THE STORY OF LIME-JUICE AND SCURVY
From mediæval times onward a serious constitutional disease–a morbid
condition of the blood and tissues–has been known by the name "scurvy,"
and the word "scorbutic" has been coined from it. It is to-day
practically unknown in the ordinary conditions of civilized life, but
formerly was common, and the cause of disablement and of frightful
mortality in ships' crews, beleaguered cities, armies on campaign, and
war-stricken regions. It begins with a certain failure of strength.
Breathlessness, exhaustion, and mental depression follow. The face
looks haggard, sallow, and dusky. After some weeks the exhaustion
becomes extreme; the gums are livid, ulcerated, and bleeding; the teeth
loosen and drop out; purple spots appear on the skin; ulcers break out
on the limbs; effusions of blood-stained fluid take place in the great
cavities of the body; profound exhaustion and coma follow; and death
results from disorganization of the lungs, kidneys, or digestive tract.
It was recognized in early times that the disease was dependent on the
character of the food of those attacked by it; and not the least of
the horrors accompanying it was the terror caused by the well-founded
conviction that the appearance of a single case in a ship's crew or
other specially circumscribed community was an unfailing index, and
meant that all were likely within a few days–owing to the enforced
identity of their food and conditions of life–to develop the disease.
Often, in past centuries, a half or two-thirds of a ship's company have
been carried off by it before a port could be reached and healthy food
and conditions of life obtained. At the present moment in view of the
actual condition of Europe, it is a fact of very grave importance that
scurvy is known to break out and cause a terrible mortality among civil
communities in time of scarcity–especially in prisons, workhouses, and
other public institutions, which are the first to suffer deprivations
when food is scarce.
Three hundred years ago it was held that fresh vegetables and
fruit-juices were both a cure for and a preventive of scurvy, or
"anti-scorbutic." But the fact was not appreciated by Army and
Admiralty officials that _dried_ vegetables, even of kinds which were
held to be especially "anti-scorbutic," would not serve in place of
_fresh_ ones. In 1720, _dried_ "anti-scorbutic" herbs were supplied
to the Austrian Army when suffering from scurvy; but they were of no
avail, and thousands of the soldiers perished from the disease. A
few years later, the British Lords of the Admiralty (actuated by a
spirit of blundering parsimony) proposed to supply the Navy with dried
spinach, although it was well known that dried vegetables were useless
against scurvy. In the American Civil War, 1861-1865, in spite of this
knowledge, large rations of dried vegetables were supplied to the
armies, and failed to prevent outbreaks of scurvy. Even at the present
day so little attention has been given of late years to the subject,
that many ignorant officials, upon whose action the life of thousands
depends, regard dried vegetables as equivalent in value to fresh!
A great advance was made in the second half of the eighteenth century,
when the British Admiralty became convinced by the repeated experience
of its officers that "lime-juice" _is_ a specific remedy and preventive
for scurvy, and, in spite of the great expense and difficulties
entailed, adopted its use officially. In those days of sailing-ships,
long voyages (such as those of Captain Cook) were safely carried
through without serious outbreak of scurvy so long as a ration of
so-called "lime-juice" (about one ounce) was swallowed each day by each
sailor. But it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century
that the disease was practically eliminated from the Navy by the
introduction (after many foolish delays) of a general issue of what was
called "lime-juice."
The complete control and elimination of scurvy by the use of so-called
"lime-juice" sufficed to carry us on until the introduction of steam
navigation, when it became superfluous owing to the fact that long
absence from land, where fresh food could be obtained, ceased to be
usual. Moreover, after a mutiny on the part of our defrauded sailors,
better food and greater variety of it was secured for them, and the
profits of murderous contractors were stopped.
The history of outbreaks of scurvy for the last century is practically
confined to the experiences of Arctic Expeditions and the campaigning
of troops in remote or devastated regions. So little had scurvy been
investigated, or any serious study made of the nature of the remedial
and preventive action of lime-juice, that up to the year 1914 it was
regarded as a matter of course that the acid, the citric acid, of
lime-juice was what gave to it its virtue, and samples of lime-juice
supplied by contractors were tested solely as to the percentage of that
acid present. Eminent medical authorities proposed to use crystals of
citric acid in place of the juice; others declared that vinegar would
do just as well; others, in spite of the overwhelming record as to the
value of lime-juice, held that scurvy was due _not_ to the absence of a
food constituent–supplied by fresh vegetables and fruit-juice–but to
a peculiar poison present in the salted and dried meat served out as
rations; others again, without any study of the disease, have expressed
the opinion that it is due to a bacterial micro-organism.
A blow to the easy-going belief of the Admiralty that they had mastered
and made an end of scurvy was struck when scurvy broke out (60 cases
among 122 men) in the expedition to the North Pole which sailed in
May 1875 in the _Alert_ and the _Discovery_, under the command of Sir
George Nares. The expedition had to return prematurely after seventeen
months' absence, and a committee was appointed to inquire into the
cause of the outbreak. The stores of food and of lime-juice were shown
to have been ample; and the action of the leader in equipping his
sledging parties was in accordance with the judgment and experience
of successful explorers who gave evidence. The cause of the outbreak
remained a mystery. The firm belief in the anti-scorbutic powers of
"lime-juice" was shaken, and this unfavourable opinion of its value has
been confirmed by medical officers who, during the recent war, have
been confronted by outbreaks of scurvy. These outbreaks occurred among
troops who, in military circumstances which rendered an adequate supply
of fresh meat and vegetables impossible, were supplied with lime-juice
prepared from the West Indian "sour-lime."
Under these circumstances, an experimental study of scurvy has been
carried out during the last four years by a group of workers at the
Lister Institute, together with a historical inquiry as to the use
of lime-juice. The reports of these investigators have very great
practical value and far-reaching interest, as showing what disastrous
results may arise from inaccurate use of a word, and the neglect to
ascertain the exact nature of the material thing upon which the issue
between life and death may depend.
Here let me say that the staff of the Lister Institute for medical
research has done work in its laboratories in Chelsea Gardens of the
very greatest national importance during the war. It was founded by
public subscription, and has now an endowment of some £10,000 a year.
Sir David Bruce, the chairman of its Council, gives in the Report of
the Governing Body for 1919 a very striking summary of the work done
in the laboratories and by the staff of the Institute. The successful
investigation of trench fever and of tetanus, of the destruction of
lice, and of the effects of cold storage on food, besides the study
of scurvy and other diseases due to deficiency of what are now called
"_accessory food factors_," are, we learn, the chief matters in
which the Lister Institute was engaged in the year 1918-19. Besides
this, however, at its farm at Elstree it has prepared and supplied
to the War Office, the Admiralty, the Overseas Forces, and the Local
Government Board more than a million doses of anti-toxins (diphtheria
and tetanus), bacterial vaccines (cholera, plague, influenza), and
other similar curative fluids–requiring for their safe production the
highest skill and most complete knowledge of recent discovery. And this
is only a sample of what the Lister Institute has been doing for many
consecutive years.
Now we return to the investigation of scurvy. Within the last ten
years the fact has been established (which was more or less guessed
and acted upon by medical men of past days) that, in order to
maintain health, the diet of man and of many animals must contain
not merely the necessary quantities of meat or cheese-like bodies,
of fat and starch and sugar, but also minute quantities of accessory
food-factors which it is convenient to term "vitamines." The name
serves (though its etymology is unsatisfactory) to indicate certain
"proteids" or highly complex nitrogenous compounds which are only to
be obtained from fresh and uncooked or slightly heated vegetables
and from some foods of animal origin. These "vitamines" are destroyed
by heat and by desiccation. They have not yet been isolated though
in some cases extracted in a nearly pure state. Their presence or
absence is demonstrated by careful experiments in feeding animals,
such as guinea-pigs, with weighed quantities of different foods.
The "vitamine" is often found to be present only in one part of a
seed or fruit or special kind of fat liable to be rejected in food
preparation. An important fact is that it may not amount to as much as
one-ten-thousandth of the weight of the food in which it occurs; and
the part containing it may be overlooked and rejected, or its value
destroyed by heat or by desiccation. A committee on these "accessory
food-factors" is carrying on experiments at the Lister Institute. Dr.
F. G. Hopkins, F.R.S., who first discovered the importance of one of
these factors in feeding young rats, is the chairman, and Dr. Harriette
Chick is the secretary. Three kinds of these vitamines, or accessory
food-factors, have up to this date been recognized. The first is the
anti-neuritic or anti-beri-beri vitamine. Its principal sources are
the seeds of plants and the eggs of animals–yeast-cells are a rich
source of it. Where "polished rice," as in the Far East, is the staple
article of diet, to the almost entire exclusion of other food-stuffs,
lassitude and severe pains like those of rheumatism set in, and a whole
colony or shipload of Chinese "coolies" may be disabled. The disease
is called beri-beri, and it can be cured by administering that part of
the rice-grain (the skin and germ) which is removed by "polishing," and
unfortunately is just that part which contains the needful vitamine.
It exists in very minute quantity, amounting to only one part in ten
thousand by weight of rice-grain. The second "vitamine" recognized is
the anti-rachitic factor (studied by Hopkins), which tends to promote
growth and prevent "rickets" in young animals. Certain fats of animal
origin (milk) and green leaves contain it in minute quantity, and are
necessary for the life of young animals and for the health of adults.
The third vitamine recognized is the anti-scorbutic, the factor which
prevents scurvy. It is found in fresh vegetable tissues, and to a
less extent in fresh animal tissues. Its richest sources are cabbage,
swedes, turnips, lettuce, water-cress, and such fruits as lemons,
oranges, raspberries, and tomatoes; other vegetables have a less
value. Fresh milk and meat possess a definite but low anti-scorbutic
value. This vitamine (I am quoting the report of the Committee, which
has been issued to our military, naval, and medical administrators
and famine-relief-workers throughout the world) _suffers destruction_
when the fresh food-stuffs containing it are subjected to _heat_, or
_drying_, as methods of preservation. It is habitually destroyed and
wasted by stewing fresh vegetables with meat for two or three hours.
All dry food-stuffs, such as cereals, pulses, dried vegetables and
dried milk, are deficient in anti-scorbutic properties; so also are
_tinned vegetables_ and _tinned meat_–hence the disgust to which they
soon give rise!
The explanation of the mystery about lime-juice (which a hundred years
ago was used with absolute success to prevent scurvy, and in 1875 was
a dead failure) is shown by the workers at the Lister Institute to
be this–namely, "lime" and "lemon" are in origin the same word, and
have become applied in ways unrecognized by the Admiralty and their
medical advisers in various parts of the world to which the citron, the
lemon, the sweet-lime and the sour-lime–all varieties of one species,
_Citrus medica_ of Linnæus–have been carried from their original home
of origin, the south-east of Asia. The original effective and valuable
"_lime_-juice" of the eighteenth century was _lemon_-juice, carefully
prepared from lemons in Sicily and Italy, and from 1804 to 1860 in
Malta. When the demand for it increased in the nineteenth century,
it was adulterated and made up from poor fruit, as the commercial
enterprise of contractors and the fatuous incapacity of the naval
authorities progressed hand in hand. And then, in the early fifties,
the West Indian growers of the small sour-lime (_Citrus medica var.
acida_) in Montserrat got the naval contracts, the honest intention
of Sir William Burnett, the chief medical officer of the Navy, being
to establish a permanent and first-rate supply. Strangely enough,
the naval "lime-juice" now really was _lime_-juice and no longer
_lemon_-juice. By a natural but fatal misconception, the medical value
of the juice, whether of lemon or of lime, was by all authorities
attributed to the citric acid present; and the only tests applied to it
were chemical ones, and not therapeutic. The Lister Institute Committee
have shown by therapeutic experiment–the feeding of guinea-pigs, in
which scurvy can be produced and cured at will–that _the anti-scorbutic
vitamine remains active and unimpaired in lemon-juice from which all
the citric acid has been extracted_. And, further, that the juice of
the West Indian sour-lime (_Citrus medica acida_), although very rich
in citric acid, _contains only one-fourth the anti-scorbutic vitamine_
which the same quantity of the juice of the true lemon (_Citrus medica
limonum_) contains. This has been most carefully established by
prolonged series of feeding experiments. It explains the failure of the
_lime_-juice in Sir George Nares' Polar Expedition, and restores the
confidence in _lemon_-juice based on the unanimous testimony of the
early records of its use.
Whilst lemon-juice is thus justified, Dr. Harriette Chick has made a
discovery which will go far to remove it from supremacy. She finds that
an anti-scorbutic food can be prepared, when fresh vegetables or fruit
are scarce, by moistening any available seeds (wheat, barley, rye,
peas, beans, lentils) and allowing them to germinate. This sprouted
material possesses an anti-scorbutic value equal to that of many fresh
vegetables; the unsprouted seeds have none. Probably this explains
the anti-scorbutic value of sweet-wort and of beers made from lightly
dried malt; and the total failure in this respect of our modern beers
made from kiln-dried malt. Dr. Chick, amongst many other interesting
and important results published by members of the Lister Institute
Committee, states that the juice of raw swedes and of raw turnips
is a valuable anti-scorbutic (to be added to milk for the use of
artificially nourished infants); so, she states, is orange-juice. But,
contrary to the usual opinion, she finds that beetroot has little or no
anti-scorbutic value. The whole subject is of extreme importance, and
is necessarily in a tentative stage of pioneer experiment.
INDEX
Ages, successive, of stone, bronze, and iron, 4
Aitken, Dr., F.R.S., on fog, cloud, and odoriferous particles, 77
Alligator, simplification of, in the decorative work of the Chiriqui
Indians, 205
Altamira, cave of, discovery of pictures in, 28
America (Central), stone slab from, with carved swastika, 198
American Indians bead-work garter with two swastikas, 197
Anglo-Saxon urn ornamented with swastikas, 196
Aniline, 224
Animalcules, wheel, 157-172
Animation, suspended, 173-190
Anthracite, 217, 219
Anti-scorbutic value of germinating wheat, barley, peas, beans,
lentils, discovered, 237
Anti-scorbutics, no use when dried, 230
or preservatives against scurvy described, 235-236
studied at the Lister Institute, 233
Antler, engraved, from the cavern of Lortet, 1
Arbelus, the, of ancient Greek geometers, 215
Asphalt, 223, 225
Aurignacian negroid race, 8
Bacteria, suspended animation of, 177, 186, 187, 188
Bear engraved on stalagmite, 48
Beer, modern, not so effective an anti-scorbutic (preserver from
scurvy) as older sorts, 237
Benzine, 224
Bison, pictures of, from walls of caves, 47
Bitumen, 223, 224
Bituminous coal, 219
Blue blood and pride of race, 154
colour of frogs, 78
of the Lake of Geneva, 83
of water, 74-85
Grotto of Capri, 82
Breeding and inter-breeding as a test, 102, 104, 131
Bridle seen in engravings of horse, 43, 45
Brown, Horace, F.R.S., his experiments with seeds at low
temperatures, 175
Bruce, Sir David, his report of the work done by the Lister
Institute in 1919, 233
Buddha, footprint of the, picture showing swastikas, 193
Bumpus, Prof., on variation in sparrows, 118
Burnett, Sir William, by mistake introduces in the Navy juice of the
sour-lime in place of lemon-juice, 236
Burning water, fountains of, 225
Butterflies of the genus Vanessa, 97
several different species of white and of blue, 97
several species united to form one larger kind–a genus, 95
species of, 94
the kinds of, 94
Caloric, an assumed entity, 186
Cannel (or candle) coal, 219
Carbon, weight of, annually discharged over London, 218
Carboniferous system, the, 221
Cats, male, with blue eyes are deaf, 120
Cause of survival in the struggle for life, 118, 119
Cave of Altamira, 28, 47
of Brassempouy, 51
of Combarelles, 32
of Font de Gaume, 29, 32
of Laugerie basse, 46
of Lortet, 1
of Marsoulas (Haute Garonne), 43
of Mas d'Azil, 43
of Niaux (Ariège), 43
of St. Michel d'Arudy, 45
Caves, pictures on walls of, 7
Census of species of animals, 129
Chick, Dr. Harriette, secretary, and Dr. Hopkins, F.R.S., chairman,
of a committee investigating accessory food-factors, 234
Chinese "great monad," 210
Circle, how to divide it so as to describe a Tomoye, 214
_Citrus medica limonum_, the lemon, 236
_acida_, the West Indian sour-lime, 236
Coal, 217-222
mines, annual output of, 221
Coal-tar, 224
Coffer-fish, 130
Cold, action of extreme, in preventing chemical combination, 177
Copan, circular altar-stone from, divided by an S-shaped trough so as
to resemble the Tomoye, 213
Correlated characters or structures, 119, 125
Crab, common shore, variations in, 118
Crag, the Red, of Suffolk, 38
the Norwich, 38
Crayfish, species of, 120
Cromagnard race, 8, 9
Cross-breeding of races, 140-156
Crystal Palace, the, sixty years ago, 84
Decorative design, 200-208
Deer, the picture of the Three, 13
Dewar, Sir James, his important experiments on action of cold and of
light on phosphorescent bacteria, 188
Diplodocus, a gigantic reptile, 85, 91
Discoveries falsely announced, and others misrepresented or
unnoticed by newspapers, 173, 176
Dolphins (oceanic colour-changing fish), 130
Equus the horse genus, the history of, 103
Exuberances of non-significant growth, 127, 130
Fat boys of journalism, 173
Fertilization, resistance to hybrid, 136, 137, 138
Fish drawn between horse's legs, 23
Fishes, examples of strangely-shaped, 130
Fleas, species of, 105
Flowers of tan survive desiccation, 179
Food, the accessory factors in, 233
Fylfot, the, 191
Gammadion, the, 191
Geometrical properties of the Tomoye, 216
Germ variation, a constant process, 112
Gigantic reptiles, 85, 87
Gigantosaurus, discovery of, in Africa, 87
upper-arm bone of, compared with that of an elephant and of man, 88
Gills of crayfishes, 121
a new one discovered by a lady student at Oxford, 123
Glacial period, 6
Goose engraved on reindeer antler, 49
Grammatizing _v._ naturalizing in decorative art, 202, 203
Grouse, the red and allied species, 116, 117
Harpoons of Azilian and Magdalenian period, 3
Horses, cave-men's pictures of, 43, 45
Horses' heads drawn with bridle or halter, 44, 45
Hybrids, 131-138
among allied species of fish, 133, 134
infertile and fertile, 134, 135
Inter-Glacial climate and animals, 9
Kaleidoscope, the living organism compared to a, 112
Kelvin, Lord, on the origin of life, 186
Kipling, Mr. Rudyard, on primitive man, 4
Koban necropolis, swastikas from, 196
Lake dwellings of Switzerland, 4
Lalanne, M., discovery by, of human statuettes, 50
Laussel, rock-shelter of, human statuettes from, 50
Life-saving qualities not alone survive in nature, 127
Lime-juice, action of, was not understood, 231
and scurvy, 229-237
on long voyages, 231
shown to be effective when prepared from the true lemon, 236
the original lime-juice was lemon-juice, not the juice of the
sour-lime, 236
when prepared from West Indian sour-lime not effective, 232
Linnæus, his method of naming and classifying animals and plants, 99
Lion, wall engraving of, 48
Lister Institute, investigations carried on there, 233
Lodge, Sir Oliver, on life, 185
Lortet, cavern of, 1
Mammoth, engraving of, on ivory, from the cave of La Madeleine, 26
Mammoths, engravings of, on walls of caves, 32, 33
Man, Isle of, and the Sicilian three-legged emblem, 203
Mantell, Dr. Gideon, discoverer of gigantic extinct reptiles, 84
Marsh-gas, 220
Milne-Edwards, Alphonse, his proposed experiment on cross-breeding of
races and species, 141
Miscegenation or cross-breeding of human races, 148-156
Monaco, Prince of, his researches and publications, 29
Mongrels defined as distinct from hybrids, 138, 145
may exhibit fine qualities, 147
Monsters, 132
Mules between horse and ass, 103
Mykenæan age, swastikas of, illustrated, 194, 195
Neander men, 8
Negro with European features disliked by other negroes, 155
Neolithic people, 10
Ogee, a vague term, 215
swastika, so-called, 210, 213
Oil, boring for, 223
Oil-boring industry, 226
Oil-shales, 227
Okapi of the Congo Forest, not a hybrid, 133
Olefines, 224
Osborn, Rev. Lord Sydney Godolphin, 179
Pairing as a test of species, 101, 131
Palæolithic or ancient Stone Age, 5
Papilio, the genus of swallow-tailed butterflies, 97
Paraffin series, 224
Peat, 219
Pedalion, the leg-bearing wheel animalcule, 161, 163
to be compared with young of certain prawns, 164
Petroleum, the name invented in 1855 by Prof. Silliman, 225
Pictet and de Candolle on suspended animation, 175
Picture, the earliest, in the world, 1-25
of the Three Red Deer, 12, 13
Piette, Edouard, his excavations of caves, 1
Pigs and the paint-root, 119, 145
Pimpernel, red and blue, will not inter-breed, 145
Pine ornament of Indian shawls, 210
Pleistocene, a small fraction of earth's crust, 42
series or system, 38, 39
Pliny the elder at Vesuvius, 58
Pocahontes, the Algonkian princess, 153
Prehistoric men, art of, 35-54
successive ages of, 36-39
Printings from engraved cylinders, 11, 16, 17
Race, pride of, 150, 152, 153
Racehorse, English thoroughbred, history of, 147
Races, nature of, 143
produce mongrels by cross-breeding, 140
Reindeer, cave-man's engraving of, 46
period, 7
Restoration of the Lortet picture of the Three Deer, 13
Rhinoceros drawn on wall of a cavern, 46
Rice, polished, the story of, and the disease beri-beri, 234
Rock-oil, 225
Romanes, Dr. George, his experiments on the suspended animation of
seeds, 184
Rotifer, the common, or wheel animalcule, 159
Scandinavian silver work showing swastikas, 196
Schliemann, fragment of pottery found by, in Tiryns, 23
swastikas discovered by, at Hissarlik, 193
Scurvy, description of, 229
Seeds, frozen, survive, 177
Simplification of decorative designs (figures of), 206
Smoke nuisance, London citizen executed for producing it in 1306, 217
Sparrows, variations in, 118
Species, an attempt to estimate their number, 129
in the making, 108
Latin names for, why used, 96
not a convention, but a naturally limited group of individuals, 100
not the same as a variety or a race, 101
of common English plants, 98
of crayfish, 120
types or type-specimens of, 96
what the word means, 91-99
Specific characters, 118-130
Spencer, Herbert, on life, 183
Spirals carved on mammoth ivory, 54
Statuette of a man, 51
St. Germain, museum of, 1, 11, 45
Stork theory of the swastika, 207
Strata of the earth's crust, thickness of, 40, 41
Streptocone, the bent cone or comma-like figure forming half a
Tomoye, 215, 216
Sulphuric acid, weight of poisonous, annually discharged over
London, 218
Sun-fish, 130
Survival value, 124, 125
Suspended animation, 173-190
Swastika, mode of forming a, in India, 199
on a piece of painted pottery from Tiryns, figure of, associated
with horse and fish, 23
possible derivation from a doubled Tomoye, 210
related to the tetraskelion, with four curved arms, shown in
Fig. 58, 212
the, 191-208
Tapirs, the two living species of, 109
Temperature, measurement of, 174
Thoroughbred English racehorse a mongrel, 147
Tiger, sabre-toothed, 9
Time, estimate of, in geology, 43
Tinning of vegetables destroys their anti-scorbutic value, 235
Tiryns, fragment of pottery from (date 800 B.C.), and having swastika
and horse and fish, 23
Toads in coal, 221
Toleration in nature, 128
Tomoye, the, and its relation to the swastika, 208-216
Triskelion of Sicily and the Isle of Man, history of, 203
Variation in nature, 110
made use of by gardeners and breeders, 111
Varieties and gradational series in nature, 114, 115
Veliger, young stage of marine snail, drawing of, to compare with a
wheel animalcule, 181
Vesuvius, 55-73
as it appeared in A.D. 70, 57
ascent of, during eruption, 66
eruption of 1872 witnessed, 68-70
history of eruptions, 61-64
Vitamines or accessory food factors, 233
Volcanoes and eruptions, 72, 73
Water, blue colour of, 74-85
Weldon, Prof., on variation in the shore-crab, 118
Wells, spouting and fountain, of rock-oil, 227
Whales, their size and its limit, 86
Wheel animalcule, parasitic, on the sea-worm Synapta, 172
animalcules, 157-172
book on, by Mr. Gosse and Dr. Hudson, 158
compared with the young stages of growth of marine
snails, 171, 181
minute males of some, 166
pictures of, 159, 161, 162, 163, 169
some survive drying up of the water in which they live, 166, 167,
178, 179
Willendorf, female statuette from, 50
Winans, Mr. Walter, on the picture of the Three Deer, 19-22
Wolf, engraving of head of, 48
Women, carvings representing, 50, 51
Zebras, 103
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End of Project Gutenberg's Secrets of Earth and Sea, by Ray Lankester