin or Tannic Acid
Tar
Tartar
Tartaric Acid
Terpenes
Tetrazines
Tetrazoles
Thiazines
Thiazoles
Thiophen
Thymol
Toluene
Triazines
Triazoles
Triphenylmethane
Tropine
Urea, or Carbamide
Urethane
Uric Acid
Urotropin
Valeric Acid
Verdigris
Veronal
Xanthic Acid
Xanthone
Xylene
BIOGRAPHIES
Abel, Sir Frederick A.
Achard, F. C.
Andrews, Thomas
Baeyer, Adolf von
Balard, Antoine J.
Baumé, Antoine
Becher, J. J.
Bell, Jacob
Bergman, Torbern Olof
Berthelot, M. P. E.
Berthollet, C. L.
Berzelius, J. J.
Black, Joseph
Boussingault
Brande, William Thomas
Brown, S. M.
Bunsen, R. W. von
Calvert, F. Crace
Cannizzaro, Stanislao
Cavendish, Henry
Chevreul, M. E.
Clark, Thomas
Crookes, Sir William
Dalton, John
Daniell, John F.
Davy, Sir Humphry
Dewar, Sir James
Döbereiner, J. W.
Dulong, Pierre Louis
Dumas, J. B. A.
Erdmann, Otto Linné
Fehling, Hermann von
Fischer, Emil
Fittig, Rudolf
Flamel, Nicolas
Fourcroy, A. F., de
Frankland, Sir Edward
Frémy, Edmond
Fresenius, Karl R.
Friedel, Charles
Fuchs, Johann N. von
Gannal, J. N.
Gay-Lussac, J. L.
Geber
Geoffroy, E. F.
Gerhardt, Charles F.
Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott
Gilbert, Sir Joseph H.
Gladstone, John Hall
Glaser, Christopher
Glauber, Johann R.
Gmelin (family)
Graham, Thomas
Guimet, Jean B.
Guyton de Morveau
Harcourt, W. Vernon
Helmont, Jean B. van
Henry, William
Hofmann, A. W. von
Homberg, William
Kekulé, F. August
Klaproth, M. H.
Kolbe, A. W. Hermann
Kopp, Hermann F. M.
Kunkel von Lowenstjern
Lavoisier, A. L.
LeBlanc, Nicolas
Lemery, Nicolas
Liebig, J. von, baron
Lunge, Georg
Magnus, H. G.
Marggraf, Andreas S.
Marignac, J. C. G. de
Mayow, John
Mendeléeff, Dmitri I.
Meyer, J. Lothar
Meyer, Victor
Mitscherlich, E.
Mohr, K. Friedrich
Moissan, Henri
Mond, Ludwig
Murray, John
Muspratt, J. and J. S.
Newlands, John A. R.
Nobel, Alfred B.
Pasteur, Louis
Pelouze, T. Jules
Perkin, Sir W. H.
Pettenkofer, M. J. von
Plattner, K. F.
Priestley, Joseph
Proust, Joseph Louis
Prout, William
Ramsay, Sir William
Raoult, François M.
Regnault, H. V.
Richter, J. B.
Roebuck, John
Roscoe, Sir H. E.
Rose (family)
Rouelle, G. F.
Sainte-Claire Deville
Scheele, K. W.
Schönbein, C. F.
Schützenberger, P.
Silliman, Benjamin
Stahl, G. E.
Stas, J. S.
Tennant, Charles
Tennant, Smithson
Thénard, L. J.
Thomsen, Julius
Thomson, Thomas
Van’t Hoff, J. H.
Vauquelin, L. N.
Weldon, Walter
Wenzel, K. F.
Williamson, A. W.
Wislicenus, J.
Wöhler, Friedrich
Wollaston, W. H.
Wurtz, C. A.
Young, James
CHAPTER LVI
GEOLOGY
[Sidenote: The Province Geology or Sermons in Stones]
Shakespeare tells us that “there are sermons in stones.” No science,
except possibly astronomy, appeals more to the imagination or carries
one further away from our present workaday world than geology. While
geology “claims as its peculiar territory the rocky framework of the
globe,” its object is, says the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 11, p.
638) “to trace the structural progress of our planet from the earliest
beginnings of its separate existence through its various stages of
growth down to the present condition of things.” It goes back millions
and hundreds of millions of years to the first beginnings of things and
unravels complicated processes by which the earth and each of the
continents on it has been built up.
“It follows, even into detail, the varied sculpture of mountain and
valley, crag and ravine.” It shows “that the present races of plants and
animals are the descendants of other and very different races which once
peopled the earth. It teaches that there has been a progressive
development of the inhabitants.” Dead and cold though the rocks seem,
they are filled, to one who can read their secret, with the tragedy of
past life. Parts of Florida are but the graves where millions of corals,
now crushed into massive limestone, once lived and died; the coal of
Pennsylvania tells of ferns and other terrestrial plants matted together
into a bed whence they originally grew; “the snails and lizards which
lived and died within a hollow tree, the insects which have been
imprisoned within the exuding resin of old forests, the footprints of
birds and quadrupeds, the trails of worms left upon former shores—these
and innumerable other pieces of evidence” tell of the tragedies of
former times and “enable the geologist to realize in some measure what
the faunas and floras of successive periods have been.”
The foundation for the study of the whole subject in the Britannica is
the article GEOLOGY (Vol. 11, p. 638), equivalent to 125 pages of this
Guide. It is by the highest authority in the world, Sir Archibald
Geikie, long director general of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom, and director of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. It
deals with the general principles and gives an outline of the subject
matter of the science. In particular it treats of,
_The historical development of geological science_;
_The cosmical aspects of geology_;
_Geognosy_;
_Dynamical Geology_;
_Geotectonic or Structural Geology_;
_Palaeontological Geology_;
_Stratigraphical Geology_;
_Physiographical Geology_.
[Sidenote: Age of the Earth]
While the student will doubtless be interested equally in each of these
departments, the general reader will be especially interested in the
historical development which—it is worthy of note—is almost the only
concise account of geological history hitherto published in English.
Especially interesting is the question, fully discussed, of the age of
the earth. Lord Kelvin (Vol. 11, p. 653) declared some few years ago
that the time “was more than twenty and less than forty millions of
years and probably much nearer twenty than forty.” But the trend of
later investigations, and especially the study of radio-activity, has
led to the belief that the period must have been much longer. Sir
Archibald Geikie sums up the evidence as follows (Vol. 11, p. 653): “In
the present state of science it is out of our power to state positively
what must be the lowest limit of the age of the earth, but we cannot
assume it to be less, and it may possibly have been much more than one
hundred millions of years.”
[Sidenote: Geological Formations]
The general reader will find of interest, too, the table (Vol. 11, p.
670) representing the geological record or order of succession of the
formations of the earth’s crusts from the earliest Archean, through
Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous to the Post-glacial or
Human of to-day. A separate article is to be found on each of these
different formations, namely: ARCHEAN (Vol. 2, p. 360); CAMBRIAN (Vol.
5, p. 86); SILURIAN (Vol. 25, p. 109); DEVONIAN (Vol. 8, p. 124);
CARBONIFEROUS (Vol. 5, p. 309); PERMIAN (Vol. 21, p. 176); TRIASSIC
(Vol. 27, p. 258); JURASSIC (Vol. 15, p. 567); CRETACEOUS (Vol. 7, p.
414); EOCENE (Vol. 9, p. 661); OLIGOCENE (Vol. 20, p. 81); MIOCENE (Vol.
18, p. 565); PLIOCENE (Vol. 21, p. 846); PLEISTOCENE (Vol. 21, p. 835);
Recent, Post-glacial or Human under article QUATERNARY (Vol. 22, p.
718).
Full local geological information is found in geographical articles.
See, for instance, in the article UNITED STATES, the section on
_Geology_ (Vol. 27, pp. 624–632), by Professors R. D. Salisbury and T.
C. Chamberlin of the University of Chicago; the section _Geology_ in the
article ENGLAND (Vol. 9, pp. 415–416), by H. R. Mill, editor of _The
International Geography_; the section _Geology_ in the article AFRICA
(Vol. 1, pp. 323–325), by Walcot Gibson, author of _Mineral Wealth of
Africa_, etc. These special treatments are accompanied by sketch maps.
Similarly, the articles on each of the different states of the Union has
a section giving information on the geology, the flora and fauna, the
climate, and the geography of the state. And in such articles on
geographic topics as GREAT SALT LAKE, NIAGARA, by G. Karl Gilbert, and
GRAND CANYON, by R. S. Tarr, there is valuable geological information.
Other important articles which the reader should consult are PETROLOGY
(Vol. 21, p 323), equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide, largely
illustrated, by Dr. J. S. Fleet, petrographer to the Geological Survey
of Great Britain; MINERALOGY (Vol. 18, p. 509), equivalent to 25 pages
of this Guide, by L. J. Spencer, editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_;
MINERAL DEPOSITS (Vol. 18, p. 504), equivalent to 15 pages of this
Guide, by James F. Kemp, professor of geology of Columbia University,
and geologist to the United States and New York Geological Surveys;
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 7, p. 569), equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide,
also by L. J. Spencer; MINING (Vol. 18, p. 528), equivalent to 40 pages
of this Guide, by Henry Smith Munroe, professor of mining, Columbia
University, New York; PALAEONTOLOGY (Vol. 20, p. 579), profusely
illustrated, equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide, by Prof. Henry
Fairfield Osborn of Columbia University, and president of the American
Museum of Natural History of New York; PALAEOBOTANY (Vol. 20, p. 524),
profusely illustrated, equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, written by
three of the leading geological writers of the day: Dr. D. H. Scott,
president of the Linnean Society, author of _Studies in Fossil Botany_;
A. E. Steward, professor of botany of the University of Cambridge; and
Clement Reid, author of _Fossil Flora of Tegelen_.
Of more popular interest are the three articles, Earthquake, Seismometer
and Volcano. The article EARTHQUAKE is in two parts. The first (Vol. 8,
p. 817) is an historical account telling of the extent and damage done
by many earthquakes, including the terrible San Francisco earthquake of
April 18, 1906, and that of Calabria and Sicily, December 28, 1908, by
F. W. Rudler, president of the Geologists’ Association; the other part
(Vol. 8, p. 820), by Dr. J. Milne, late professor of geology in the
Imperial University of Tokio, deals with the physical theory of
earthquakes. The article VOLCANO (Vol. 28, p. 178), equivalent to 45
pages of this Guide, is by F. W. Rudler, and gives us the reasons for
and the history of volcanic disturbances. It is of interest both to the
scholar and to the casual reader. Thus we learn that “while Herculaneum
was buried beneath a flood of mud swept down from Vesuvius” in 79 A.D.,
Pompeii “was overwhelmed in great measure by loose ashes, capable of
removal with comparative ease.” Nearly everyone of middle age remembers
the famous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 and the famous sunsets of that
year. Concerning this the Britannica article tells us (p. 180):
Enormous quantities of dust ejected from Krakatoa in 1883 were carried
to prodigious distances, samples having been collected at more than a
thousand miles from the volcano; whilst the very fine material in
ultramicroscopic grains which remained suspended for months in the
higher regions of the atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost
world-wide distribution, and to have been responsible for the
remarkable sunsets at that period.
The article DUST (Vol. 8, p. 713), by John Aitken, inventor of the
machine for counting particles of dust, explains the mechanical causes
of this suspension. Besides there is much concrete information about
volcanoes in articles on volcanic regions: for instance, on volcanoes in
the possessions of the United States, see articles HAWAII, ALASKA,
PHILIPPINES.
The student should read also the articles on the different minerals,
many of them long and important and all by well-known authorities. Thus
the article DIAMOND (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated, equivalent to 20
pages of this Guide, is by Henry Alexander Miers, editor of the
_Mineralogical Magazine_. Besides dealing with the general character of
this stone, the article pays particular attention to diamond mining in
South Africa, the text being illustrated by plates showing the Kimberley
and DeBeers workings. The article GEM (Vol. 11, p. 560), is equivalent
to 25 pages of this Guide. The article GEM, ARTIFICIAL (Vol. 11, p. 569)
is by the well-known chemist and physicist, Sir William Crookes. It
tells of the changes induced by radioactive emanations and of the
artificial production of the diamond, ruby, sapphire, Oriental emerald,
amethyst and topaz. The reader will be interested, too, in the article
LAPIDARY AND GEM CUTTING (Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr. George F. Kunz, gem
expert for Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New York.
There are special biographical articles in the Britannica on all the
well-known geologists, and in these articles special stress has been
laid on the part played by the subject of the memoirs in promoting the
science. This is well shown, for instance, in the articles AGASSIZ (Vol.
1, p. 367); HUTTON (Vol. 14, p. 16) and LYELL (Vol. 17, p. 158).
Geology, by its study of earth deposits, age of rocks, etc., and by its
estimate of the date of certain extinct animals like the mammoth and
hairy elephant, or of the time when certain animals, e.g., the elephant
and reindeer, were found in parts of the world where they no longer
occur, is an important adjunct to the science of anthropology,
especially in the question of the antiquity of man. On this see the
section of antiquity of man in the article ANTHROPOLOGY (Vol. 2, p.
114), and, in general, the chapter in this Guide on _Anthropology and
Ethnology_.
From one point of view geology is only a branch of geography and the
student of geology should consult the elaborate article on GEOGRAPHY in
the Britannica, especially all parts dealing with physical geography or
physiography. For a clue to this part of the book see the chapter in
this Guide on _Geography_.
The following is a list of the more important articles on Geology in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica:
LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO
STUDENTS OF GEOLOGY
Abich, O. W. H. von
Abraum salts
Acadian
Acmite, or Aegirite
Agalmatolite
Agate
Agglomerate
Agricola, Georg
Aikin, Arthur
Alabaster
Albertite
Albian
Albite
Alexandrite
Allophane
Allport, Samuel
Alluvium
Almandine
Alquifou
Alunite, or Alumstone
Amazon Stone, or Amazonite
Amber
Amblygonite
Amethyst
Amianthus
Amphibole
Amphibolite
Amygdaloid
Analcite
Anatase
Andalusite
Andesine
Andesite
Anglesite
Anhydrite
Ankerite
Annabergite
Anning, Mary
Anorthite
Ansted, David Thomas
Anthracite
Apatite
Aphanite
Aplite
Apophyllite
Aptian
Aquamarine
Aragonite
Archean System
Archiac, vicomte d’
Arenig Group
Argentite
Argyrodite
Asbestos
Assise
Asteria, or Star-stone
Atacamite
Atherstone, W. G.
Augite
Autunite
Aventurine, or Avanturine
Avonian
Axinite
Aymestry Limestone
Azurite, or Chessylite
Bagshot Beds
Baily, William Hellier
Bain, Andrew Geddes
Bajocian
Bakewell, Robert
Bala Series
Barrande, Joachim
Barrett, Lucas
Barrois, Charles
Barton Beds
Barytes
Barytocalcite
Basalt
Basin
Batholite
Bathonian Series
Bathvillite
Bauxite
Bed
Beecher, C. E.
Belt, Thomas
Bembridge Beds
Benett, Etheldred
Benitoite
Bernician Series
Beryl
Beryllonite
Beudant, François S.
Beyrich, H. E. von
Bigsby, J. J.
Binney, E. W.
Biotite
Bismuthite
Bitumen
Blanford, W. T.
Blende, or Sphalerite
Bloodstone
Boase, Henry Samuel
Bole
Bomb
Bone Bed
Bonney, Thomas George
Boracite
Born, I. von
Borolanite
Bort, or Boart
Bostonite
Boucher de Crévecoeur de Perthes, J.
Boué, Ami
Boulder
Boulder Clay
Bournonite
Bovey Beds
Bowerbank, J. S.
Bracklesham Beds
Bradford Clay
Brander, Gustavus
Breccia
Breislak, Scipione
Bristow, H. W.
Brocchi, G. B.
Brochant de Villiers, A. J. F. M.
Brochantite
Brodie, P. B.
Brogger, W. C.
Bromlite
Brongniart, Alexandre
Bronn, Heinrich Georg
Bronzite
Brookite
Brucite
Brückmann, Franz Ernst
Buch, Baron von
Buckland, William
Bunter
Bytownite
Cainozoic
Cairngorm
Calamine (Smithsonite)
Calcite
Callovian
Cambrian System
Cancrin, F. L. von
Caradoc Series
Carbonado
Carboniferous System
Carnelian
Cassiterite
Cat’s-eye
Cave
Celestine
Cerargyrite
Cerussite
Chabazite
Chalcedony
Chalk
Chalybite
Charnockite
Childrenite
Chlorite
Chromite
Chrysoberyl
Chrysocolla
Chrysolite
Chrysoprase
Cinnabar
Cinnamon Stone
Clarke, William B.
Clay
Clay-with-Flints
Clinoclastite
Clintonite
Close, Maxwell H.
Cobaltite
Colemanite
Columbite
Concretion
Conglomerate
Connellite
Conybeare, W. D.
Copalite, or Copaline
Cope, Edward D.
Copper-glance
Copper-pyrites, or Chalcopyrite
Coprolites
Corallian
Cornbrash
Corundum
Cotta, Bernard von
Covellite
Crater
Credner, C. F. H.
Cretaceous System
Crocidolite
Crocoite
Croll, James
Crosskey, Henry W.
Cryolite
Crystallite
Crystallography
Culm
Cumming, Joseph G.
Cuprite
Cyanite
Dacite
Dalradian
Dana, James D.
Danburite
Datolite
Daubeny, Charles G. B.
Daubree, G. A.
Davidson, Thomas
Dawson, Sir John W.
Dechen, E. H. K. von
De la Beche, Sir H. T.
Delesse, A. E. O. J.
Deluc, Jean Andre
Demantoid
Des Cloizeaux, Alfred
Descloizite
Deshayes, G. P.
Deslongchamps, J. A. E.
Desmarest, Nicolas
Desnoyers, J. P. F. S.
Desor, P. J. E.
Devonian System
Diabase
Diallage
Diamond
Diaspore
Dick, Robert
Diluvium
Diopside
Dioptase
Diorite
Dolerite
Dolomieu
Dolomite
Dopplerite
Drift
Dufrenoy, O. P. A. P.
Dumont, André Hubert
Dumortierite
Duncan, Peter Martin
Durocher, J. M. E.
Earth pillar
Earthquake
Eclogite
Egerton, Sir P. de M.
Ehrenberg, C. G.
Eichwald, K. E. von
Elaterite
Elie De Beaumont
Emerald
Emery
Emmons, Ebenezer
Enniskillen, 3rd earl of
Enstatite
Eocene
Epidiorite
Epidosite
Epidote
Erubescite
Erythrite
Escher von der Linth
Esker
Etheridge, Robert
Ettingshausen, Baron
Euclase
Fall-line
Farey, John
Faujas de Saint-Fond
Fault
Favre, Jean Alphonse
Felsite
Felspar
Fitton, William Henry
Flint
Fluor-spar
Flysch
Fold
Forbes, David
Forchhammer, J. G.
Foster, Sir C. le Neve
Fouque, F. A.
Fournet, J. J. B. X.
Fox, Robert Were
Franklinite
Freestone
Freieslebenite
Fulgurite
Fuller’s Earth
Fumarole
Gabbro
Galena
Garnet
Gaudry, Jean Albert
Gault
Geikie, Sir Archibald
Geikie, James
Geinitz, H. B.
Gem
Geology
Gesner, Abraham
Geyser
Giebel, C. G. A.
Gilbert, Grove K.
Gilsonite
Glacial Period
Glauconite
Gneiss
Godwin-Austen, R. A. C.
Goldfuss, G. A.
Goniometer
Göthite, or Goethite
Granite
Granulite
Graphite
Gravel, or Pebble Beds
Green, A. H.
Greenockite
Greenough, G. B.
Greensand
Greisen
Greywacke
Griffith, Sir Richard J.
Groth, P. H. von
Guettard, J. E.
Gumbel, K. W. von
Guyot, A. H.
Gypsum
Haast, Sir J. F. J. von
Haematite
Haidinger, W. K. von
Hall, James
Hall, Sir James
Halleflinta
Harkness, Robert
Harmotome
Hatchettite
Hauer, F. von
Haughton, Samuel
Hausmann, J. F. L.
Hayden, F. V.
Hebert, Edmond
Heddle, M. F.
Heer, Oswald
Heim, A. von St. Gallen
Helmersen, Gregor von
Hemimorphite
Henslow, John Stevens
Henwood, William Jory
Heulandite
Hicks, Henry
Hiddenite
Hitchcock, Edward
Hochstetter, F. C. von
Holocene
Hone
Hopkins, William
Hornblende
Horner, Leonard
Hornes, Moritz
Hornfels
Hulke, J. W.
Humite
Hunt, Robert
Hunt, T. Sterry
Hutton, James
Hyacinth
Hypersthene
Idrialin
Ijolite
Ilmenite
Iolite
Itacolumite
Jade
Jameson, Robert
Jargoon
Jarosite
Jasper
Jet
Joints
Jones, T. Rupert
Jukes, J. B.
Jurassic System
Kaolin
Karrer, Felix
Karsten, K. J. B.
Kayser, F. H. E.
Kenngott, G. A.
Keuper
Kidd, John
Kimeridgian
King, Clarence
Kirwan, Richard
Kjerulf, Theodor
Kobell, W. X. F. von
Koenig, K. D. E.
Koksharov, N. I. von
Koninck, L. G. de
Kunzite
Labradorite
Laccolite
Lacroix, A. F. A.
Lamprophyres
Lapilli
Lapis Lazuli
Lapparent, A. A. C. de
Lapworth, Charles
Lasaulx, A. C. P. F. von
Laterite
Laumont, F. P. N. G. de
Lava
Leadhillite
Le Conte, Joseph
Lehmann, J. G.
Lepidolite, or Lithia-Mica
Lesley, J. Peter
Leucite
Lévy, A. M.
Lewis, Henry Corvill
Lias
Lignite
Limburgite
Limestone
Limonite
Lindstróm, Gustaf
Liroconite
Lister, Martin
Llandeilo Group
Llandovery Group
Llwyd, Edward
Loess
Logan, Sir William E.
London Clay
Lonsdale, William
Lory, Charles
Ludlow Group
Lyell, Sir Charles
McCoy, Sir Frederick
Macculloch, John
Maclure, William
Magnesite
Magnetite
Malachite
Mallet, Robert
Manganite
Mantell, G. A.
Marble
Marcasite
Marcou, J. B.
Marl
Martin, William
Meek, F. B.
Meerschaum
Melaconite
Mesozoic
Metamorphism
Metasomatism
Meteorite
Meyer, C. E. H. von
Mica
Mica-schist
Microcline
Micropegmatite
Miller, Hugh
Miller, W. H.
Millerite
Millstone Grit
Mimetite
Mineral deposits
Mineralogy
Miocene System
Mispickel
Mocha Stone
Mofetta
Mohs, Friedrich
Mojsisovics von Mojsvar, J. A. G. E.
Moldavite
Molybdenite
Monazite
Monzonite
Moonstone
Morris, John
Münster, Georg, count zu
Murchison, Sir R. I.
Muschelkalk
Muscovite
Mylonite
Napoleonite
Natrolite
Naumann, G. A. C. F.
Neck
Neocomian
Nepheline
Nepheline-syenite
Nephelinites
Neumayr, Melchior
Newberry, J. S.
Niccolite
Nicholson, H. A.
Nicol, James
Nitre
Noeggerath, J. J.
Obsidian
Oldham, Thomas
Oligocene System
Oligoclase
Olivenite
Olivine
Omalius d’Halloy, J. d’
Onyx
Oolite
Opal
Oppel, C. A.
Orbigny, A. D. d’
Ordovician System
Orthoclase
Osborn, H. F.
Oxfordian
Ozokerite, or Ozocerite
Palaeozoic
Parisite
Parkinson, James
Peach, C. W.
Pegmatite
Pendleside Series
Pengelly, William
Peperino
Peridot
Peridotite
Perlite
Permian System
Perovskite
Petalite
Petrology
Pharmacosiderite
Phenacite
Phillips, John
Phillips, William
Phillipsite
Phlogopite
Phonolite
Phosgenite
Phosphates
Phosphorite
Phyllite
Picrite
Pictet, de la Rive, F. J.
Pitchblende, or Uraninite
Pitchstone
Plagioclase
Pleistocene System
Pliocene System
Plot, Robert
Plumbago
Pneumatolysis
Pollux, or Pollucite
Porphyry
Portlandian
Portlock, J. E.
Powell, J. W.
Pre-Cambrian
Prehnite
Prestwick, Sir Joseph
Prévost, Constant
Proustite
Psilomelane
Pumice
Purbeckian
Puy
Pyrargyrite
Pyrites
Pyrolusite
Pyromorphite
Pyrope
Pyrophyllite
Pyroxene
Pyroxenite
Pyrrhotite
Quartz
Quartzite
Quartz-porphyry
Quarternary
Quenstedt, F. A. von
Rammelsberg, K. F. A.
Ramsay, Sir Andrew C.
Rath, Gerhard von
Reading Beds
Realgar
Renard, A. F.
Renevier, Eugène
Retinite
Reusch, Hans Henrik
Reuss, A. E. von
Rhaetic
Rhodochrosite
Rhodonite
Rhyolite
Rock
Rock-crystal
Roemer, F. A.
Rogers, H. D.
Rome de l’Isle, J. B. L.
Roth, J. L. A.
Rubellite
Ruby
Russell, Israel Cook
Rutile
Rutley, Frank
Salt
Salter, John William
Sand
Sandberger, K. L. F. von
Sandstone
Sapphire
Sard
Sardonyx
Satin-spar
Savi, Paolo
Scapolite
Scheelite
Schists
Schlotheim, Baron von
Schorl
Scolecite
Scoria
Scrope, G. J. Poulett
Sedgwick, Adam
Seismometer
Selwyn, A. R. C.
Sénarmont, H. H. de
Serpentine
Sharpe, Daniel
Sill
Sillimanite
Silurian System
Sinter
Slate
Smaltite
Smith, William
Smithson, James
Smyth, Sir W. W.
Sodalite
Soffioni
Solfatara
Sorby, Henry C.
Speeton Beds
Sphene
Spherulites
Spinel
Spodumene
Spratt, Thomas A. B.
Stalactites
Stannite
Staurolite
Steno, Nicolaus
Stephanite
Stibnite
Stilbite
Stoliczka, Ferdinand
Stone
Stoppani, Antonio
Stratigraphy
Strickland, Hugh E.
Strontianite
Studer, Bernhard
Suess, Edward
Sunstone
Syenite
Sylvanite
Sylvite
Symonds, William S.
Szabó von Szentmiklos
Tachylytes
Talc
Tate, Ralph
Tchihatcheff, P. A. de
Tertiary
Tetradymite
Tetrahedrite
Theralite
Thorianite
Thorite
Tonalite
Topaz
Torbernite
Torell, Otto Martin
Torridonian
Tourmaline
Trachyte
Trass
Tremolite
Triassic System
Tridymite
Trimmer, Joshua
Tuff
Turquoise
Vanadinite
Variolite
Variscite
Veins
Verneuil, P. E. P. de
Vesuvianite
Vivianite
Vogt, Karl C.
Volcano
Waagen, W. H.
Wachsmuth, Charles
Wad
Walcott, Charles D.
Waltershausen
Wavellite
Wealden
Webster, Thomas
Wenlock Group
Werner, A. G.
Whiteaves, J. F.
Whitney, J. D.
Willemite
Witherite
Wolframite
Wollastonite
Wood, S. V.
Woodward, John
Woodward, Samuel
Woolwich-and-Reading Beds
Wright, Thomas
Wulfenite
Yoredale Series
Zoelites
Zincite
Zircon
Zirkel, Ferdinand
Zittel, Karl A. von
Zoisite
CHAPTER LVII
BIOLOGY
GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY
The Britannica tells us that Sir Thomas Browne, the famous 17th century
physician and author, once ventured to doubt “whether mice may be bred
by putrefaction,” and Alexander Ross, the poet scientist of 200 years
ago, commenting on his scepticism wrote, “So may he doubt whether in
cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles and wasps in cows’
dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers, shell-fish, snails,
eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied matter, which is apt to
receive the form of that creature to which it is by formative power
disposed. To question this is to question reason, sense and experience.
If he doubts of this let him go to Egypt, and there he will find the
fields swarming with mice, begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great
calamity of the inhabitants” (Vol. 1, p. 64). To-day science gives no
offhand answer to the question of the origin of life. Abiogenesis, or
“spontaneous generation,” so-called, finds a far less simple definition
and research still in vain bends its best energies to solving this
problem of problems.
The subject is so vast, dealing as it does with all the phenomena
manifested by living matter, that in this Guide that branch of the
subject which studies the human organism is separately dealt with in the
chapter _Health and Disease_. This chapter, therefore, is confined to
the still enormous subject of biology considered as dealing with the
general problem of life; botany and zoology are treated in the following
chapters. The student of either of the two last subjects should preface,
or at least supplement, his studies, by reading the main general
articles included below.
[Sidenote: The Study of Life]
The guiding article BIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 954), which should be read
first, serves as a key to the discussion of the biological sciences. It
is not long, for the main divisions of the subject are treated more
conveniently and logically under their own appropriate headings. P.
Chalmers Mitchell, secretary of the Zoological Society of London, who
organized the whole subject for the new Britannica, is the contributor.
Supplementing this, the article LIFE (Vol. 16, p. 600), also by Chalmers
Mitchell, should be read, with those on PROTOPLASM (Vol. 22, p. 476),
SPECIES (Vol. 25, p. 616), ABIOGENESIS (Vol. 1, p. 64), BIOGENESIS (Vol.
3, p. 952). In the two articles last named the theory of spontaneous
generation is examined and found wanting, or at best unproved.
[Sidenote: Structure]
Living matter may be regarded under four aspects: structure,
distribution, physiology, evolution. For the first, the article
MORPHOLOGY (Vol. 18, p. 863) leads the discussion, followed by CYTOLOGY
(Vol. 7, p. 710), and EMBRYOLOGY (Vol. 9, p. 314), in which the growth
of cell structures is discussed. These articles are introductory to the
whole subject. Supplementing them reference may be made to the
Morphology sections of the articles PLANT (Vol. 21, p. 728) and ZOOLOGY
(Vol. 28, p. 1022).
[Sidenote: Distribution]
A most fascinating branch is that which is concerned with the where and
when of the existence of organisms. The articles in the Britannica are
worthy of the interest of the subject. Under PALAEONTOLOGY (Vol. 20, p.
579) H. F. Osborn, Columbia University, New York, president of the
American Museum of Natural History, New York, treats of the archaeology
of the biological sciences, of the extinct species which once inhabited
the earth; while Clement Reid, of the Geological Survey of Great
Britain, A. C. Seward, professor of botany, Cambridge University, and
Dr. D. H. Scott, president of the Linnean Society, perform the same
service for plant life in the article PALAEOBOTANY (Vol. 20, p. 524).
The distribution of present types is discussed under ZOOLOGICAL
DISTRIBUTION (Vol. 28, p. 1002), PLANTS, _Distribution_ (Vol. 21, p.
777), and PLANKTON (Vol. 21, p. 720), in which Prof. G. H. Fowler of
University College, London, describes a science which is still
young—that of tracing the drift and distribution of deep sea life. See
also ACCLIMATIZATION (Vol. 1, p. 114), by Alfred Russel Wallace and
Frank Finn, of the Indian Museum of Calcutta.
[Sidenote: Physiology]
The properties, processes, and functions of living things fall in the
province of PHYSIOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 554), and kindred articles; among
the latter the following may profitably be consulted: ANIMAL HEAT (Vol.
2, p. 48), and PLANTS, _Physiology_ (Vol. 21, p. 744).
[Sidenote: Evolution]
The gradual development of species is considered in a number of valuable
articles such as EVOLUTION (Vol. 10, p. 22), HEREDITY (Vol. 13, p. 350),
REPRODUCTION (Vol. 23, p. 116), MENDELISM (Vol. 18, p. 115), TELEGONY
(Vol. 25, p. 509), VARIATION AND SELECTION (Vol. 27, p. 906).
Following is an alphabetical list of the _general_ biological articles
(those not dealing directly with either Botany or Zoology), which are to
be found in the Britannica:
Abiogenesis
Acclimatization
Acephalous
Acuminate
Adaptation
Aestivation
Albino
Alveolate
Anabolism
Anastomosis
Aporose
Auricle
Autogeny
Bathybius
Biogenesis
Biology
Bipartite
Catabolism
Chemotaxis
Cilia
Cytology
Embryology
Enzyme
Evolution
Fermentation
Habitat
Heredity
Hibernaculum
Histology
Hybridism
Life
Longevity
Mendelism
Metabolism
Microtomy
Monotypic
Morphology
Oecology, or Ecology
Osteology
Parasitism
Protoplasm
Reproduction
Rhacis, or Rachis
Species
Telegony
Variation and Selection
BIOGRAPHIES OF BIOLOGISTS
The life and work of the world’s great biologists may be studied in the
Britannica, and an alphabetical list of the principal articles follows.
Acharius, Erik
Adams, A. L.
Adanson, Michel
Afzelius, Adam
Agassiz, A. E.
Agassiz, J. L. R.
Aiton, William
Albinus (Weiss), B. S.
Aldrovandi, Ulissi
Allman, George James
Alpini, Prospero
Alston, Charles
Ambrosini, Bartolomeo
Anderson, James
Arrenotokous, A.
Artedi, Peter
Audebert, J. B.
Audouin, Jean Victor
Audubon, John James
Avebury, J. Lubbock, Baron
Baer, Karl Ernst von
Baird, S. F.
Balfour, F. M.
Banks, Sir Joseph
Barton, B. S.
Bates, Henry Walter
Bauhin, Gaspard
Belon, Pierre
Bentham, George
Berkeley, M. J.
Blainville, H. M. Ducrotay de
Bloch, Mark Eliezer
Blumenbach, J. F.
Bonpland, A. J. A.
Bory de Saint-Vincent, J. B. G. M.
Bose, L. A. G.
Brisson, M. J.
Broderip, W. J.
Brongniart, A. T.
Broussonet, P. M. A.
Brown, Robert
Buckland, F. T.
Buffon, G. L. L. de
Caesalpinus, Andreas
Camerarius, Joachim
Camerarius, R. J.
Camper, Peter
Candolle, A. P. de
Carpenter, W. B.
Cavanilles, A. J.
Claparède, J. L. R. A. E.
Cobbold, T. S.
Cohn, Ferdinand Julius
Combe, George
Coues, E.
Cuvier, Baron
Darwin, Charles R.
Darwin, Erasmus
Daubenton, L. J. M.
De Bary, H. A.
Desfontaines, R. L.
Dillen (Dillenius), J. J.
Donovan, Edward
Dryander, Jonas
Duhamel de Monceau
Dutrochet, R. J. H.
Edwards, George
Eschscholtz, J. F.
Fabricius, J. C.
Falconer, Hugh
Flourens, M. J. P.
Flower, Sir William H.
Forbes, Edward
Forskal, Peter
Fortune, Robert
Fraas, Karl Nikolas
Fries, Elias Magnus
Fuchs, Leonard
Gall, Franz Joseph
Gaudichaud-Beaupré
Gegenbaur, Carl
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, E.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, I.
Gerard, John
Gervais, Paul
Gesner, K. von
Gosse, Philip Henry
Gould, A. A.
Gray, Asa
Gray, John Edward
Grew, Nehemiah
Haeckel, E. H.
Hagenbeck, Carl
Hales, Stephen
Hasselquist, Frederik
Hofmeister, W. F. B.
Hooker, Sir Joseph D.
Hooker, Sir William J.
Huber, François
Huxley, T. H.
Hyatt, Alpheus
Jäger, Gustav
Jesse, Edward
Jussieu, De (family)
Kaup, Johann Jakob
Kirby, William
Kölliker, R. A. von
Kühne, Willy
Lacépède, B. G. E. de La Ville, comte de
Lamarck
Latreille, P. A.
Lawes, Sir John B.
Leeuwenhoek, A. van
Leidy, Joseph
Lindley, John
Linnaeus
Lombroso, Cesare
Ludwig, K. F. W.
Macgillivray, W. and J.
Malpighi, Marcello
Marsh, O. C.
Martius, C. F. P. von
Martyn, John
Michaux, André
Milne-Edwards, Henry
Mivart, St. George J.
Mohl, Hugo von
Morgagni, G. B.
Müller, F. von, baron
Müller, J. P.
Naegeli, K. W. van
Nees von Esenbeck
Newton, Alfred
North, Marianne
Nuttall, Thomas
Oken, Lorenz
Ormerod, Eleanor A.
Owen, Sir Richard
Pennant, Thomas
Pringsheim, Nathanael
Quatrefages de Bréau
Ray (or Wray), John
Réaumur, R. A. F. de
Richardson, Sir John
Romanes, G. J.
Royle, John Forbes
Sachs, Julius von
Saint-Hilaire, A. de
Saussure, N. T. de
Schleiden, M. J.
Schultze, M. J. S.
Schwann, Theodor
Senebier, Jean
Sibthorp, John
Siebold, C. T. E. vo
Sowerby, James
Spallanzani, Lazaro
Sprengel, Kurt
Spurzheim, J. C.
Swammerdam, Jan
Swartz, Olof
Thomson, Sir C. W.
Thunberg, K. P.
Thuret, G. A.
Tiedemann, Friedrich
Torrey, John
Tournefort, J. P. de
Treviranus, G. R.
Tylor, E. B.
Virchow, Rudolf
Wagner, Rudolph
Wallace, A. Russel
Waterton, Charles
Weismann, August
White, Gilbert
Williamson, W. C.
Willughby, Francis
Wilson, Alexander
Wolff, C. F.
Wood, John George
Yarrell, William
CHAPTER LVIII
BOTANY
There are many gardeners and lovers of gardens, but comparatively few
have even the most elementary knowledge of botany. How many, for
instance, know or remember that in the leaves of plants are situated the
kitchens in which they prepare their food, or more than vaguely
recognize the presence of a nervous system in plant organisms (Vol. 21,
p. 747)? The majority, indeed, ignore the fact that a little study will
add a hundred-fold to their enjoyment, and that, unlike most scientific
subjects, botany can be studied with a minimum of trouble or toil, and
with the simplest apparatus. His own garden, the woods and fields, will
give the inquirer ample subjects for his investigations, and, as in
every other undertaking, the longer he pursues it the more he will see,
and the more intense will be his pleasure in the contemplation of the
garden of his cultivation.
Botany is, of course, one branch of an enormous subject. The student
will, therefore, do well to familiarize himself with the general
articles which cover the science of living matter, as outlined in the
chapter on _Biology_. In that chapter references have in fact already
been given to certain sections of the strictly botanical articles. The
general arrangement of the subject in the Britannica is as follows:—(i.)
articles dealing with the broad aspects of the science; (ii.) articles
on “systematic” botany treating of the various families of plants;
(iii.) articles describing members of their families.
[Sidenote: General Principles]
Following the most convenient and at the same time the most logical
course, the article BOTANY (Vol. 4, p. 299) gives a key to the treatment
of the whole subject in the Britannica. This is by A. B. Rendle, keeper
of the Department of Botany, British Museum, who acted as general
adviser to the editor in the arrangement of this branch of biology in
the Britannica. The main article on the subject is under the heading
PLANTS (Vol. 21, p. 728), by a number of eminent authorities. The
article is divided as follows: _Classification_, by A. B. Rendle;
_Anatomy and History and Bibliography_, by A. G. Tansley, lecturer in
botany in the University of Cambridge; _Physiology_, by J. R. Green,
formerly lecturer on plant physiology, University of Liverpool;
_Pathology_, by H. M. Ward, formerly professor of botany, University of
Cambridge; _Ecology_, which comprises the study of the relations of the
individual plant, or species, or the plant community, with its habitat,
by C. E. Moss, curator of the Cambridge University Herbarium;
_Cytology_, which treats of the cell structure of plant organisms, by H.
W. T. Wager, president of the Botanical section of the British
Association, 1905; _Morphology_, by S. H. Vines, professor of botany,
University of Oxford, and president of the Linnean Society, 1900–1904;
_Distribution_, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, director of the Kew
Botanical Gardens. Supplementary to the article PLANTS are the
following, which should all be read carefully: ROOT (Vol. 23, p. 712),
STEM (Vol. 25, p. 875), LEAF (Vol. 16, p. 322), FLOWER (Vol. 10, p.
553), FRUIT (Vol. 11, p. 254). A very important article is that on
PALAEOBOTANY (Vol. 20, p. 524), which treats of the distribution, etc.,
of plant life in prehistoric periods. The contributor is Clement Reid of
the Geological Survey of England and Wales, an original investigator in
this important field. The advances in the study of minute plant
organisms in the past few years have been very great and they receive
treatment in the brilliant article BACTERIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 156), by
Prof. H. M. Ward of Cambridge University, and V. H. Blackmann, professor
of botany in the University of Leeds.
Other articles in the Britannica which refer to the general principles
of the science will be found enumerated at the end of this chapter.
[Sidenote: Divisions and Classification]
The student must, of course, make himself familiar with the primary
divisions of the vegetable kingdom. These are considered in order below.
By far the biggest and the most important is that of the Angiosperms.
They will be treated first.
[Sidenote: Angiosperms: Dicotyledons]
The division ANGIOSPERMS (Vol. 2, p. 9) includes all those flowering
plants whose seeds are enclosed in capsules. This division is again
divided into two classes: the Dicotyledons (Vol. 8, p. 185), which are
distinguished by the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons in
the embryo contained in the seed; and the Monocotyledons (see Vol. 2, p.
13), which contain only one. The former embraces most of the
flowerbearing plants, and includes the following families:—BORAGINACEAE
(Vol. 4, p. 242) to which order belongs such plants as forget-me-nots,
borage, heliotrope, etc. CAPRIFOLIACEAE (Vol. 5, p. 290), which include
elder, honeysuckle, etc. CARYOPHYLLACEAE (Vol. 5, p. 439), with the
pinks, carnations, etc. COMPOSITAE (Vol. 6, p. 811), which is the
largest order in this division and includes one-tenth of the whole
number of flowering plants, with such varieties as lettuce, dandelion,
artichoke, sunflower, chrysanthemum, etc. CONVOLVULACEAE (Vol. 7, p.
67), among which are the convolvulus, sweet potato, bindweed.
CRASSULACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 380), which include a quantity of African
plants. CRUCIFERAE (Vol. 7, p. 521), with the wallflower, stock,
mustard, cabbage, radish, nasturtium, etc. CUCURBITACEAE (Vol. 7, p.
611), among which are the cucumber, melon, etc. CUPULIFERAE (Vol. 7, p.
635), with the hazel, oak, beech, alder. ERICACEAE (Vol. 9, p. 739),
with the rhododendron, arbutus, whortleberry, heather. EUPHORBIACEAE
(Vol. 9, p. 892), which include the castor-oil plant, box, euphorbia,
etc. GENTIANACEAE (Vol. 11, p. 601), with the gentian, yellow-wort,
bog-bean, etc. GERANIACEAE (Vol. 11, p. 762), whose name is derived from
the geranium. LABIATAE (Vol. 16, p. 3), with peppermint, marjoram,
thyme, sage, ground-ivy. LEGUMINOSAE (Vol. 16, p. 381), which embrace
gorse, furze, scarlet runner, mimosa, acacia, rest-harrow, etc.
MALVACEAE (Vol. 17, p. 517), with the mallow, hibiscus, hollyhock. The
MORACEAE (Vol. 18, p. 814), with the fig, mulberry, banyan, etc.
ONAGRACEAE (Vol. 20, p. 104), including the evening primrose, fuschia,
etc. POLYGONACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 26), with dock, rhubarb, buckwheat, etc.
PRIMULACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 341), including primrose, cowslip, pimpernel.
RANUNCULACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 895), with the varieties buttercup, clematis,
aconite, larkspur, columbine, marsh marigold, anemone. ROSACEAE (Vol.
23, p. 722), to which the rose gives the name, and which include
strawberry, raspberry, apple, pear, plum, spiraea, blackthorn, etc.
RUBIACEAE (Vol. 23, p. 808), with gardenias, chincona, coffee, madder.
SAXIFRAGACEAE (Vol. 24, p. 263), saxifrage, japonica, gooseberry,
hydrangea. SCROPHULARIACEAE (Vol. 24, p. 485), with veronica, foxglove,
snapdragon, etc. SOLANACEAE (Vol. 25, p. 356), which embrace henbane,
tobacco, deadly nightshade, cape gooseberry, capsicum. UMBELLIFERAE
(Vol. 27, p. 575), to which belong ivy, carrot, hemlock, celery,
caraway, parsley. URTICACEAE (Vol. 27, p. 805), which include the nettle
tribes.
[Sidenote: Angiosperms: Monocotyledons]
The Monocotyledons include the ALISMACEAE (Vol. 1, p. 671), to which
belong the arrow-head, the water plantain, the butomus (so called
because the leaves cut the tongues of oxen feeding on them), and other
water plants. AROIDEAE (Vol. 2, p. 640), so called from the Arum family.
The BROMELIACEAE (Vol. 4, p. 632), including pineapple, Spanish-moss.
CYPERACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 692), with bulrush, cotton grass, etc. GRASSES
(Vol. 12, p. 369), a most valuable article. HYDROCHARIDEAE (Vol. 14, p.
112), which include a number of water plants. Iridaceae (Vol. 14, p.
793), which include besides the iris, the crocus, gladiolus, etc. The
JUNCACEAE (Vol. 15, p. 555), or Rush family; and the LILIACEAE (Vol. 16,
p. 683), which include asparagus, hyacinth, star of Bethlehem,
fritillary, bluebell, etc.
[Sidenote: Other Divisions]
Another big division is that of the GYMNOSPERMS (Vol. 12, p. 754). These
have naked seed pods; that is to say, the seeds are not enclosed in
capsules. The best known and largest division of this class contains the
conifers: pines, firs, cedars, larches, etc.
PTERIDOPHYTA (Vol. 22, p. 605), or spore-producing plants, including the
fern families as the largest and most important of its members.
BRYOPHYTA (Vol. 4, p. 700), the second great sub-division of the
vegetable kingdom, comprises the mosses and liverworts.
ALGAE (Vol. 1, p. 585), plants usually devoid of differentiation into
roots, stem, and leaf, coming under the general class of Bryophyta, and
including sea-weeds as the main group.
LICHENS (Vol. 16, p. 578), compound dual organisms, part algae and part
fungus, interesting because the dual organism enables the plant to live
where neither of its compounds could live alone. Iceland moss, valuable
both for its nutritive and medicinal qualities, comes under this
division.
FUNGI (Vol. 11, p. 333), an enormous class, comprising, according to
Saccardo, 32,000 different species.
Bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY, Vol. 3, p. 156), minute organisms, also
known as microbes, bacilli, etc., technically called Schizomycetes.
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS (Vol. 14, p. 644), more correctly termed
Carnivorous, belong to a number of distinct natural orders, but agree in
the extraordinary habit of adding to the supplies of nitrogenous
material offered them by the soil and atmosphere by the capture and
consumption of insects and other small animals.
These are the main divisions, and from the articles describing them the
student will acquire a sound knowledge of the characteristics which
distinguish each. As a matter of fact, interest in botany as a subject
is first inspired by the particular rather than the general—that is to
say, the love of individual flowers leads to the study of their habits
and life history, thence to a comparison which leads to the recognition
of similar characteristics in plants having apparently widely different
functions, so that the following section of the subject, touching the
natural history of plants, though really placed last in a logical course
of reading in botany, will contain much that is already known to the
student who wishes to pursue the subject systematically.
[Sidenote: Natural History]
In the Britannica from the various articles concerning the natural
history of individual plants it is easy to trace back to what family and
main division each plant belongs. To the student beginning the subject
it will be most suggestive to look up the accounts of the plants which
are cultivated in his garden, or which he can find near his home, and
find out the family relationship between subjects which appear to differ
very widely both in habits and characteristics. From the outline given
above in the paragraph devoted to systematic botany an indication will
be given him of the surprises which are in store for him as he pursues
his investigation. He would not at first suspect, for example, that
asparagus and hyacinths were cousins, that roses, apples, and blackthorn
are closely related, or that chrysanthemums and artichokes have any
connection with one another, let alone cabbage and wallflowers. An
excellent scheme to arouse the interest of the young student would
therefore be to encourage him to pick out from the list below the names
of plants with which he is familiar and of which he can get specimens,
and thence work backward until the meanings of the main divisions of the
vegetable kingdom are clear to him.
In the natural history section of the following list will be found in
alphabetical order the plants which have separate articles in the
Britannica. Many plants besides these are of course described. They will
be found in the Index, where the volume and page on which a description
will be found are given.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE BRITANNICA ON BOTANY
(For biographies of botanists, see the end of the chapter on Biology)
=Botany: General=
Acaulescent
Acerose
Acinus
Acorn
Alburnum
Angulate
Ascus
Autogamy
Auxanometer
Axile, or Axial
Bacteriology
Botany
Boll
Bur, or Burr
Caducous
Caespitose
Cane
Capsule
Cataphyll
Chlorosis
Colleter
Corn
Cystolith
Deciduous
Fairy Ring
Flower
Fruit
Galls
Glaucous
Graft
Herb
Herbarium
Humus
Idioblast
Leaf
Marcescent
Meristem
Nut
Palaeobotany
Pin-eyed
Pistil
Plants
Pollination
Root
Ruderal
Sap
Sarcocarp
Sarmentose
Scion
Secund
Seed
Stem
Synanthy
Thorn
Thrum-eyed
Tree
Vegetable
Witch brooms
=Botany: Systematic=
Acotyledones
Acrogenae
Algae
Alismaceae
Amentiferae, or Amentaceae
Angiosperms
Aroideae (Arum family)
Boraginaceae
Bromeliaceae
Bryophyta
Caprifoliaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Compositae
Convolvulaceae
Crassulaceae
Cruciferae
Cucurbitaceae
Cupuliferae
Cyperaceae
Diatomaceae
Dicotyledons
Dictyogens
Ericaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Fungi
Gentianaceae
Geraniaceae
Grasses
Gymnosperms
Hydrocharideae
Insectivorous Plants
Iridaceae
Juncaceae
Labiatae
Leguminosae
Lichens
Liliaceae
Malvaceae
Moraceae
Onagraceae
Polygonaceae
Primulaceae
Pteridophyta
Ranunculaceae
Rosaceae
Rubiaceae
Saxifragaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Solanaceae
Umbelliferae
Urticaceae
=Botany: Natural History=
Aal
Aaron’s Rod
Abaca
Abutilon
Acacia
Acanthus
Achimenes
Acorus Calamus
Adonis
African Lily
Agave
Agrimony
Ailanthus
Alder
Aleurites
Alexanders
Algum, or Almug Tree
Allamanda
Alliaria officinalis
Allium
Almond
Aloe
Amadou
Amanita
Amaranth
Amaryllis
Ammoniacum, or Gum Ammoniac
Ampelopsis
Anatto
Anemone
Angelica
Animé
Anise
Apple
Apricot
Araucaria
Arbor Vitae
Archil
Aristolochia
Arrowroot
Artichoke
Ash
Asparagus
Aspen
Asphodel
Aspidistra
Aster
Aubergine
Aucuba
Auricula
Avocado Pear
Azalea
Bael Fruit
Balm
Bamboo
Banana
Baneberry
Banksia
Baobab
Barberry
Barley
Bdellium
Bean
Beech
Beet
Begonia
Benzoin, or Gum Benjamin
Betel Nut
Bilberry
Birch
Bird’s Eye
Blackberry
Bladder-wort
Boletus
Borage
Botrytis
Bottle-brush Plants
Bouvardia
Boxwood
Bracket-fungi
Brazil Nuts
Brazil Wood
Bread-fruit
Brooklime
Broom
Broom-rape
Buchu, or Buka Leaves
Buck-bean, or Bog-Bean
Buckthorn
Buckwheat
Bulrush
Burnet
Buttercup
Butter-nut
Butterwort
Cabbage
Cactus
Calabash
Calabash Tree
Calceolaria
Camellia
Campanula
Candytuft
Cannon-ball Tree
Capers
Caraway
Cardamom
Cardoon
Carnation
Carrot
Cashew Nut
Cassava
Cassia
Casuarina
Catalpa
Catha
Cayenne Pepper
Ceanothus
Cecropia
Cedar
Celandine
Celery
Centaurea
Centaury
Chantarelle
Chenopodium
Cherry
Chestnut
Chicory
Chive
Chrysanthemum
Cicely
Cimicifuga
Cinchona
Cineraria
Cinnamon
Citron
Cleavers
Clematis
Climbing Fern
Cloudberry
Clover
Cloves
Coca, or Cuca
Cocculus Indicus
Cock’s-comb
Cocoa
Coco de Mer
Coco-nut Palm
Codiaeum
Coffee
Colchicum
Coleus
Colocynth
Colt’s-foot
Columbine
Compass Plant
Cotton
Copaiba, or Copaiva
Copal
Coriander
Cork
Corn-salad
Correa
Cotoneaster
Cow-tree
Cranberry
Cress
Crinum
Crocus
Crowberry
Cryptomeria
Cucumber
Cumin, or Cummin
Currant
Custard Apple
Cyclamen
Cypress
Daffodil
Dahlia
Daisy
Dame’s Violet
Dammar, or Dammer
Dandelion
Daphne
Darlingtonia
Date Palm
Dewberry
Dividivi
Dock
Dodder
Dogwood
Dracaena
Dragon’s Blood
Dropwort
Duckweed
Dulse
Duramen
Durian
Durra
Earth-nut
Earth-star
Ebony
Edelweiss
Eglantine
Elder
Elecampane
Elephant’s Foot
Elm
Endive
Entada
Esparto, or Spanish Grass
Eucharis
Euonymus
Euphorbia
Evergreen
Everlasting, or Immortelle
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fern
Fig
Filmy Ferns
Finger-and-toe
Fir
Flax
Fool’s Parsley
Forget-me-not
Foxglove
Freesia
Fritillary
Frog-bit
Fuchsia
Fumitory
Funkia
Furze, Gorse, or Whin
Fustic
Gale
Gardenia
Garlic
Genista
Gentian
Geranium
Geum
Gillyflower
Ginger
Gladiolus
Glasswort
Gloriosa
Gloxinia
Golden Rod
Gooseberry
Gourd
Grains of Paradise
Gram, or Chick-pea
Granadilla
Grass of Parnassus
Greenheart
Ground Nut
Groundsel
Guava
Guelder Rose
Gulfweed
Gum
Gumbo, or Okra
Gutta Percha
Hackberry
Harebell
Hawthorn
Hazel
Heath
Heliotrope, or Turnsole
Hellebore
Hemlock
Hemp
Henbane
Henna
Hickory
Hippeastrum
Holly
Hollyhock
Honey Locust
Honeysuckle
Hop
Horehound
Hornbeam
Horseradish
Horsetail
Houseleek
Huckleberry
Huon Pine
Hyacinth
Hydrangea
Hyssop
Iceland Moss
Ice-plant
Impatiens
Iris
Irish Moss, or Carrageen
Iron-wood
Ivy
Jarrah Wood
Jasmine, or Jessamine
Jew’s Ears
Job’s Tears
Judas Tree
Jujube
Juniper
Jute
Kaffir Bread
Kauri Pine
Kerguelen’s Land Cabbage
Kumquat
Labrador Tea
Laburnum
Lac
Lace-bark Tree
Lancewood
Larch
Larkspur
Lattice Leaf Plant
Laurel
Laurustinus
Lavender
Leek
Lemon
Lentil
Lettuce
Lilac, or Pipe Tree
Lily
Lime, or Linden
Liquidambar, or Sweet Gum
Litchi, or Lee-Chee
Lobelia
Loco-weeds, or Crazy Weeds
Locust-tree
Loosestrife
Loquat
Lotus
Lucerne
Lupine
Lycopodium
Madder, or Dyer’s Madder
Magnolia
Mahogany
Maidenhair
Maize, or Indian Corn
Mallow
Mammee Apple
Mandrake
Mangel-Wurzel
Mango
Mangosteen
Mangrove
Manila Hemp
Manna
Maple
Mare’s-tail
Marguerite
Marigold
Marjoram
Mastic, or Mastich
Maté, or Paraguay Tea
Medlar
Melon
Mesquite, or Honey Locust
Mignonette
Mildew
Milkwort
Millet
Mimosa
Mimulus
Mint
Mistletoe
Moly
Momordica
Moonseed
Moonwort, or Moonfern
Moreton Bay Chestnut
Mucuna
Mulberry
Mushroom
Mustard
Myrobalans
Myrrh
Myrtle
Narcissus
Nasturtium
Nettle
Nettle Tree
Nightshade
Nutmeg
Oak
Oat
Oleander
Oleaster
Olive
Onion
Orach, or Mountain Spinach
Orange
Orchids
Orris-Root
Osier
Oxalis
Paeony
Palm
Palmetto
Pansy, or Heartsease
Papyrus
Parsley
Parsnip
Passionflower
Pea
Peach
Pear
Pellitory
Pennyroyal
Pentstemon
Pepper
Peppermint
Pepper Tree
Persimmon
Petunia
Phlox
Phormium, or New Zealand Flax
Pimento
Pine
Pine-apple
Pink
Pistachio Nut
Pitcher-plants
Plane
Plantain
Plum
Poinsettia
Pokeberry, or Pokeweed
Polyanthus
Polypodium
Pomegranate
Pondweed
Poplar
Poppy
Potato
Potentilla
Primrose
Privet
Puff-ball
Pumpkin
Purslane
Pyrethrum
Quince
Radish
Ramie
Ramsons
Ranunculus
Rape
Raspberry
Reed
Rhododendron
Rice
Richardia
Robinia, or Locust-tree
Rocambole
Rose
Rosemary
Rosewood
Rosin, or Colophony
Royal Fern
Rubber
Rue
Rush
Rye
Sabicu Wood
Safflower
Saffron
Sago
Sainfoin
St. John’s Wort
Salsafy, or Salsify
Salvia
Sapan Wood
Sarracenia
Satin Wood
Saxifrage
Scammony
Scorzonera
Screw-pine
Sea-kale
Seawrack
Sedum
Sequoia
Service Tree
Sesame
Shaddock
Shallot
Sisal Hemp
Skirret
Snake-root
Snapdragon
Snowdrop
Soap-bark
Sorghum
Sorrel
Spanish Broom
Spikenard, or Nard
Spinach
Spruce
Stink-wood
Strawberry
Strophanthus
Sudd
Sumach
Sundew
Sunflower
Sunn, or India Hemp
Sweet Potato
Sweet-sop
Switch Plants
Tallow Tree
Tamarind
Tamarisk
Tea
Teak
Teasel
Terebinth
Thistle
Thyme
Tiger-flower
Toadstool
Tobacco
Tomato
Tonqua Bean
Toothwort
Traveller’s Tree
Tree-fern
Truffle
Tuberose
Tulip
Tulip Tree
Tumble-weed
Turmeric
Turnip
Vanilla
Vegetable Marrow
Venus’s Fly-trap
Venus’s Looking-glass
Veratrum
Verbena
Vetch
Vine
Violet
Walnut
Water-lily
Water-thyme
Wax-tree
Wheat
Willow
Willow-herb
Wintergreen
Winter’s-bark
Witch-hazel
Woad
Wormwood
Yam
Yew
Yucca
Zinnia
CHAPTER LIX
ZOOLOGY
At the very outset of his zoological studies the reader will find that
the doctors still differ as to the best and most scientifically logical
system to be employed in classification. So important is it that the
connotation and denotation of every zoological designation should be
definite, that Sir Edwin Ray Lankester devotes the title article ZOOLOGY
(Vol. 28, p. 1022) mainly to a discussion of systems of classification,
and besides there is a separate article ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE (Vol.
28, p. 1021) by P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological
Society of London, university demonstrator in comparative anatomy and
assistant to the Linacre Professor at Oxford, and adviser to the editor
in the organization of the whole subject of zoology in the Britannica.
The Britannica articles may be classified in three divisions: dealing
with (i) _General Principles_, (ii) _Systematic_, (iii) _Natural
History_.
[Sidenote: General Principles]
The student should read at any rate some of the general articles
mentioned in the chapter on _Biology_; and these will prepare him for
the difficult questions involved in the articles ZOOLOGY and ZOOLOGICAL
NOMENCLATURE. Supplementary to these are the following: ANIMAL (Vol. 2,
p. 48), in connection with which should be read the article PROTISTA
(Vol. 22, p. 476) where the borderland between the animal and vegetable
kingdoms is further discussed, and the very valuable article PROTOZOA
(Vol. 22, p. 479) in which E. A. Minchin, professor of protozoology in
the University of London, discusses the minute animal organisms, which
in the last decade have proved immensely important in the study of
parasitic diseases. In LARVAL FORMS (Vol. 16, p. 224), and METAMORPHOSIS
(Vol. 18, p. 221) Prof. Adam Sedgwick, of the Imperial College of
Science and Technology in London, discusses the early history of larvae
and their change from larval to adult growth. The articles METAMERISM
(Vol. 18, p. 215), by Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, and _Regeneration of Lost
Parts_ (Vol. 23, p. 36), by P. Chalmers Mitchell, discuss the capacity
for repeating parts (as in the case of the common earth worm) and for
the formation of new parts to take the place of those lost by accident
or injury. The article MONSTER (Vol. 18, p. 740) by Dr. Charles
Creighton will be found very suggestive.
[Sidenote: Protective Modifications]
The eyes of most of us are shut to the wonders of the animal kingdom. We
know by hearsay that the colouring of an animal or insect, brilliant and
startling though it often be, is designed by nature for protection by
enabling it to assimilate itself to that of its surroundings. But how
many of us have taken the trouble to verify this? The articles COLOURS
OF ANIMALS, _Bionomics_ (Vol. 6, p. 731), by Prof. Poulton of Oxford,
and MIMICRY (Vol. 18, p. 495), by R. I. Pocock, superintendent of the
Zoological Gardens in London, will suggest to the reader many objects
for observation. Especially interesting in the former article is the
section on the use of colour for warning and signaling. In connection
with these articles, those on EGG (Vol. 9, p. 13) and FEATHER (Vol. 10,
p. 224), by W. P. Pycraft, of the British Museum, may be read, and
NIDIFICATION (Vol. 19, p. 666), by Prof. Alfred Newton of Cambridge
University, and Hans Gadow, Strickland curator and lecturer on zoology
in the University of Cambridge; especially those sections concerned with
the precautions taken by the birds for protection and concealment. A
very fascinating subject is discussed in the articles dealing with the
distribution and movements of animal life. These are ZOOLOGICAL
DISTRIBUTION (Vol. 28, p. 1002), by the well-known zoologist Richard
Lydekker; MIGRATION (Vol. 18, p. 433), by Hans Gadow; and PLANKTON (Vol.
21, p. 720), by G. H. Fowler of University College, London. Reference to
these articles has already been made in the chapter on _Biology_.
Closely connected with them is the article on PALAEONTOLOGY (Vol. 20, p.
579), by Prof. H. F. Osborn, Columbia University and American Museum of
Natural History, in which the distribution of prehistoric life is
discussed; and, as will be seen from the list below, all the principal
species now only found in fossil remains are described in separate
articles.
[Sidenote: Intelligence of Animals]
The editor succeeded in getting the psychologist, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan,
of the University of Bristol, who has made a specialty of this
particular subject, to write extremely illuminating articles on INSTINCT
and on INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS (Vol. 14, pp. 648 and 680). Interesting
as throwing a side light on either the instinct or intelligence of
birds, is the section on their song in the article SONG (Vol. 25, p.
413). It is hardly possible to look through any of these articles, or
those on mimicry and colour, above alluded to, without coming across
some striking and interesting fact, as for instance, the sudden change
from a divine melody to an anxious croak in the utterance of the male
nightingale as soon as the brood is hatched. These articles will be read
for their great interest by many who do not intend systematically to
pursue the subject of Zoology.
[Sidenote: Animals in Captivity]
The housing of animals in captivity is discussed in the articles
AQUARIUM (Vol. 2, p. 237), by Professor G. H. Fowler, University
College, London; AVIARY (Vol. 3, p. 60), by D. Seth-Smith, curator of
birds to the Zoological Society of London; and ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (Vol.
28, p. 1018), by P. Chalmers Mitchell. The first two contain some very
useful hints for the care of small aquaria and aviaries; and young
people who like to have aquaria at home, and are often disappointed by
their failure to keep alive some of their specimens, especially larval
and other surface-swimming animals, will find one of their difficulties
solved. These surface-swimming animals die of exhaustion from their
unaided efforts to keep off the bottom, lacking the support given in
their surroundings by the natural flow of the water, native tides, and
surface currents. The article describes a very simple arrangement by
which this motion of the water can be simulated.
Other articles which will be found very interesting are those on
HIBERNATION (Vol. 13, p. 441) and on INCUBATION AND INCUBATORS (Vol. 14,
p. 359). In the latter many will be surprised to note that incubators
have been in use in Egypt from time immemorial under the name MAMAL. In
one district of Egypt alone 90,000,000 eggs are annually hatched out in
these old time incubators, of which the secret has been handed down,
jealously guarded, from father to son. In the article TAXIDERMY (Vol.
26, p. 464), Montagu Browne, a practical taxidermist, deals with the
artistic as well as the technical aspects of the craft.
[Sidenote: Classification and Divisions]
Turning to the articles of the chief divisions of the animal kingdom,
the most useful arrangement will be to enumerate them in their order. As
has been already said, zoologists do not yet agree as to the best system
of classification; the one which is given in the Britannica is that upon
which the very eminent zoologists who have contributed the special
articles, agree as being the most suitable. There are two main grades.
The PROTOZOA (Vol. 22, p. 479) contain the animalcules, mainly
microscopic. These are the most elementary forms of life and consist of
single cells. The other and more important grade is that of the METAZOA,
which are built up of many cells.
[Sidenote: Protozoa]
The main subdivisions (called phyla) of the Protozoa are: phylum i.
SARCODINA (Vol. 24, p. 208); phylum ii. MASTIGOPHORA (Vol. 17, p. 873);
phylum iii. SPOROZOA (Vol. 25, p. 734); phylum iv. INFUSORIA (Vol. 14,
557).
[Sidenote: Metazoa]
Coming next, the Metazoa in their order are, as follows: phylum i.
Porifera (see SPONGES, Vol. 25, p. 715); phylum ii. HYDROMEDUSAE or
HYDROZOA (Vol. 14, pp. 135 and 171) which include aquatic animals of the
coral kind; phylum iii. SCYPHOMEDUSA (Vol. 24, p. 519) which include
groups of shell fish; phylum iv. ANTHOZOA (Vol. 2, p. 97) with the
corals; phylum v. CTENOPHORA (Vol. 7, p. 592) including the jelly fish;
phylum vi. PLATYELMIA (Vol. 21, p. 826) a group of animals in which
creeping first became habitual; phylum vii. Nematoidea (see NEMATODA,
Vol. 19, p. 359) which include certain kinds of worms; phylum viii.
CHAETOGNATHA (Vol. 5, p. 789) an isolated class of transparent pelagic
organisms; phylum ix. NEMERTINA (Vol. 19, p. 363) worm families; phylum
x. MOLLUSCA (Vol. 2, p. 669) shell-bearing animals.
Phylum xi. APPENDICULATA (Vol. 2, p. 220) which include the sub-phyla
ROTIFERA (Vol. 23, p. 759), CHAETOPODA (Vol. 5, p. 789), and ARTHROPODA
(Vol. 2, p. 673), the sub-phylum which comprises practically the whole
insect family. Important articles on animals in this class are: HEXAPODA
(Vol. 13, p. 418) which include the wasp, beetle, and other families;
the CRUSTACEA (Vol. 7, p. 552) which cover a field wide enough to
embrace species as different outwardly as lobsters, wood-lice, and
minute water fleas; and ARACHNIDA (Vol. 2, p. 287) the spider family.
Phylum xii. ECHINODERMA (Vol. 8, p. 871) with all the sea-urchins and
star fish.
Phylum xiii. VERTEBRATA (Vol. 27, p. 1047) to which man belongs as an
order of a sub-class of a class of a sub-phylum. The most important
sub-phylum of the Vertebrata is the Craniata (see Vol. 27, p. 1048). The
sub-phyla HEMICHORDA (Vol. 13, p. 257), Urochorda (see TUNICATA, Vol.
27, p. 379), and Cephalochorda (see AMPHIOXUS, Vol. 1, p. 886) deal with
the lower orders of Vertebrata. The sub-phylum Craniata comprises the
following classes: class i. Pisces, see ICHTHYOLOGY (Vol. 14, p. 243)
with the fishes; class ii. BATRACHIA (Vol. 3, p. 521), with the frog
tribe; class iii. Reptilia (see REPTILES, Vol. 23, p. 136); and in close
connection with this—class iv. Aves (see BIRD, Vol. 3, p. 959, and
ORNITHOLOGY, Vol. 20, p. 299); class v. MAMMALIA (Vol. 17, p. 520) to
which man belongs.
Phylum xiv. MESOZOA (Vol. 18, p. 187) minute parasitic animals
intermediate between the Protozoa and the Metazoa. Phylum xv. POLYZOA
(Vol. 22, p. 42) aquatic animals forming colonies by budding. Phylum
xvi. ACANTHOCEPHALA (Vol. 1, p. 109) including the parasitic worms.
Phylum xvii. PODAXONIA (Vol. 28, p. 1023), and phylum xviii.
GASTROTRICHA (Vol. 11, p. 526) minute animals living at the bottom of
ponds and marshes.
[Sidenote: Natural History]
This is an outline of the main division of the animal kingdom in their
order as now classified. The subject of zoology is so vast that the
student will probably confine himself to one branch of the subject,
perhaps to one small fraction of a division, of which he proposes to
investigate the complete natural history. As will be seen from the list
below, which is classified, the Britannica offers an immense amount of
material bearing on the subject. But of course the study of any one
sub-class needs a general knowledge of the foundations of zoological
science, so that some acquaintance with the principles on which the
animal world is classified is indispensable. As in Botany, it will be
easy to see from the article on any individual animal to which family it
belongs so that the young student can work back from the particular to
the general and find out the whole relationship of the subject in which
he is interested by reference to the “systematic” article.
LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ON ZOOLOGY
(For biographies of Zoologists, see the end of the chapter on Biology)
=Zoology: General=
Abomasum
Acetabulum
Animal
Aquarium
Aviary
Beak
Breeds and Breeding
Carapace
Colours of Animals
Comparative Anatomy
Conch
Contractile Vacuole
Crepuscular
Dew-claw
Dewlap
Dorsiventral
Dredge
Egg
Feather
Grub
Herd
Hibernation
Incubation and Incubators
Instinct
Intelligence in Animals
Karyogamy
Larval Forms
Meganucleus
Membranelle
Metamerism
Metamorphosis
Micronucleus
Migration
Mimicry
Mongrel
Monster
Moult
Nest
Nidification
Plankton
Proboscis
Pylome
Quill
Regeneration of Lost Parts
Sex
Song (of Birds)
Taxidermy
Vermin
Zoology
Zoological Distribution
Zoological Gardens
Zoological Nomenclature
=Zoology, Systematic=: Invertebrata
Acanthocephala
Acineta
Actinozoa
Algae
Amoeba
Annelida
Anthozoa
Appendiculata
Aptera
Arachnida
Arcella
Arthropoda
Articulata
Aspirotrochaceae
Brachiopoda
Campodea
Cephalopoda
Chaetognatha
Chaetopoda
Ciliata
Coccidia
Coelentera
Coleoptera
Crustacea
Ctenophora
Cystoflagellata
Dendrocometes
Desmoscolecida
Difflugia
Dinoflagellata
Diptera
Echinoderma
Echiuroidea
Ectospora
Endospora
Entomostraca
Epistylis
Filosa
Flagellata
Foraminifera
Gastropoda
Gastrotricha
Gephyrea
Globigerina
Gnathopoda
Gregarines
Gymnostomaceae
Haemosporidia
Haplodrili
Heliozoa
Hemiptera
Heterokaryota
Hexapoda
Hydromedusae
Hydrozoa
Hymenoptera
Infusoria
Kinorhyncha
Labyrinthulidea
Lamellibranchia
Lepidoptera
Malacostraca
Mastigophora
Medusa
Mesozoa
Mollusca
Molluscoida
Mycetozoa
Myonemes
Myriapoda
Myzostomida
Nematoda
Nematomorpha
Nemertina
Neuroptera
Nummulite
Opalina
Orthoptera
Paramecium
Pedipalpi
Pelomyxa
Pentastomida
Peripatus
Perissodactyla
Phoronidea
Planarians
Platyelmia
Polyp
Polyzoa
Priapuloidea
Proteomyxa
Protista
Protogenes
Protomyxa
Protozoa
Pseudopod
Pycnogonida, or Pantopoda
Radiata
Radiolaria
Rhizopoda
Rotifera
Sarcodina
Scaphopoda
Scyphomedusae
Sipunculoidea
Sponges
Sporozoa
Stentor
Thyrostraca
Thysanoptera
Thysanura
Trematodes
Trypanosomes
Vampyrella
Vorticella
=Zoology, Systematic=: Vertebrata
Amphibia
Artiodactyla
Amphioxus
Balanoglossus
Batrachia
Bovidae
Caecilia
Carnivora
Cetacea
Chaetosomatida
Chiroptera
Cyclostomata, or Marsipobranchii
Cyprinodonts
Edentata
Equidae
Hemichorda
Hyracoidea
Insectivora
Marsupialia
Monodelphia
Monotremata
Pecora
Proboscidea
Pterobranchia
Ratitae
Rodentia
Ruminantia
Salmon and Salmonidae
Sauropsida
Selachians, or Elasmobranchii
Suina
Tardigrada
Teleostomes
Tunicata
Tylopoda
Ungulata
Vertebrata
=Zoology, Natural History=: Mammals