FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF METALS, HARDWARE, GLASS AND CHINA
Elisée Reclus, the great French student of the origins of civilization,
says, in the Britannica article FIRE (Vol. 10, p. 399), that “human
culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses increased
in the same ratio as culture itself.” The industries grouped in the
present chapter all depend upon the curiously diverse effects of heat;
the softening and tempering of metals, the hardening of clay and the
changes by which sand becomes glass. It is for the reader himself to
decide whether he wishes to begin his course of reading by a study of
the article HEAT (Vol. 13, p. 135), and the allied articles to which it
refers, and thus to understand how temperature plays its dominant part
in the most useful of manufacturing processes.
[Sidenote: Knowledge in “Layers”]
It is, indeed, one of the most attractive features of the Britannica
that it presents knowledge in _layers_. In text-books, the theoretical
and practical aspects of an industry are so interwoven that you cannot
separate them. But in the Britannica, if you desire only to examine the
finished products of any branch of industry, as you might see them and
hear them described at an exhibition or in a manufacturer’s sample room,
you can turn to articles and sections of articles in which critical
comment and elaborate illustrations put clearly before you the varieties
of, for example, plated ware, china or glass. Proceeding to the next
“layer,” you find technical information about the manufacture of these
and all other goods; you have been permitted to pass from the sample
room into the factory, which is not usually so easy of access. And in
the scientific articles you arrive at the very substratum and foundation
of knowledge; you have what the experts in the factory could not give
you if they would: the clear teaching that only the great masters of
science can supply.
The manufacturer, of course, absolutely _needs_ to know all that can be
learned about the origin of his materials and the principles upon which
his processes are based. But the dealer, in his turn, will be a shrewder
buyer, a more convincing salesman and a better manager of the salesmen
under him, if he knows the whole history of his wares, of the
ingredients that enter into their composition and of their manufacture.
Factory experience is hardly more universal among wholesale men, most of
whom begin as clerks, than among retailers, and it is impossible for a
business man who has got his foot fairly on the ladder to drop his work
and go through an apprenticeship or take a thorough course at a
technical college. If, however, he will for a few months devote his
spare time to the studies he can pursue, unaided, in the Britannica, the
insight he obtains will give a new value to all the knowledge he picks
up in the course of his business.
[Sidenote: Physics and Chemistry]
[Sidenote: Some of the Authorities]
The departments of physics and physical chemistry are of course those in
which the Britannica’s scientific contents especially interest those to
whom this chapter is addressed, and the authority of the Britannica in
those departments of knowledge is shown by a very striking fact. You may
remember that Alfred Nobel, the great Swedish chemist, who made a
fortune by the invention and manufacture of dynamite, devoted $9,000,000
to the establishment of the annual Nobel prizes, to be awarded,
irrespective of nationality, for eminence in scientific research and in
the cause of peace. In physics and chemistry, _Britannica contributors
have won, in eleven years, seven of these prizes_, these winners being:
in 1901, Prof. J. H. van’t Hoff, of the University of Berlin; in 1902,
Prof. Lorentz, of the University of Leiden; in 1904, Lord Rayleigh,
Chancellor of the University of Cambridge; in 1906, Sir J. J. Thomson,
of the University of Cambridge; in 1909, Prof. Ostwald, of the
University of Leipzig; in 1911, Prof. Van der Waals, of the University
of Amsterdam. In other words, you find that the scientific committee who
award the Nobel prizes select for these unique distinctions the same men
whom the editor of the Britannica selected as contributors. Now apply
another test, in connection with the subject matter of this chapter.
What is, by general consent, the most exquisitely finished product of
any of the industries under discussion in the present section? To this
question there can be but one answer: Optical glass. Where is the best
glass made? At the Zeiss Works in Jena, Germany. Very well, Dr. Otto
Henker and Dr. Eppenstein, both of the scientific staff of the Zeiss
Works, wrote the optical articles in the Britannica which deal with the
lens and with aberration in lenses. You should therefore remember, in
reading the Britannica, that whether you are only going as far as the
uppermost layer of knowledge, or reaching down to the very foundations
of science, the men whose articles you are reading command the respect
that you can pay to them by giving your very closest attention. Do not
imagine that because the book contains forty-four million words, it is
made to be skimmed; every article in it is condensed; and you cannot
derive the fullest benefit from your reading unless you feel, as you
would feel if you were fortunate enough to be brought into personal
contact with any of these great men, that you have a privilege of which
you must make the most.
[Sidenote: Metals]
Other chapters of this Guide also deal in detail with the scientific
side of the industries mentioned here; and in examining the groups of
industrial articles, those dealing with metals claim first
consideration. The article METAL (Vol. 18, p. 198) is devoted to
classification only, and would not occupy more than ten pages of this
Guide. It contains information as to the physical properties of the
metals, including a table in which the specific gravity of each of 42
metals is stated, a table of comparative ductility under the hammer, for
rolling and for wire drawing, a table of elasticities, and other tables
showing the ratio of expansion under heat, the melting and boiling
points, and the relative thermic and electric conductivity. A section is
devoted to the action of chemical agents upon the simple metals.
METALLURGY (Vol. 18, p. 203), and ELECTROMETALLURGY (Vol. 9, p. 232), by
W. G. McMillan, lecturer on metallurgy at Mason College, Birmingham,
deal with all the methods of smelting ores. Your next reading should be
the great article IRON AND STEEL (Vol. 14, p. 801), by Prof. H. M. Howe,
of Columbia University, containing as much matter as would fill 110
pages of this Guide. At the beginning of this article Prof. Howe
disposes of the much discussed question as to the true distinction
between iron and steel, as to which there has been great confusion.
Before 1860, the word “steel” was never applied to a metal that could
not be hardened by tempering. But when the invention of the Bessemer and
open-hearth processes introduced a new class of iron, “which lacked the
essential property of steel, the hardening power, yet differed from the
existing forms of wrought iron in freedom from slag,” the men interested
in the new product did not like to call it “wrought iron,” which is what
it really is, because that name would confuse it with a lower-priced
grade of metal. They ought to have coined a new word for it, but they
appropriated the name of steel—so that to-day “steel” means either true
steel or the low-carbon, slagless variety of malleable iron. The article
is divided into 133 sections, so that to analyze its contents would
swamp this chapter of the Guide, but the reader will find in it the
clearest and most authoritative account of the industry which has yet
been published.
Among articles on the commercial metals are COPPER (Vol. 7, p. 102),
LEAD (Vol. 16, p. 314), TIN (Vol. 26, p. 995), ZINC (Vol. 28, p. 981),
ALUMINIUM (Vol. 1, p. 767), NICKEL (Vol. 19, p. 658), ANTIMONY (Vol. 2,
p. 127), and, on the precious metals, GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192), SILVER
(Vol. 25, p. 112), and PLATINUM (Vol. 21, p. 805).
The article ALLOYS, of which Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen, long chemist of
the London Mint, is the chief contributor, with its photomicrographic
illustrations, contains not only an account of the alloys already
generally used in the metal industries, but also practical information
as to the experiments which have been made recently with some of the
newly discovered rare earths. In the article METALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p.
202), by the same specialist, the microscopic examination and
photography of metals and alloys is described.
Among articles on the metallic compounds are BRASS (Vol. 4, p. 433), in
which “Dutch metal,” “Mannheim gold,” “similor” and “pinchbeck” are
described; BRONZE (Vol. 4, p. 639), which deals with steel bronze,
phosphor bronze, and other combinations; FUSIBLE METAL (Vol. 11, p. 369)
is an important compound. PEWTER (Vol. 21, p. 338), by Malcolm Bell,
author of _Pewter Plate_, etc., is of historical interest, and of value
to the dealer or collector, while he who wishes to distinguish between
the older and the more modern electroplated ware is referred to the
article SHEFFIELD PLATE (Vol. 24, p. 824), also by Malcolm Bell.
ELECTROPLATING (Vol. 9, p. 237) describes the art that put an end to the
Sheffield plate industry. Other methods of coating metals are given
under GALVANIZED IRON (Vol. 11, p. 428), TIN PLATE AND TERNE PLATE (Vol.
26, p. 1000), and GILDING (Vol. 12, p. 13). The art of making gold-leaf
is described in GOLDBEATING (Vol. 12, p. 202).
In regard to manufacturing processes there are the separate articles:
FORGING (Vol. 10, p. 663), with 19 illustrations; FOUNDING (Vol. 10, p.
743), with 11 illustrations; ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING (Vol. 2,
p. 70), and BRAZING AND SOLDERING (Vol. 4, p. 463). These four articles
are by J. G. Horner. And see WELDING (Vol. 28, p. 500), also by Mr.
Horner, with a section on _Electro-Welding_, by Elihu Thomson, inventor
of the process of electric welding and expert for the General Electric
Co. The article TOOL (Vol. 27, p. 14), another of Mr. Horner’s valuable
contributions, has 79 illustrations and possesses special interest for
the manufacturer of metal-ware as well as the dealer in hardware.
[Sidenote: Metal-Ware]
Coming now to the production of metal wares, the article METAL-WORK
(Vol. 18, p. 205), beautifully illustrated, is the work of three noted
experts. The late J. H. Middleton, Slade Professor of Fine Art,
Cambridge University, writes on _Methods of Manipulation in Metal Work_
and tells of the metal work of Greece, Italy, Spain, Germany, France,
England, Persia and Damascus. J. S. Gardner, an expert metal worker,
deals with _Modern Art Metal Work_, and J. G. Horner contributes the
section on _Industrial Metal Working_, in which he deals with _Plater’s
Work_, _Coppersmith’s Work_, _Raised Work_, _Cast Work_, _Methods of
Union and Protection of Surfaces_. In connection with the last mentioned
subject, see also JAPANNING (Vol. 15, p. 275), LACQUER (Vol. 16, p. 53),
and PAINTER-WORK (Vol. 20, p. 457). Further information about
lacquering, with valuable formulas, will be found in the article JAPAN
(Vol. 15, p. 188). Some of the ornamental forms of metal work are
described in REPOUSSÉ (Vol. 23, p. 108), by M. H. Spielmann, formerly
editor of _The Magazine of Art_; INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574), and
DAMASCENING (Vol. 7, p. 783). See also GRILLE (Vol. 12, p. 596).
PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789), an article by H. R. Hall, of the British
Museum, H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome, and E.
A. Jones, author of _Old English Gold Plate_, etc., is a concise,
complete hand-book on work in silver and gold of any class other than
those of personal ornaments and coins. It is profusely illustrated with
plates and text-cuts, showing many exquisite models; and the reader can
master the details of style in different periods and countries. The
subjects of the assay of gold and silver plate and hall-marks are
discussed, the former being treated more fully in ASSAYING (Vol. 2, p.
776), by A. A. Blair, chief chemist of the U. S. Geological Survey. The
article ROMAN ART, by H. Stuart Jones, has a section devoted to _Work in
Precious Metals_ (Vol. 23, p. 483).
CUTLERY (Vol. 7, p. 671) is one of the articles pertaining specifically
to hardware manufacture and trade, in which general processes of
manufacture are described; and of allied interest are KNIFE (Vol. 15, p.
850), FORK (Vol. 10, p. 666), SPOON (Vol. 25, p. 733), SCISSORS (Vol.
24, p. 407), SHEARS (Vol. 24, p. 815), RAZOR (Vol. 22, p. 937),
CHAFING-DISH (Vol. 5, p. 800), NAIL (Vol. 19, p. 153), AXE (Vol. 3, p.
67), HAMMER (Vol. 12, p. 897), CHISEL (Vol. 6, p. 247), WIRE (Vol. 28,
p. 738), and BARBED WIRE (Vol. 3, p. 384). Articles describing all forms
of agricultural implements will be found under their respective
headings.
[Sidenote: Glassware]
GLASS (Vol. 12, p. 86) is most complete in its consideration of the
entire subject. The introductory section by H. J. Powell, of the
Whitefriars Glass Works, London, author of _Glass Making_, and W.
Rosenhain, of the National Physical Laboratory, London, deals with the
manufacture of optical glass, blown glass and mechanically-pressed
glass. The necessary qualities of each kind are stated and the newest
processes of manufacture described, with full information about
materials. The second part of the article is devoted to the _History of
Glass Manufacture_, by Mr. Powell and Alexander Nesbitt, who wrote the
well-known _Introduction_ to the South Kensington Museum Catalogue of
Glass Vessels. Egyptian, Assyrian, Roman, Venetian, Bohemian and
Oriental glass, as well as the modern types, are exhaustively described.
The article is splendidly illustrated. DRINKING VESSELS (Vol. 8, p.
580), by Dr. Charles H. Read, of the British Museum, describes old forms
of glass cups and goblets. It is most valuable for its information in
regard to styles of different countries and periods, and the
illustrations show many types.
Stained glass is the subject of the separate article GLASS, STAINED
(Vol. 12, p. 105), illustrated, by the late Lewis F. Day, author of
_Windows, a Book about Stained Glass_. It is both historical and
descriptive in its nature, deals with painted and stained glass,
contains a table of examples of important historical stained glass, and
treats of the latest progress in the art, including the productions of
La Farge and L. C. Tiffany in this country. The art of fitting and
setting of glass is described in GLAZING (Vol. 12, p. 116), illustrated,
by James Bartlett. Here we learn about the setting of window glass, the
use of glass in decoration, systems of roof glazing and the use of wire
glass.
Full information about glass for optical purposes will be found under
LENS (Vol. 16, p. 421), illustrated, by Dr. Otto Henker, of the Carl
Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany; LIGHTHOUSE, _Optical Apparatus_ (Vol. 16,
p. 633), illustrated, by W. T. Douglass, who erected the Eddystone and
Bishop Rock lighthouses, and Nicholas G. Gedye, chief engineer to the
Tyne Improvement Commission; TELESCOPE, _Instruments_ (Vol. 26, p. 561),
illustrated, by H. Dennis Taylor and Sir David Gill; PHOTOGRAPHY,
_Photographic Objectives or Lenses_ (Vol. 21, p. 507), illustrated, by
James Waterhouse; SPECTACLES (Vol. 25, p. 617).
[Sidenote: Chinaware, Pottery and Porcelain]
To those engaged in the china ware, pottery or porcelain manufacture and
trade, the great article CERAMICS (Vol. 5, p. 703) will prove a
revelation. It is the joint product of a number of experts, both
practical and artistic, including William Burton, chairman, Joint
Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain, Henry R. H. Hall
and Robert Lockhart Hobson, both of the British Museum, and A. Van de
Put and Bernard Rackham, both of the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is
85,000 words in length and contains over a hundred beautiful
illustrations, including six plates in colour. It deals fully with the
artistic and economic phases of the subject, the methods of manufacture,
the different varieties of ceramics, their history, decoration, etc.
Japanese ceramics are treated separately in JAPAN, _Ceramics_ (Vol. 15,
p. 183), illustrated, by the late Capt. Frank Brinkley.
CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 472), by Dr. J. S. Flett, describes the occurrence,
composition and properties of the various clays used in ceramics.
TERRACOTTA (Vol. 26, p. 653), illustrated, by William Burton and H. B.
Walters, of the British Museum, deals with the artistic use to which
baked clay is put, while TILE (Vol. 26, p. 971), illustrated, also by
William Burton, has great practical value for the present-day
manufacturer.
KAOLIN (Vol. 15, p. 672), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical
Geology, London, deals specifically with china clay and its preparation
for the market. GILDING (Vol. 12, p. 13) contains material on the
subject of the gilding of pottery and porcelain, and PAINTING has a
section _Painting with Coloured Vitreous Pastes_ (Vol. 20, p. 484), by
Prof. G. B. Brown, of Edinburgh University, which describes the use of
these pastes in ceramics. ENAMEL (Vol. 9, p. 362), illustrated, by
Alexander Fisher, yields equally valuable information for those
concerned with the decoration of china.
In MURAL DECORATION, by Walter Crane and William Morris, there is a
section devoted to _Wall-Linings of Glazed Brick or Tiles_ (Vol. 19, p.
17). Material of great archaeological interest relating to earthenware,
etc., will be found in such articles as AEGEAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 1, p.
245), illustrated, by D. G. Hogarth, of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford;
CRETE, _Archaeology_ (Vol. 7, p. 421), illustrated, by Arthur J. Evans,
the famous Cretan explorer, and GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470),
illustrated, by Percy Gardner, the classical archaeologist.
The following is a partial list in alphabetical order of articles and
subjects in this field treated in the Britannica.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES AND SUBJECTS IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE IN METAL, HARDWARE, GLASS AND
CHINA MANUFACTURE AND TRADE
Adze
Aegean Civilization
Ainmuller, M. E.
Alloy Steels
Alloys
Aluminium
Amphora
Andiron
Annealing, Hardening and Tempering
Antimony
Anvil
Armour Plate
Arms and Armour
Arretine Ware
Assaying
Auger
Awl
Axe
Barbed Wire
Banko Ware
Basin
Beaker
Belleeck Ware
Bidri Work
Binocular Instrument
Biscuit
Bismuth
Bizen Ware
Bohemian Glass
Bottle
Bow Ware
Bradawl
Brass
Brasses, Monumental
Brazier
Brazing and Soldering
Bronze
Byzantine Glass
Caffieri, Jacques
Candlestick
Capo di Monte Ware
Capronnier, J. B.
Cast Work
Cellini, Benvenuto
Ceramics
Chafing Dish
Chalice
Chelsea Ware
China
China, _Art_
Chinese Porcelain
Chisel
Churn
Clay
Cookworthy, William
Coperta
Copper
Coppersmith’s Work
Crete
Crown Glass
Cup
Cutlery
Cultivator
Damascening
Damask Steel, or Damascus Steel
Damascus Ware
Delft Ware
Della Robbia
Derby Ware
Doulton, Sir Henry
Dresden, or Meissen, Ware
Drinking Vessels
Dwight, John
Electrolier
Electroplating
Electrum
Enamel Painting
Etruscan Ware
Faience
Fender
File
Finiguerra, Maso
Fireback
Firing
Fire-irons
Flint Glass
Fork
Forging
Founding
Fusible Metal
Galvanized Iron
German (or Nickel) Silver
Gilding
Gimlet
Girandole
Glass
Glass, Ancient
Glass-blowing Machine
Glass Cutting and Engraving
Glass, Painted
Glass-press
Glass, Stained
Glazes
Glazing
Goblet
Gold
Gold and Silver Thread
Goldbeating
Gouge
Gombroon Ware
Gouthière, Pierre
Graffito Ware
Grate
Greek Art
Grille
Hall-marks
Hammer
Harrow
Hatchet
Henri-Deux, Oiron, or St. Porchaire Ware
Hispano-Moresque Ware
Hizen Ware
Hoe
Horseshoes
Ingot
Inlaying
Invar
Iron and Steel
Iron Work
Izumo Ware
Japan, _Ceramics_
Japanning
Jug
Kaolin
Kashi
Kiln
Kioto Ware
Knife
Kuang-Yao
Kuft Work
Kutani Ware
Lacquer
La Farge, John
Lang-Yao
Latten
Lead
Lens
Lighthouse Apparatus, Optical
Lock
Lubricants
Lustred Ware
Majolica
Meissonier, J. A.
Medal
Metal
Metallography
Metallurgy
Metal Work
Mezza Majolica
Minoan, or Kamares, Ware
Mirror
Monstrance
Morel-Ladeuil, L.
Mural Decoration
Nail
Needle
Nickel
Niello
Ormolu
Owari Ware
Painter-work
Palissy, Bernard
Palissy Ware
Painting
Pen
Persian Pottery
Pewter
Photographic Objectives or Lenses
Pin
Pitcher
Plaque
Plate
Plated Ware
Plate-glass
Plater’s Work
Platinum
Plough
Porcelain
Pot-hook
Potteries, The
Potter’s Marks
Potter’s Wheel
Pottery
Protection of Surfaces
Raised Work
Rake
Razor
Reaper
Repoussé
Roman Art
Rookwood Ware
Royal Copenhagen Ware
Royal Worcester Ware
Salt Glaze
Salver
Samovar
Saracenic Glass
Satsuma Ware
Saw
Scissors
Sconce
Screen
Screw
Scythe
Sèvres Porcelain
Shears
Sheet Glass
Sheffield Plate
Shovel
Shuttle
Sieve
Silver
Smith
Solder
Spade
Spectacles
Spit
Spoon
Spade
Stone Ware
Table-ware
Takatori Ware
Tanagra Figures
Tankard
Tazza
Telescopic Instruments
Terracotta
Thrasher
Tiffany, C. L.
Tiffany Glass
Tiles
Tin
Tinker
Tin and Terne Plate
Tongs
Tool
Torchère
Tray
Tripod
Trivet
Tube-making, Glass
Turkish Pottery
Tweezers
Trowel
Vacuum Cleaner
Vase
Venetian Glass
Wedgewood, Josiah
Wedgewood Ware
Whitefriars Glass
Wire
Wired Glass
Yatsushiro Ware
Yi-Hsing-Yao
Zinc