FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF FOOD PRODUCTS
The manufacturer of or dealer in food products must of necessity be
interested in questions of transportation by land and sea, of taxation,
of agriculture, stock-raising and fishing, for example. For all such
subjects as these he is referred to other chapters of this Guide. Here
he will find only the chief articles on the subjects most closely
related to the study of food products. But on these he may glean a
wealth of information that will be of greatest value to him, and from
them he can turn readily and with profit to a survey of the larger area
covered by other chapters.
As a general introduction to the subject the student should read
DIETETICS (Vol. 8, p. 214), by the late Dr. W. O. Atwater, who was in
charge of the Nutrition Investigation of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, and R. D. Milner, also of that Department. This article
deals with the composition and nutritive values of foods, their fuel
value, quantities of nutriments needed, hygienic and pecuniary economy
of foods (with tables showing the percentage composition of common food
materials), conditions of digestibility, and other matters of equal
importance. NUTRITION (Vol. 19, p. 920), by Prof. D. N. Paton and Dr. E.
P. Cathcart, both of the University of Glasgow, discusses more
particularly digestion and the utilization of the different food
constituents.
[Sidenote: Food Preservation]
After establishing the value and relative importance of the various
substances used as food, it is of great interest to everyone in the
business to consider the subject of FOOD PRESERVATION (Vol. 10, p. 612),
an article by Otto Hehner, formerly president of the Society of Public
Analysts, in which there are separate sections on _Preservation by Heat_
(which includes all canning processes); _by Chemicals_; _by Drying_; _by
Refrigeration_; _by Pickling_. The sterilization of milk, condensed milk
and milk powder all fall within the scope of this article. The
preservation of food by cold is described in fuller detail in the
article REFRIGERATING AND ICE MAKING (Vol. 23, p. 30), by T. B.
Lightfoot, author of the standard technical book on that subject. Among
the separate articles on preservative materials are VINEGAR (Vol. 28, p.
96), ACETIC ACID (Vol. 1, p. 135), CITRIC ACID (Vol. 6, p. 397), OILS
(Vol. 20, p. 43), SALT (Vol. 24, p. 87), SALTPETRE (Vol. 24, p. 93),
SUGAR (Vol. 26, p. 32), BORAX (Vol. 4, p. 243), FORMALIN OR FORMALDEHYDE
(Vol. 10, p. 667), BENZOIC ACID (Vol. 3, p. 756), SALICYLIC ACID (Vol.
24, p. 69), SULPHUR, _Compounds_ (Vol. 26, p. 63), ALCOHOL (Vol. 1, p.
525).
[Sidenote: Adulteration]
The objections to the use of some of these chemicals are discussed in
ADULTERATION (Vol. 1, p. 218), by Otto Hehner. This article is about as
long as 50 pages of this Guide. There is an interesting historical
introduction, from which we learn that the first legal statute in which
the adulteration of food is noticed dates from the reign of King John in
England (1203). There is an elaborate account of all the subsequent
legislation in Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. The
effects upon digestion of the chemical preservatives mentioned above are
shown in the light of the very latest investigations. There is a section
on colouring matter in food, with information about harmless and harmful
dyes; and the last part of the article considers adulteration as
recently applied to the more important articles of food, such as milk
(with tests for borax and formaldehyde), cream, butter, cheese, lard,
oils, flour and bread, sugar, marmalade and jams, tea, coffee, cocoa and
chocolate, wine, beer, spirits, non-alcoholic drinks, and vinegar.
The properties of adulterants and colouring matters are described in
separate articles, such as GLUCOSE (Vol. 12, p. 141); SACCHARIN (Vol.
23, p. 970); PARAFFIN (Vol. 20, p. 752), which is sometimes added to
coffee when it is roasted; ALUM (Vol. 1, p. 766), often used with weak
and unstable flours in bread making, and unwholesome, although not
strictly speaking an adulterant; SAGO (Vol. 23, p. 1003) and ARROWROOT
(Vol. 2, p. 649), which provide adulterants of cocoa; CHICORY (Vol. 6,
p. 131), which many consumers insist upon using in their coffee; COPPER,
_Compounds_ (Vol. 7, p. 109), which describes the copper salts used for
colouring canned vegetables; ANATTO (Vol. 1, p. 943) and TURMERIC (Vol.
27, p. 474), two harmless vegetable colouring matters, much employed;
and ANILINE (Vol. 2, p. 47). A full list of the various other colouring
matters will be found in the article DYEING (Vol. 8, p. 744).
Another group of articles will be found particularly useful in
connection with the manufacture of certain classes of food products.
Among these are FERMENTATION (Vol. 10, p. 275), by J. L. Baker, the
noted English analytical and consulting chemist; FUNGI (Vol. 11, p.
333), illustrated, with its information about molds; BACTERIOLOGY (Vol.
3, p. 156), illustrated, especially for the material relating to the
nature of toxins (p. 174)—both of these articles by the late Professor
Ward of Cambridge and Professor Blackman of the University of Leeds;
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, _Food Poisoning_ (Vol. 18, p. 29), by Prof. H. H.
Littlejohn, of the University of Edinburgh, and T. A. Ingram; and POISON
(Vol. 21, p. 893), by the late Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, of Guy’s
Hospital, London.
The diseases of animals which affect meat are described in the article
VETERINARY SCIENCE (Vol. 28, p. 2), by George Fleming, author of _Animal
Plagues_, and Prof. John MacQueen of the London Veterinary College,
which contains sections on diseases of cattle, sheep and pigs as well as
on the principal parasites of domestic animals; and there are separate
articles on ANTHRAX (Vol. 2, p. 106); FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (Vol. 10,
p. 617), PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, or LUNG PLAGUE (Vol. 21, p. 838), and
RINDERPEST (Vol. 23, p. 348).
[Sidenote: Special Foods]
The article FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE (Vol. 10, p. 548), by George F.
Zimmer, not only describes the processes of milling and of dressing and
bleaching the flour, but also gives the history of milling from the
earliest times, and deals with the special customs of different
countries. There is a very full article BREAD (Vol. 4, p. 465), by the
same contributor. It is not generally known that there are in existence
remains of cakes made by the Swiss lake-dwellers in the Stone Age. The
author says that, in all probability, they were baked on hot stones. The
machine bakeries of the present day are described; and there are
sections on sanitation of bakehouses, quality, flavour and colour of
flour, baking powders, methods of dough making (the ferment-and-dough,
the sponge-and-dough, and other systems), leavened, unleavened and
aerated bread, and the recently invented Apostolov process, which among
other advantages, permits the utilization of about 87½% of the wheat
berry in bread making. A complete modern bread-making plant is
described, together with the latest types of machine kneaders, dough
dividers and mixers, and baking ovens. There are also articles on
BISCUIT (Vol. 3, p. 992), MACARONI (Vol. 17, p. 192), VERMICELLI (Vol.
27, p. 1024), and GLUTEN (Vol. 12, p. 145).
The article STARCH (Vol. 25, p. 794) treats of the manufacture of this
most important alimentary substance. The materials from which the chief
food starches are made are described in MAIZE (Vol. 7, p. 448),
ARROWROOT (Vol. 2, p. 649), with illustrations showing the appearance
under the microscope of the substances which pass commercially under the
name of arrowroot or farina; SAGO (Vol. 23, p. 1003), TAPIOCA (Vol. 26,
p. 413), and CASSAVA (Vol. 5, p. 457). OAT (Vol. 19, p. 938) has
information about the manufacture of oatmeal.
The article SUGAR (Vol. 26, p. 35) is by two practical experts, Alfred
and Valentine W. Chapman. It deals with the chemistry, manufacture,
history and statistics of this important food product as well as with
the cultivation of the sugar cane and beet.
Among articles on the products in the manufacture of which sugar is
employed is JAMS AND JELLIES (Vol. 15, p. 150), by Otto Hehner. The
author points out many things of interest, for example why
starch-glucose is an ingredient and not an adulterant of these products,
and he shows the baselessness of the prejudice against the use of beet
sugar in their manufacture. The manufacturer of jellies and preserves
will find separate articles on all the fruits employed, and other
information in GELATIN (Vol. 11, p. 554); in IRISH MOSS (Vol. 14, p.
795) as to the properties of vegetable gelatin; and in ISINGLASS (Vol.
14, p. 872), which, besides its gelatinous qualities, possesses the
property of clarifying wines, beers, and other liquids. CONFECTIONERY
(Vol. 6, p. 898) describes an important industry—which until the middle
of the 19th century was part of the druggist’s business. See also
CHOCOLATE (Vol. 6, p. 259) and JUJUBE (Vol. 15, p. 546).
SALT (Vol. 24, p. 87) covers the manufacture of salt very fully. It is
curious to note that the termination “wich” in English place-names
points to localities of ancient salt manufacture, for “wich” is an old
English word meaning saltspring. This article contains an interesting
section on the _Ancient History and Religious Symbolism_ of salt (p.
90), by the late Dr. William Robertson Smith. The preservative qualities
of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of any enduring
compact, and in more than one part of the world cakes of salt have been
used as money.
[Sidenote: Dairy Products]
Butter and cheese manufacture fall under the article DAIRY AND DAIRY
FARMING (Vol. 7, p. 737), illustrated, by the late Dr. William Fream, of
Edinburgh University. There are sections on _Milk Production_; _Cheese
and Cheesemaking_, including Canadian and American factory practice and
the Babcock and Russell investigations in Wisconsin which have opened up
a new field for commercial exploitation (the varieties of English,
French, German, and Italian cheeses being also described); _Butter and
Butter-making_, _Dairy Factories_, _Adulteration of Dairy Produce_; _The
Milk Trade_, _American Dairying_, etc. MARGARINE, the “perfectly
wholesome butter substitute” is the subject of a separate article (Vol.
17, p. 704).
There is an article on LARD (Vol. 16, p. 214), showing what real leaf
lard is, and how the term is applied in commerce. OILS (Vol. 20, p. 43),
by Dr. Julius Lewkowitsch, author of _Chemical Technology and Analysis
of Oils, Fats, and Waxes_, deals with the fixed oils and fats, and
essential, etheral or volatile oils. Some of these are among the most
important articles of food, and the oil and fat industry may be
considered as old as the human race itself. The three processes of oil
extraction are described, also refining and bleaching, methods of
testing, etc. A list of all oils and fats, including those that are
edible, is given. For the chief oils used as food see OLIVE (Vol. 20, p.
85), COTTON, _Cotton-seed_ (Vol. 7, p. 260), SESAME (Vol. 24, p. 701),
SUNFLOWER (Vol. 26, p. 102), POPPY OIL (Vol. 22, p. 91).
Other articles on foods deal with the preparation for the market of such
products as GINGER (Vol. 12, p. 27), MUSTARD (Vol. 19, p. 97), PEPPER
(Vol. 21, p. 127), with the different varieties distinguished, CAYENNE
PEPPER (Vol. 5, p. 589), VINEGAR (Vol. 28, p. 96), PIMENTO (Vol. 21, p.
614), CLOVES (Vol. 6, p. 562), CINNAMON (Vol. 6, p. 376), CURRY (Vol. 7,
p. 649), CAVIARE (Vol. 5, p. 582), from which we learn that the finer
grades rarely find their way out of Russia; KETCHUP (Vol. 15, p. 761),
CHUTNEY (Vol. 6, p. 350), PICKLE (Vol. 21, p. 584), VANILLA (Vol. 27, p.
894), RAISIN (Vol. 22, p. 864), CURRANT (Vol. 7, p. 648), PRUNE (Vol.
22, p. 518), FIG (Vol. 10, p. 332), and GUAVA (Vol. 12, p. 665).
[Sidenote: Beverages, Tea and Coffee]
The same completeness is displayed in the Britannica articles on
beverages. TEA (Vol. 26, p. 476), by John McEwan, has an admirable
historical introduction. It was not until the middle of the 17th century
that the English began to use tea. It is a curious fact that whereas 35
years ago China practically supplied the world with tea, to-day Russia
alone takes half of her export. The reason for this is explained. The
characteristics of all varieties of tea are given and the main facts
about the cultivation and manufacture. _Tea Adulteration_ and _Effects
on Health_ are other sections of this valuable article.
COFFEE (Vol. 6, p. 646) is treated in very similar fashion by A. B.
Rendle and W. G. Freeman. This beverage, in spite of fierce religious
opposition, became the national beverage of the Arabians, and finally
appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The physiological action of
coffee has a section all to itself. Coffee consumption, roasting and
adulteration are also discussed. It is of interest to note that while
one branch of the Anglo-Saxon race, namely the people of the United
States, is near the head of the list of coffee consumers, others,
especially Great Britain, Canada and Australia “are almost at the foot,
using only about 1 lb. of coffee per head each year.” In the United
States “the average consumption per head is about 11 or 12 lbs. per
annum.”
COCOA (Vol. 6, p. 628) is an interesting and valuable article on “the
food of the gods”—the great beverage and dietary substance which America
has given the world. Modern lovers of chocolate as a beverage (which is
the same as cocoa save that the fat has not been extracted) will envy
the digestive powers of the Emperor Montezuma of Mexico who had, each
day, 50 jars of chocolate prepared for his personal consumption.
BEER (Vol. 3, p. 642), by Dr. Philip Schidrowitz, member of the
Institute of Brewery Council, confines itself to the history of this
important beverage, the chemical composition of beers of different
types, and information in regard to production and consumption. In
BREWING (Vol. 4, p. 506) this same author enters very fully into the
manufacturing operations. The English and foreign systems are described
and there are many illustrations. It is curious to note that Pliny, who
is the earliest writer to mention beer, describes it as scorned by the
Romans, who looked upon it as only fit for barbarians, and he thought it
a more sinful drink than wine. “So exquisite,” he says, “is the cunning
of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have
invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication.” The
section on _Brewing Chemistry_ is very valuable. In connection with
Brewing there is an article on MALT (Vol. 17, p. 499), illustrated and
very complete in its treatment, by Arthur R. Ling, editor _Journal of
the Institute of Brewing_, and one on HOP (Vol. 13, p. 677), by the late
Dr. Wm. Fream. Dr. Schidrowitz also contributes the article WINE (Vol.
28, p. 716). The art of wine-making is thoroughly described, and there
are most interesting sections on the wines of France, Spain, Portugal,
Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, United States, classifying the
different varieties and affording a full survey of the industry.
SPIRITS (Vol. 25, p. 694), illustrated, and also by Dr. Schidrowitz, is
a general article covering the subject of the distillation of fermented
saccharine and starchy liquids. The account is both historical and
technical, and there are separate and more specific articles on BRANDY
(Vol. 4, p. 428), RUM (Vol. 23, p. 825), ARRACK (Vol. 2, p. 642), WHISKY
(Vol. 28, p. 591), in which the difference between three main
types—Scotch, Irish and American—is carefully explained; VODKA (Vol. 28,
p. 170), GIN (Vol. 12, p. 26). The many flavoured and sweetened forms of
alcohol are described in the article LIQUEURS (Vol. 16, p. 744), where
we also learn the difference between a “cordial” and a “liqueur.” There
are separate articles on ABSINTHE (Vol. 1, p. 75), BENEDICTINE (Vol. 3,
p. 721), CHARTREUSE (Vol. 5, p. 954), CURAÇOA (Vol. 7, p. 636), KIRSCH
(Vol. 15, p. 834), and VERMOUTH (Vol. 27, p. 1029).
MINERAL WATERS (Vol. 18, p. 517) classifies all the great springs
according to their mineral constituents, and discusses the effects upon
digestion of their use, and their value in medical treatment.
The appended list includes a large number of articles of interest to the
food producers, including chemical compounds and flavouring extracts.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL
INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OR SALE OF FOOD PRODUCTS
Absinthe
Acetic Acid
Acorus Calamus
Adulteration
Aerated Waters
Alcohol
Aldehydes
Ale
Almond
Alum
Anatto
Anchovy
Angelica
Aniline
Anise
Anthrax
Apple
Apricot
Arrack
Arrowroot
Artichoke
Asparagus
Aspic
Avocado Pear
Bacon
Bacteriology
Bael Fruit
Banana
Bannock
Barley
Barm
Bean
Bee, _Bee-keeping_
Beef
Beer
Beet
Benedictine
Benzoic Acid
Bilberry, or Whortleberry
Biltong
Birch
Biscuit
Bisque
Bitters
Blackberry
Bohea
Boletus
Borax
Brandy
Brazil Nut
Bread
Bread Fruit
Brewing
Buckwheat
Butter
Butter-nut
Cabbage
Caffeine
Candle
Capers
Caraway
Cardamon
Carrot
Cassava
Cassia
Cattle
Caviare
Cayenne Pepper
Celery
Chanterelle
Chartreuse
Chasse
Cheese
Cherry
Chestnut
Chicory
Chive
Chocolate
Chupatty
Chutney
Cider
Cinnamon
Citric Acid
Citron
Claret
Cloves
Cocoa
Coco-nut Palm
Cod
Coffee
Confectionery
Cookery
Copper
Cotton
Crab
Cranberry
Cucumber
Curaçoa
Currant
Curry
Date Palm
Dietary
Dietetics
Dyeing
Eel
Enzyme
Esters
Extract
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fermentation
Fig
Fisheries
Flour and Flour Manufacture
Food
Food Preservation
Foot and Mouth Disease
Formalin, or Formaldehyde
Fructose
Fruit
Fruit and Flower Farming
Fungi
Furfurane
Garlic
Gelatin
Gentian
Ghee
Gin
Ginger
Glucose
Gluten
Gooseberry
Grain Trade
Ground Nut
Gumbo
Guava
Haddock
Herring
Hippocras
Honey
Hop
Horseradish
Huckleberry
Hyssop
Indian Corn
Iris
Irish Moss
Isinglass
Jams and Jellies
Jujube
Juniper
Junket
Kava
Ketchup
Kipper
Kirsch
Koumiss
Kvass, or Kwass
Lactic Acid
Lard
Lemon
Lentil
Liqueurs
Loaf
Lobster
Macaroni
Mackerel
Maize
Malmsey
Malt
Maple
Marchpane
Margarine
Marmalade
Maté
Meal
Mealie
Meat
Medical Jurisprudence
Medlar
Melon
Milk
Mineral Waters
Mint
Molasses
Mulberry
Mulligatawny
Mushroom
Mustard
Nasturtium
Negus
Nut
Nutmeg
Nutrition
Oat
Oils
Okra
Oleic Acid
Olive
Onion
Orange
Oyster
Palmitic Acid
Paraffin
Pea
Peach
Pear
Pemmican
Pepper
Pepsin
Perry
Pickle
Pig
Pilchard
Pimento
Pine-apple
Pistachio-nut
Plants, _Pathology_
Pleuro Pneumonia
Plum
Poison
Pomegranate
Poppy Oil
Potato
Poultry and Poultry Farming
Prune
Pudding
Puff-ball
Pulque
Pumpkin
Punch
Quince
Radish
Raisin
Raspberry
Ratafia
Rice
Rinderpest
Rum
Rye
Saccharin
Sago
Saké
Salicylic Acid
Salmon
Salsify
Salt
Saltpetre
Scone
Sea Kale
Sesame
Shaddock
Sheep
Sherbet
Sherry
Shrimp
Sorghum
Spirits
Sprat
Starch
Steak
Stearic Acid
Strawberry
Sturgeon
Suet
Sugar
Sulphur
Sunflower
Syrup
Tamarind
Tapioca
Tart
Tea
Terpenes
Thyme
Tomato
Treacle
Trichinosis
Truffle
Tunny
Turmeric
Vanilla
Venison
Vermicelli
Vermouth
Veterinary Science
Vine
Vinegar
Vodka
Walnut
Wheat
Whisky
Wine
Wintergreen
Wormwood
Yeast