"spread." (After Comstock.)]
_Birds._--In collecting birds, shooting is chiefly to be relied on. Use
dust-shot (the smallest shot made) in small loads. For shooting small
birds it is extremely desirable to have an auxiliary barrel of much
smaller bore than the usual shotgun which can be fitted into one of the
regular gun-barrels. In such an auxiliary barrel use 32-calibre shells
loaded with dust-shot instead of bullets. Plug up the throat and vent of
shot birds with cotton, and thrust each bird head downward into a
cornucopia of paper. This will keep the feathers unsoiled and smooth.
[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Setting-board in cross-section to show
construction. (After Comstock.)]
Birds should be skinned soon after bringing home, after they have become
relaxed, but before evidences of decomposition are manifest. The tools
and materials necessary to make skins are scalpel, strong sharp-pointed
scissors, bone-cutters, forceps, corn-meal, a mixture of two parts white
arsenic and one part powdered alum, cotton, and metric-system measure.
Before skinning, the bird should be measured. With a metric-system
measure carefully take the alar extent, i.e. spread from tip to tip of
outstretched wings; length of wing, i.e. length from wrist-joint to tip;
length of bill in straight line from base (on dorsal aspect) to tip;
length of tarsus, and length of middle toe and claw.
To skin the bird, cut from anus to point of breast-bone through the skin
only. Work skin away on each side to legs; push each leg up, cut off at
knee-joint, skin down to next joint, remove all flesh from bone, and
pull leg back into place; loosen skin at base of tail, cut through
vertebral column at last joint, being careful not to cut through bases
of tail-feathers; work skin forward, turning it inside out, loosening it
carefully all around, without stretching, to wings; cut off wings at
elbow-joint, skin down to next joint and remove flesh from wing-bones;
push skin forward to base of skull, and if skull is not too large (it is
in ducks, woodpeckers, and some other birds), on over it to ears and
eyes; be very careful in loosening the membrane of ears and in cutting
nictitating membrane of eyes; do not cut into eyeball; remove eyeballs
without breaking; cut off base of skull, and scoop out brain; remove
flesh from skull, and "poison" the skin by dusting it thoroughly with
the powdered arsenic and alum mixture. Turn skin right side out, and
clean off fresh blood-stains by soaking them up with corn-meal; wash off
dried blood with water, and dry with corn-meal. Corn-meal may be used
during skinning to soak up blood and grease.
There remains to stuff the skin. Fill orbits of eyes with cotton (this
can be advantageously done before skin is reversed); thrust into neck a
moderately compact, elastic, smooth roll of cotton about thickness of
the natural neck; make a loose oval ball of size and general shape of
bird's body and put into body-cavity with anterior end under the
posterior end of neck-roll; pull two edges of abdominal incision
together over the cotton, fasten, if necessary, with a single stitch of
thread, smooth feathers, fold wings in natural position, wrap skin, not
tightly, in thin sheet of cotton (opportunity for delicate handling
here) and put away in a drawer or box to dry. Before putting away tie
label to leg, giving date and locality of capture, sex and measurements
of bird, and name of collector. Before bird is put into permanent
collection it should be labelled with its common and scientific name.
The mounting of birds in lifelike shape and attitude is hard to do
successfully; and a collection of mounted birds demands much more
room and more expensive cabinets than one of skins. For instructions
for the mounting of birds see Davie's "Methods in the Art of
Taxidermy," pp. 39-57; or Hornaday's "Taxidermy and Zoological
Collecting." For a more detailed account of making bird-skins, see
also these books, or Ridgway's "Directions for Collecting Birds."
In collecting birds' nests cut off the branch or branches on which the
nest is placed a few inches above and below the nest, leaving it in
its natural position. Ground-nests should have the section of the sod
on which they are placed taken up and preserved with them. If the
inner lining of the nest consists of feathers or fur put in a
"moth-ball" (naphthaline).
To preserve birds' eggs they should be emptied through a single small
hole on one side by blowing. Prick a hole with a needle and enlarge with
an egg-drill (obtain of dealers in naturalists' supplies, see p. 453.)
Blow with a simple bent blowpipe with point smaller than the hole. After
removing contents clean by blowing in a little water, and blowing it out
again. After cleaning, place the egg, hole downward, on a layer of
corn-meal to dry. Label each egg by writing on it near the hole a
number. Use a soft pencil for writing. This number should refer to a
record (book) under similar number, or to an "egg-blank," containing the
following data: name of bird, number of eggs in set, date and locality,
name of collector, and any special information about the eggs or nest
which the collector may think advisable. The eggs may be kept in drawers
or boxes lined with cotton, and divided into little compartments.
For detailed directions for collecting and preserving birds' eggs and
nests, see Bendire's "Directions for Collecting, Preparing, and
Preserving Birds' Eggs and Nests" or Davie's "Methods in the Art of
Taxidermy," pp. 74-78. [21] _Mammals._--Any mammal intended for a
scientific specimen should be measured in the flesh, before skinning,
and as soon after death as practicable, when the muscles are still
flexible. (This is particularly true of larger species, such as foxes,
wildcats, etc.) The measurements are taken in millimetres, a rule or
steel tape being used. (1) Total length: stretch the animal on its
back along the rule or tape and measure from the tip of the nose (head
extended as far as possible) to the tip of the fleshy part of tail
(not to end of hairs). (2) Tail: bend tail at right angles from body
backward and place end of ruler in the angle, holding the tail taut
against the ruler. Measure only to tip of flesh (make this measurement
with a pair of dividers). (3) Hind foot: place sole of foot flat on
ruler and measure from heel to tip of longest toe-nail (in certain
small mammals it is necessary to use dividers for accuracy). The
measurements should be entered on the label, along with such necessary
data as sex, locality, date, and collector's name.
Skin a mammal as soon after death as possible. Lay mammal on back and
with scissors or scalpel open the skin along belly from about midway
between fore and hind legs to vent, taking care not to cut muscles of
abdomen. Skin down on either side of the body by working the skin from
flesh with fingers till hind legs appear. Use corn-meal to stanch
blood or moisture. With left hand grasp a leg and work the knee from
without into the opening just made; cut the bone at the knee, skin leg
to heel and clean meat off the bone (leaving it attached of course to
foot). In animals larger than squirrels skin down to tips of toes. Do
the same with other leg. Skin around base of tail till the skin is
free all around so that a grip can be secured on body; then with thumb
and forefinger hold the skin tight at base of tail and slowly pull out
the tail. In small mammals this can be done readily, but in foxes it
is often necessary to split the skin up along the under side and
dissect it off the tail-bones. After the tail is free skin down the
body, using the fingers (except in large mammals) till the fore legs
are reached; treat the fore legs in the same manner as hind legs,
thrusting elbow out of the skin much as a person would do in taking
off a coat; cut bone at elbow; clean fore-arm bone. Skin over neck to
base of ears. With scalpel cut through ears close to skull. With
scalpel dissect off skin over the head (taking care not to injure
eyelids) down to tip of nose, severing its cartilage and hence freeing
skin from body. Sew mouth by passing needle through under lip and then
across through two sides of the upper lip; draw taut and tie thread.
Poison skin thoroughly. Turn skin right side out. Next sever the skull
carefully from body, just where the last neck-vertebra joins the back
of the skull. It is necessary to keep the skull, because characters of
bone and teeth are much used in classification. Remove superfluous
meat from the skull and take out brain with a little spoon made of a
piece of wire with loop at end. Tag the skull with a number
corresponding to that on skin, and hang up to dry. A finished specimen
skull is made by boiling it a short time and picking the meat off with
forceps, further cleaning it with an old tooth-brush, when it is
placed in the sun to bleach. Care must be taken always not to injure
bones or dislodge teeth.
Mammals are stuffed with cotton or tow; the latter is used in species
from a gray squirrel up. Large mammals stuffed with cotton do not dry
readily, and often spoil. Being much thicker-skinned than birds,
mammals require more care in drying and ordinarily require a much
longer period. Soft hay may be substituted for tow; never use feathers
or hair. Roll a longish wad of cotton about the size of body and
insert with forceps, taking care to form the head nearly as in life.
Split the back end of the cotton and stuff each hind leg with the two
branches thus formed. Roll a piece of cotton around end of forceps and
stuff fore legs. Place a stout straight piece of wire in the tail,
wrapping it slightly to give the tail the plump appearance of life.
(If the cotton cannot be reeled on to the wire evenly, leave it off
entirely.) Make the wire long enough to extend half way up belly. Sew
up slit in belly. Lay mammal on belly and pin out on a board by legs,
with the fore legs close beside head, and hind legs parallel behind,
soles downward. Be sure the label is tied securely on right hind leg.
For directions for preparing and mounting skeletons of birds, mammals,
and other vertebrates, see the books of Davie and Hornaday already
referred to.
_Fishes, batrachians, reptiles, and other animals._--The most
convenient and usual way of preserving the other vertebrates (not
birds or mammals) is to put the whole body into 85 per cent alcohol or
4 per cent formalin. Batrachians should be kept in alcohol not
exceeding 60 per cent strength. Several incisions should always be
made in the body, at least one of which should penetrate the abdominal
cavity. Anatomical preparations are similarly preserved. By keeping
the specimens in glass jars they may be examined without removal.
Fishes should not be kept in formalin more than a few months, as they
absorb water, swell, and grow fragile.
Of the invertebrates all, except the insects, are preserved in alcohol
or formalin. The shells of molluscs can be preserved dry, of course,
in drawers or boxes divided into small compartments.
FOOTNOTE:
[21] The following directions for making skins of mammals were written
for this book by Mr. W. K. Fisher of Stanford University, an
experienced collector.
INDEX
--Illustrations are indicated by an asterisk
_Acanthia lectularia_, *188.
Acarina, 230.
_Acmara spectorum_, *248.
Actinozoa, 97, 102.
Adaptation, 407.
Adder, spreading, 321.
_Ægialitis vocifera_, 349.
Agalenidæ, 235.
_Agkistrodon piscivorous_, 323.
_Aix sponsa_, 347.
Albatross, 346.
_Alca impennis_, 345.
_Alce americana_, *385, 396.
Alligator, 326.
_Alligator mississippensis_, 326.
Alternation of generations, 96.
_Amblophtes rupestris_, 282.
_Amblystoma_, 297, 298.
_Amblystoma maculatum_, 299.
_Ameiurus_, 282.
_Amœba_, *32;
structure and life of, 31.
_Amphioxus_, 278.
Anaconda, 324.
_Anas boschas_, 347.
Anatomy defined, 3.
_Anguilla_, 284.
_Anguillula_, 140.
_Anolis principalis_, 319.
_Anosia plexippus_, anatomy of larva of, 177;
external structure of, 171, *172;
life of, 175;
mimicked by _Basilarchia archippus_, *433.
Anseres, 347.
Ant, little black, *224;
little brown, 223.
Antelope, *395, 396.
Antenna of carrion beetle, *184.
_Antilocapra americana_, *395, 396.
_Antrostomus vociferus_, 356.
Ant, 212, 218, 223.
Anura, 299.
Ape, 401.
Aphidiæ, 200.
_Apis florea_, comb of, *222.
_Apis mellifica_, *218.
Appearance, terrifying, 430.
Aquarium, 457.
Aquarium, battery-jar, *461.
_Aquila chrysætos_, 342.
Arachnida, 144, 229.
_Arctomys monax_, 391.
_Ardea herodias_, 358.
_Ardea virescens_, 347.
_Argiope_ sp., *236.
Argonaut, 257.
_Argonauta argo_, 257.
_Ariolimax californica_, *252.
Arthogastra, 230.
Arthropoda, 144.
Ascidian, 259, *261.
_Aspidiotus aurantii_, *198.
_Asterias_ sp., structure and life of, 108.
_Asterias_, *109;
cross-section of, *112.
_Asterias ocracia_, *122.
_Asterina mineata_, *122.
Asteroidea, 120, 121.
Attidæ, 235.
Auk, great, 345.
Aves, 327.
_Aythya vallisneria_, 347.
Ayu, 283.
Back-swimmer, 197, 199.
_Balanus_, *153.
_Balæna glacialis_, 393.
_Balæna mysticetus_, 393.
Barbadoes earth, 82.
Barnacle, *153, 155;
sessile, 155;
stalked, 155.
Barn-owl, 353.
_Bartramia longicauda_, 349.
_Bascanium constrictor_, 321.
Bass, 282.
Bat, hoary, *392.
Batrachia, 291.
Batrachians, 291;
body form and structure of, 292;
classification of, 295;
life-history and habits of, 295;
structure of, 292.
Bat, 391.
Bead-snake, 322.
Bear, 398.
Beaver, 391.
Bed-bug, *188.
Bee, 212;
solitary, 216.
Beetle, great water-scavenger, 163;
external structure, *164;
internal structure, *167;
antenna of carrion, *184;
Colorado potato, 209.
Beetle, 206;
carrion, 209;
whirligig, 206.
Bell-animalcule, structure and life of, 75.
Bills of birds, 362.
Bipinnaria, 119.
Bird, frigate, 346;
man-of-war, 346;
outline of body showing external regions, *330;
ruby-throat humming, nest and eggs of, *357.
Bird-louse, *194.
Birds, 327;
bills and feet of, 362;
body form and structure of, 336;
care of young, 366;
classification of, 340;
collecting, 466;
determining, 359;
development and life-history of, 339;
feeding habits of, 370;
flight and songs of, 364;
migration of, 367;
molting of, 361;
nesting of, 366;
protection of, 370.
Bird-skins, making, 466.
_Bison bison_, 396, *397.
Bittern, 348.
Blacksnake, 321.
_Blissus leucopterus_, 198.
Blood, circulation of, in mammal, *376.
Blood of toad, structure of, 40.
Blow-fly, 201, 202;
section through compound eye of, *185.
"Bob Jordan" (monkey), *400.
Bobwhite, 350.
_Bombus_, 216.
_Bombyx mori_, anatomy of larva of, *178.
_Bonasa umbellus_, 350.
Books, reference, 454.
Borer, peach-tree, *210.
_Botaurus lentiginosus_, 348.
Box tortoise, 315.
_Brachynotus nudus_, *153.
Brains of vertebrates, *378.
Branch, defined, 73.
_Branta canadensis_, 347.
Breeding cage, 458, 459.
Brittle-stars, 120, 121, 122.
_Bubo virginianus_, 353.
Buffalo, 396, *397.
_Bufo lentiginosus_, 301;
dissection of, 5.
Bullfrog, 299.
Bumblebee, 216.
_Bunodes californica_, 103.
_Buteo_, 353.
Butterfly, external structure of, 171, *172;
life of, 175;
monarch, anatomy of larva of, 177;
dead leaf, *429;
mimicked by viceroy, *433.
Butterflies, 205;
setting-board for, *466, 467.
Buzzard, turkey, 352.
Cachalot, 393.
Cage, lamp-chimney and flower-pot breeding, *459;
soap-box breeding, *458.
Cake-urchin, 124.
Calcarea, 91.
_Calliphora vomitoria_, 202;
section through compound eye of, *185.
_Callorhinus alascanus_, *399.
_Callorhinus ursinus_, parasitized, *422.
_Cambarus_ sp., dissection of, 18;
life of, 146.
_Camphephilus principalis_, 355.
_Cancer productus_, *153.
_Canis familiaris_, 398.
_Canis latrans_, 398.
_Canis nubilus_, 398.
Canvas-back, 347.
_Carcharodon_, 280.
Caribou, 396.
Cassowary, 343.
_Castor canadensis_, 391.
Caterpillar, apple tent, 208;
forest tent, 209.
Catfish, 282.
_Cathartes aura_, 352.
_Cavia_, 390.
Cell, defined, 37.
Cell differentiation, degrees of, 54.
Cell products, 38.
Cell wall, 38.
Centiped, *228, 229;
skein, *228.
Centipeds, 226.
_Centrocercus urophasianus_, 350.
_Centrurus_ sp., *236.
Cephalpoda, 246.
_Cercopithicus_, *400.
_Cervus canadensis_, *394, 395.
_Ceryle alcyon_, 354.
Cete, 393.
_Cetorhinus_, 270, 280.
_Chætura pelagica_, 356.
Chain-snake, 320.
Chalk, 81.
Chameleon, green, 318.
Chelonia, 313, 314.
_Chelonia mydas_, 315.
_Chelydra serpentina_, 314.
_Chen hyperborea_, 247.
Chicken-hawk, 353.
Chimney-swift, 356.
Chinch bug, 198.
Chipmunk, 391.
Chiroptera, 391.
Chitin, 145, 158.
_Chlorostomum funebrale_, *248.
Chordata, 259;
classification of, 260.
_Chordeiles virginianus_, 356.
Chromatophore, 256.
Chub, 282.
_Chrysemys_, 314.
_Cicada_, 199;
seventeen-year, *200;
_septendecim_, *200, 197.
Circulation of blood in mammal, *376.
_Circus hudsonius_, 352.
_Cistudo carolina_, 314.
Clams, 246;
hard shell, 247;
soft-shell, 247.
Class, defined, 73.
Classification, basis and signification of, 65;
defined, 3;
example of, 68.
_Clisiocampa americana_, larvæ, *208.
_Clisiocampa disstria_, caterpillars, *209;
life-history of, 207.
_Clupea harengus_, 284.
Cobra-da-capello, 324.
Coccidæ, 198.
Coccyges, 354.
_Coccyzus_, 354.
Cock, chapparal, 354.
Cockroach, 192.
Codfish, 284.
Cœcilians, 302.
Cœlenterata, 92;
classification of, 96;
development and life-history of, 95;
form of, 93;
skeleton of, 95;
structure of, 94.
_Colaptes auratus_, *355.
_Colaptes cafer_, 355.
Coleoptera, 206.
_Colinus virginianus_, 350.
Collections, making, 461.
Color, use of, 424.
Colors, warning, 430.
Colubridæ, 319.
_Columba fasciata_, 351.
_Columba livia_, 351.
Columbæ, 351.
_Colymbus auritus_, 343.
Comb-building of honey-bee, *221.
Comb of East Indian honey-bee, *222.
Commensalism, 155, 413.
Communal life, 411.
Condor, California, 352.
_Condylura cristata_, 391.
Conjugation, 35, 60.
_Conotrachelus cratægi_, *212, 213.
_Conotrachelus nenuphar_, *214.
Constrictor, boa, 324.
_Conurus carolinensis_, 353.
Coot, American, 349.
Copperhead, 322.
Coral, 95;
branching, *104;
red, 106.
Coral islands, 104, 106.
Coral polyps, 104.
Coral reefs, 106.
Corals, 92, 102, 104.
_Coregonus_, 283.
_Corisa_, 197.
_Corisa_ sp., *199.
Cormorant, 346.
Cornea of eye of horse-fly, *186.
Cottontail, 390.
Coyote, 398.
Crab, 151, 152;
soft-shelled, 154.
Crabs, *153.
Crane, sand-hill, 348;
whooping, 348.
Crayfish, dissection of, 18, *18, 22;
life of, 146.
Cricket, house, *193.
Cricket, 192.
Crinoid, *126.
Crinoidea, 121, 125.
Crocodile, 326.
Crocodilea, 313, 325.
_Crocodilus americanus_, 326.
_Crotalus_, 322.
Crustacea, 144, 146;
form and structure of, 147.
_Cryptobranchus_, 298.
Ctenophora, 97, 107.
Cuckoos, 354.
_Cucumaria_, 124.
Cucumber-beetles, 209.
_Culex_ sp., 204, *205.
Curculio plum, *214.
Curculio quince, *212, 213.
Curlew, long-billed, 350.
Cuttlefishes, 255.
_Cyclas_, 247.
_Cyclophis æstivus_, 320.
_Cyclops_, 148, *149.
Cyclostomata, 278.
Cytoplasm, 38.
Dabchick, 343.
_Dactylus_ sp., *249.
Damp bug, *151.
Darters, 282.
_Dasyatis_, 281.
Decapoda, 151.
Decapods, 256.
Deer, 396.
Degeneration, 417.
_Dendrostomium cronjhelmi_, *134.
Development, defined, 3;
embryonic, defined, 62;
post-embryonic, defined, 62;
simplest, 59.
_Diapheromera femorata_, *427.
_Diaspis rosæ_, *198.
Dictynidæ, 235.
_Didelphis virginiana_, 390.
_Diemystylus torosus_, *299.
_Diemystylus viridescens_, 297.
Dimorphism, 96.
Diptera, 201.
Distribution, barriers to, 437;
geographical,435;
laws of, 436;
local, of birds, 367;
modes of, 437.
Diver, great northern, 343.
Dolphins, 393.
_Doris tuberculata_, *254.
_Draco_, 319.
Dragon-flies, 294.
Dragon-fly, *196.
Dragon, flying, 318.
Drawings, 447.
_Dryobates pubescens_, 355.
_Dryobates villosus_, 355.
Duck, ruddy, 347.
_Dyticus_ sp., 210.
Dytiscidæ, 207.
Eagle, bald, 352;
golden, 352.
Ear of locust, *187.
Earthworm, anatomy of, *126;
alimentary canal of, *126;
cross-section of, *131;
reproductive organs of, *130;
structure and life of, 127.
Earthworms, 136.
Echinoderm, development of, 119;
structure of, 117;
shape of, 116.
Echinodermata, 108;
classification of, 120.
_Echinodoris_ sp., *254.
Echinoidea, 121, 122, 123.
_Eciton_, 225.
Ecology, animal, 403.
_Ectopistes migratorius_, 351.
Eel, 284.
Eft, green, 297;
western brown, *299.
Eggs of birds, collecting, 469.
Eider, 347.
Elasmobranchii, 279.
_Elassoma_, 271.
Elk, *394, 396.
Epeiridæ, 236.
Ephemerida, 194.
_Epialtus productus_, *153.
Equipment of laboratory, 450.
Equipment of pupil, 447.
_Erethizon dorsatus_, 391.
_Erethizon epixanthus_, 391.
_Eretmochelys imbricata_, 215.
_Erismatura rubida_, 347.
_Eumeces skeltonianus_, *316.
_Eupomotic gibbosuc_, dissection of, (facing) *263;
life of, 270;
structure of, 263.
_Exocætus_, 285.
Eye, cornea of compound, of horse-fly, *186;
section through compound, of blow-fly, *185.
Eye of vertebrate, *378.
_Falco sparverius_, 353.
Family, defined, 72.
Fauna, 440.
Feather-stars, 121, 125, *126.
Feet of birds, 362.
_Felis concolor_, 398.
Feræ, 397.
Fever, yellow, and mosquitoes, 205.
_Fiber zibethicus_, 391.
Fire-flies, 209.
Fishes, 263;
body form and structure of, 271;
classification of, 277;
development and life-history of, 276;
habits and adaptations of, 285.
Fish-hatcheries, 288.
Flat-worms, 137.
Flea, house, *204.
Flickers, 355.
Flies, 201;
chalcid, 214;
ichneumon, 212.
Flight of birds, 366.
Flying fishes, 285.
Food-fishes, 288.
Food of birds, 370.
Foraminifera, 80.
Fox, 398.
_Fregata aquila_, 346.
Frogs, 299.
_Fulica americana_, 349.
Fulmars, 345.
Function, defined, 14.
Functions, essential, 15.
Fur-seals, 398, *399.
Fur-seals, parasitized, *422.
_Gadus callarias_, 284.
Galley-worm, *227.
Gall-flies, 214.
Gallinæ, 350.
Gastropoda, 246.
_Gavia imber_, 347.
Gavial, 326.
Generation, spontaneous, 58.
Genmules, 85.
Genus, defined, 70.
_Geococcyx californianus_, 354.
Gephyrean, *134.
Girdler, currant stem, *215.
Glass-snake, 317.
Glires, 391.
Goat, Rocky Mt., 397.
_Gonionema vertens_, *101.
Goose, Canada, 347.
Gophers, pocket, 391.
_Gordius_, 140.
_Grantia_, *47.
_Grantia_ sp., 85.
Grayling, 284.
Grebe,
horned, 343;
pied-billed, 343.
Green, methyl, 351.
Greensnake, 320.
Gregariousness, 410.
Grouse, ruffed, 350.
_Grus americana_, 348.
_Grus mexicana_, 348.
Guillemot, 345.
Guinea-pig, 391.
Guinea-worm, 140.
Gull, great black-backed, 345.
Gulls, 345.
Gymnophiona, 302.
Gyrinidæ, 206.
Habitat, 441.
Hag-fishes, 279.
Hair-worms, 140.
_Haliætus leucocephalus_, 352.
_Halictus_, 216.
_Harporhynchus redivivus_, *371.
_Hatteria_, 312.
Hawk, marsh, 352.
Helmet shells, 255.
_Heloderma horridum_, *317.
Hemiptera, 197.
Hermit-crab, 154, *153.
Herodiones, 347.
Heron,
great blue, 348;
green, 347.
Herring, 284.
_Heteredon platirhinos_, 321.
_Hippocampus hippocampus_, *285.
Holothuroidea, 121, 124.
_Homo sapiens_, 398.
Honey-bee, *218;
brood-cells of, *219;
building comb, *221;
comb of East Indian, *222;
cross-section of body of pupa of, *191.
Honey-bees, 212.
Honey-dew, food of ants, 223.
Hornets, 217.
Horse-fly, cornea of eye of, *186.
House-fly, 202.
Humming-birds, 356.
_Hydra_, *47;
structure and life of, 46.
Hydrozoa, 96, 97.
Hydrophilidæ, 207.
_Hydrophilus_ sp.,
external structure of, *164;
internal structure of, *167.
_Hygrotrechus_, 198, *199.
_Hyla pickeringii_, 300.
_Hyla versicolor_, 300.
Hymenoptera, 212.
_Hyptiotes_ sp., and web, *238.
Iguana, 318.
Imago, 190.
Injecting-masses, 451.
Insect, pinned, *465;
twig, *427;
wingless, *181.
Insecta, 157.
Insectivora, 391.
Insects, classification of, 191;
collecting, 463;
communal, 215;
development and life-history of, 188;
form and structure of, 181;
killing-bottle for, *463;
social, 215.
Invertebrate, defined, 30.
Islands, coral, 104, 106.
Isopod, *151.
Isopoda, 150.
Jack rabbit, 390.
_Janus integer_, *215.
Jellyfish, *101.
Jellyfishes, 92;
colonial, 97.
Joint-snake, 318.
_Julus_, *327.
June-beetle, 212.
June beetles, 206.
_Kallima_, *429.
Kangaroo, 389.
Katydids, 192.
Kelp-crab, *152.
Kill-deer, 349.
Killing-bottle for insects, *463.
Kingfisher, belted, 354.
Laboratory, equipment of, 450.
_Lachnosterna_, 212.
Lady-birds, 209.
_Lagopus_, 350.
Lake-lamprey, 279.
_Lampetra wilderi_, 279.
Lamprey, *278;
brook, 279.
_Lampropeltis boylii_, *321.
_Lampropeltis getulus_, 320.
Lancelet, 278.
Larks, horned, *358.
_Larus marinus_, 345.
Larva, 189;
of Monarch butterfly, anatomy of, 177;
parasitized, *420.
_Lasiurus borealis_, 392.
_Lasiurus cinereus_, *392.
_Lasius flavus_, 223.
Leeches, 136.
Lemurs, 401.
_Leucania unipuncta_, *211.
_Lepidocyrtus americanus_, *181.
Lepidoptera, 205.
Leptocardii, 277.
_Leptoplana californica_, *138.
_Lepus campestris_, 390.
_Lepus nuttali_, 390.
Life-history, defined, 62.
Life-processes, essential, 15.
Limicolæ, 349.
Limpets, 255, *248.
_Littorina scutulata_, *248.
Live cages, 457.
Liver of toad, structure of, 41.
Lizard, *309.
Lizards, 316.
Lobster, 151, 152.
Locust, differential, 156;
ear of, *187;
red-legged, 156, *157;
Rocky Mt., 156;
structure and life of, 156;
two-striped, 156.
Locusts, 192.
_Loligo_, 257.
Longipennes, 345.
Loon, 343.
_Lumbricus_ sp., alimentary canal of, *131;
cross-section of, *132;
structure and life of, 127.
Lung-fish, 285.
_Lycena_, scales of wings of, *206.
Lycosidæ, 235.
_Lynx rufus_, 398.
Macrocheira, 154.
_Madrepora cervicornis_, *105.
_Malaclemmys palustris_, 314.
Malaria and mosquitoes, 205.
Mallard, 347.
Mammal, circulation of blood in, *376.
Mammalia, 373.
Mammals, 373;
body form and structure of, 381;
classification of, 389;
development and life-history of, 388;
habits, instinct and reason of, 388;
making skins of, 470.
Man, 398.
Man-of-war, Portuguese, 98, *97.
Marsupialia, 389.
_Martesia xylophaga_, *251.
Massasauga, 32.
May-flies, 194.
May-fly, nymph of, *197.
Medusa, *101.
Megalobatrachus, 298.
_Megascops asio_, *352, 353.
_Melanerpes erythrocephalus_, 355.
_Melanerpes formicivorus_, 356.
_Melanoplus_ sp., ear of, *187;
structure and life-history of, 157.
_Melanoplus vibittatus_, 157.
_Melanoplus differentialis_, 157.
_Melanoplus femur-rubrum_, 157, *158.
_Melanoplus spretus_, 157.
_Meleagrina margaritifera_, 250.
_Merula migratoria propinqua_, *368.
Metamorphosis, complete, 171, 188, 189;
incomplete, 171, 189.
Metazoa, defined, 43.
Mice, 391.
_Micropterus dolomien_, 282.
_Micropterus salmoides_, 282.
Migration of birds, 367.
Mimicry, 430.
Millipeds, 226.
Mite, cheese, *230.
Mites, 229.
Modifications of structure and function, 29.
Moles, 391.
Mollusca, 239.
Molluscs, 239;
classification of, 246;
development of, 246;
form and structure of, 245.
Molting, 361;
of birds, 361.
Monitor, 318.
Monkey, *400.
_Momomerium minutum_, *224.
Monster, Gila, *317.
Moose, *385, 396.
Morphology, defined, 3.
Mosquito, 202, *203.
Mosquitoes, 201;
and malaria, 205;
and yellow fever, 205.
Moth, forest tent-caterpillar, life-history of, *207.
Moths, 205.
Mourning dove, 351.
Mouse, life-history and habits of, 379;
structure of, 373.
Mud-eel, 297.
Mud-hen, 349.
Mud-puppies, 297.
Mud-turtle, 313.
Multiplication of one-celled animals, 59;
of many-celled animals, 61.
Murres, *344.
Muscles of toad, structure of, 41.
_Mus decumanus_, 391.
_Mus musculus_, structure of, 373.
_Mus rattus_, 391.
Musk-rat, 391.
Mussel, fresh-water, life-history and habits of, 243;
structure of, 239.
_Mya arenaria_, 247.
_Myotis subulatus_, 392.
Myriapoda, 144, 226.
_Mytilus californianus_, *248.
_Myxine_, 279.
Names, scientific, 68.
_Narcobatis_, 281.
_Natrix sipedon_, 320.
Nautilus, 255;
pearly, 258.
_Nautilus pompilius_, 258.
_Necturus_, 297, 298.
Nemathelminthes, 140.
_Neotoma pennsylvanica_, 391.
Nereid, *134.
_Nereis_ sp., *134.
Nesting of birds, 366.
Nest of oriole, *365.
_Nettion carolinense_, 347.
Night-hawk, 356.
Night-heron, 348.
_Nirmus præstans_, *194.
Non-calcarea, 91.
Notes, 447, 448.
Notochord, 259.
_Notonecta_, 197, 199.
Nucleus, 38.
Nudibranchs, 252, *254.
_Numenius longirostris_, 350.
_Nyctea nyctea_, 353.
_Nycticorax_, 348.
Octopi, 255.
Octopods, 256.
_Odocoileus americanus_, 396.
Odonata, 194.
Oligochætæ, 136.
_Olor_, 347.
_Ommatostrephes californica_, *257.
_Oncorhynchus tschawtscha_, 283.
One-celled animals, multiplication of, 57.
Ooze, foraminifera, 81;
radiolaria, 81.
_Opheosaurus ventralis_, 317.
Ophiuroidea, 121, 122.
Opossum, 389.
Order, defined, 72.
_Oreamnos montanus_, 397.
Organ, defined, 14.
Orthoptera, 192;
sound-making of, 193.
Orb-web of Epeiridæ, 236.
_Ostrea virginiana_, 248.
Ostriches, 341, *342.
_Otocoris alpestris_, *358.
_Ovis canadensis_, *383, 396.
Owl, burrowing, 353;
great gray, 353;
great horned, 353;
snowy, 353.
Oyster, 248.
Oyster-crab, 154.
Oyster-drills, 255.
Oysters, 246;
"seed" of, 249;
"spat" of, 249.
_Pagurus samuelis_, *153.
Paludicolæ, 348.
Panther, 398.
_Paramœcium_, *35;
multiplication of, 60;
structure and life of, 34.
Parasitism, 415.
Paroquet, Carolina, 353.
Parrots, 353.
_Passer domesticus_, dissection of, (facing) *327;
life-history and habits of, 335;
structure of, 327.
Passeres, 357.
Pearl-oyster, *249.
_Pelecanus californicus_, 346.
_Pelecanus erythrorhynchus_, 346.
_Pelecanus fuscus_, 346.
Pelecypoda, 246.
Pelican, brown, 346;
white, 346.
_Pentacrinus_ sp., *126.
_Pentacta frondosa_, *125.
_Peripatus eiseni_, *226.
_Perla_ sp., *182.
Petrels, 345.
_Petromyzon marinus_, *278.
_Phalacrocorax_, 346.
Pheasants, 350.
_Phoca vitulina_, 397.
Phœbe, black, nest and eggs of, *340.
_Pholas_ sp., *250.
_Phrynosoma_, 318.
Phylloxera, grape, 198, 201.
_Phylloxera vastatrix_, 198, 201.
Phylum, defined, 73.
_Physalia_ sp., *97.
_Physeter macrocephalus_, 393.
Physiology, defined, 3.
Pici, 354.
Pickerel-frog, 300.
Pigeon, band-tailed, 351;
passenger, 351.
_Pinnotheres_, 154.
Pipe-fish, 285.
Pisces, 263.
_Pituophis bellona_, *323.
_Planaria_ sp., *138.
Planarian, fresh-water, *138;
marine, *138.
Planarians, 137.
Plant-lice, 197, 200.
Planula, 96
Platyhelminthes, 137.
_Plectrophenax nivalis_, *358.
_Plethodon_, 297.
Plover, field, 349.
Pluteus, 119.
_Podilymbus podiceps_, 343.
Poison-fangs of rattlesnake, *324.
_Pollicipes polymenus_, *153.
Polymorphism, 96.
_Polynœ brevisetosa_, *134.
Polyps, 92, 97.
_Pomoxis annularis_, 282.
_Pomoxis separoides_, 282.
Pond-snails, 252.
Porcupine, 390.
Porcupine-fish, 285.
Porifera, 84.
Porpoises, 393.
_Porzana carolina_, 349.
Prairie-chicken, 350.
Prawns, 152.
Preparations, preserving anatomical, 452.
Primates, 398.
_Pristis pectinatis_, 281.
Protophyta, 82.
Protoplasm, described, 39.
_Protopterus_, 288.
Protozoa, defined, 43, 75;
form of, 78;
marine, 80.
_Pseudemys_, 313.
_Pseudogryphus californianus_, 352.
Psittaci, 353.
Ptarmigan, 356.
Puff-adder, 325.
Puffins, 345.
_Pulex irritans_, *204.
Pulmonata, 253.
Puma, 398.
Pumpkin seed, life of, 270;
structure of, 263.
Pupa, 189;
cross-section of body of, honey-bee, *191.
Pupation, 189.
_Purpura saxicola_, *248.
Pygopodes, 343.
Python, 324.
Quail, 350.
_Querquedula discors_, 347.
Rabbits, 390.
Radiolaria, 80.
Rail, Carolina, 349.
_Raja erinacea_, 280, *281.
_Raja lævis_, 281.
_Rana catesbiana_, 299.
_Rana palustris_, 300.
_Rana sylvatica_, 300.
_Rangifer caribou_, 396.
Raptores, 351.
Ratitæ, 341.
Rats, 391.
Rattlesnake poison-fangs, *324.
Rattlesnakes, 321.
Rattles of rattlesnake, *223.
Reefs, coral, 106.
Reindeer, 396.
Remora, *287.
_Remoropsis brachyptera_, *287.
Root-cage, 460.
Reptiles, body form and organization of, 309;
classification of, 312;
life-history of, 312;
structure of, 310.
Reptilia, 303.
Resemblance, protective, 326.
Rheas, 343.
Road-runner, 354.
Robber-ant, 225.
Robin, Western, *368.
Rock-bass, 282.
Rock-crab, *153.
Rock-dove, 351.
Rodents, 390.
_Rosalina varians_, *81.
_Rotifer_ sp., *143.
Round worms, 140.
Ruminants, 395.
_Sacculina_, 67, *418.
Sage-hen, 350.
Salamander, red-backed, 297;
tiger, *292.
Salamanders, 297.
_Salmo irideus_, *283.
Salmon, king, 284.
Sand-dollar, 124.
Sand-pipers, 345.
_Sanninoidea existiosa_, *212.
Sap-sucker, downy, 355;
hairy, 355.
Saw-fish, 281.
_Sayornis nigricans_, nest and eggs of, *340.
Scale insect, red-orange, *198.
Scale insects, 198.
Scale rose, *198.
Scales of wings of Lycæna, *206;
wing of Monarch butterfly, *174.
Scallops, 246.
_Scalops aquaticus_, 391.
_Scaphiopus_, 300.
_Sceloporus_, 317.
_Sciuropterus volans_, 391.
_Sciurus carolinensis_, 391.
_Sciurus hudsonicus_, 391.
_Sciurus ludovicianus_, 391.
_Scolopendra_ sp., 228, 229.
Scorpion, *230.
Scorpions, 229.
_Scotiaptex cinera_, 353.
Screech-owl, *352, 353.
_Scutigera forceps_, *228.
Scyphozoa, 97, 101.
Sea anemones, 92, 102, *103.
Sea cucumber, *125.
Sea-cucumbers, 108, 121, 124.
Sea-fan, 107.
Sea-feather, 106.
Sea-horse, *285.
Sea-lamprey, 279.
Sea-lily, 118.
Sea-pen, 106.
Sea-shells, 252.
Sea-slugs, 255.
Sea-snakes, 325.
Sea-squirt, *261.
Sea-turtles, 315.
Sea-urchin, *114;
structure of, 113.
Sea-urchins, 108, 121, 123.
Seals, 397.
Selection, artificial, 409;
natural, 406.
Sembling of insects, 176.
Sepias, 256.
Setting-board for butterflies, *466, 467.
Shark, basking, 270, 280;
hammer-headed, 280;
man-eating, 280.
Sharks, 280.
Shearwaters, 345.
Sheep-fluke, 138.
Sheep, Rocky Mt., *383, 397.
Shipworm, 251.
Shoveller, 347.
Shrews, 391.
Shrimp, 151, 152.
Silk-worm, anatomy of, *178.
Siphonophore, 98.
_Siren_, 297, 298.
_Sistrurus_, 322.
Skate, barn-door, 281;
common, 280, *281.
Skates, 280.
Skeleton of coral, 105.
Skeletons, preparing, 452.
Skink, blue tailed, *317.
Skin of toad, structure of, 40.
Slipper-animalcule, *35;
structure and life of, 34.
Slug, giant yellow, *252.
Slugs, 252, 253.
Snake coral, 321.
Snake, garter, *320;
life of, 307;
structure of, 303;
gopher, *322.
Snake king, *321.
Snakes, 316.
Snails, 252, 253.
Snapping-turtle, 314.
Snipes, 349.
Snowflakes, *358.
Snow-goose, 347.
Social life, 410.
_Somateria_, 347.
Songs of birds, 364.
Sora, 349.
Sound making of orthoptera, 193.
Spadefoot, 300.
Sparrow, English, dissection of, (facing), *327;
life-history and habits of, 335;
structure of, 327;
western chipping, *360.
Sparrow-hawk, 353.
_Spatula clypeata_, 347.
Species, defined, 69.
Species-extinguishing, 442.
Species-forming, 408, 442.
_Speotyto cunicularia_, 353.
_Sphinx chersis_ larva, *431.
Sphinx-moth, pen-marked, larva, *431
_Sphyma_, 280.
Spicules, sponge, 85.
Spider and web, *237.
Spider, crab, *235;
jumping, *235;
long-legged, *233;
running, *234;
running with egg-sac, *234;
triangle, and web, *238.
Spider-crab, 154.
Spiders, 229;
hunting, 233;
sedentary, 233;
trap-door, 233;
wandering 233;
web weaving, 233.
Spinnerets of spider, *233.
_Spizella socialis arizonæ_, *360.
Sponge, commercial, 86;
fresh-water, 84;
glass, *87;
skeleton of, 88;
structure of, 88.
Sponges, 84;
calcareous ocean, 85;
classification of, 91;
development and life-history of, 89;
feeding habits of, 88;
form and size of, 87;
of commerce, 90.
Spongin, 86.
_Spongilla_ sp., 84.
Springtail, American, *181.
Squamata, 312, 316.
Squid, great, *257.
Squids, 255, 257.
Squirrels, 391.
Starfish, *109;
cross-section of, *112.
Starfishes, 108, 121.
_Stentor_ sp., *79.
_Sterna_, 345.
_Sterna maxima_, 194.
Sting-ray, 281.
Stone-fly, *182.
_Strix pratincola_, 353.
_Strongylocentrotus_ sp., structure of, 113.
_Strongylocentrotus franciscanus_, *115, 122;
structure of, 115.
Struggle for existence, 406.
_Struthio camelus_, 342.
Sub-species, 69.
Suckers, 283.
Sucking-bugs, 197.
Sun animalcule, *78.
Sunfish, dwarf, 271;
golden, dissection of, (facing) *263;
life of, 270;
structure of, 263.
Supplies, obtaining laboratory, 453.
Swans, 347.
Swarming of honey-bee, 219.
Swell-fish, 285.
Swift, common, 316.
Sword-fish, 285.
Symbiosis, 155, 413.
Symmetry, bilateral, 5;
radial, 108.
_Sympetrum illotum_, *196.
_Syngnathus fuscum_, 285.
Tadpole, 55.
Tadpoles, *296.
_Tænia solium_, 139.
Tapeworm, 139.
Teal, blue-winged, 347;
green-winged, 347.
Teleostomi, 282.
Tell-tale, 349.
Teredo, 251.
Tern, 194.
Terns, 345.
Terrapin, diamond-back, 314;
red-bellied, 314;
yellow-bellied, 314.
_Testudo_ sp., *315.
_Tetragnatha_ sp., *233.
_Thalarctos maritimus_, 398.
_Thamnophis_ sp., life of, 307;
structure of, 303.
_Thamnophis parietalis_, *320.
Theridiæ, 235.
_Therioplectes_ sp., cornea of compound eye of, *186.
Thomisidæ, 235.
Thrasher, sickle-billed, *371.
Thrush, russet-backed, *363.
_Thymallus signifer_, 284.
Ticks, 229.
Tiger-beetles, 209.
Toad, cellular structure of, 40;
development of, 55;
garden, dissection of, 5;
horned, 317;
skeleton of, *11.
Toads, 299, 300.
Torpedo, 281.
Tortoise, Galapagos giant, *315.
Tortoises, 313.
Tortoise-shell, 315.
_Totanus melanoleucus_, 349.
Trachea, *184.
Tree-frogs, 300.
Tree-toads, 300.
Trepang, 124.
Trichina, 140.
_Trichina spiralis_, 141, *141.
Trichinosis, 141.
_Triopha modesta_, *254.
Tripoli rock, 82.
Triton, green, 297.
_Trochilus colubris_, 356;
nest and eggs of, *357.
Trout, rainbow, *283.
Tumble bugs, 209.
_Turdus ustulaius_, *363.
Turkeys, wild, 350.
Turtle, green, 315;
hawk-bill, 315;
logger-head, 315.
Turtle-dove, 351.
Turtles, 313.
_Tympanuchus americanus_, 350.
_Tyroglyphus siro_, *230.
Ungulata, 393.
_Unio_ sp., life-history and habits of, 243;
structure of, 239.
_Uria troile californica_, *344.
_Ursus americanus_, 398.
_Ursus horribilis_, 398.
_Varanus niloticus_, 318.
Variation, 406.
Variety, 69.
Venation of wings of insects, 174;
of wings of Monarch butterfly, *175.
_Venus mercenaria_, 247.
Vermes, 127;
life-history and habits of, 132;
classification of, 135.
Vertebrate, defined, 30;
brains of, 376;
eye of, *379.
Vertebrates, 259;
structure of, 259.
Vespidæ, 217.
Vinegar-eel, 140, *140.
Viper, 324;
blowing, 321.
_Vipera cerasta_, 324.
_Vorticella_ sp., *76.
_Vorticella_, structure and life of, 75.
_Vulpes pennsylvanicus_, 398.
Walking-stick, 193, 194.
Wapiti, *394.
Wasps, 212;
digger, 217;
solitary, 217.
Water-beetle, predaceous, 210.
Water-beetles, 206.
Water-boatman, *199.
Water-boatmen, 197.
Water-flea, 148, *149.
Water-dog, 298.
Water-snake, 320.
Water-strider, 197, 199, *199.
Water tiger, 212, *214.
Weevils, 209.
Whalebone, 393.
Whales, 393.
Wheel-animalcule, *143.
Whip-poor-will, 356.
Whitefish, 284.
Wild-cat, 398.
Wings of Monarch butterfly showing venation, *175.
Wolf, 398.
Woodchuck, 391.
Wood-duck, 347.
Wood-frog, 300.
Wood-lice, 150.
Woodpecker, California, 356;
ivory-billed, 355;
red-headed, 355.
Woodpeckers, 354.
Wood-rat, 391.
Worm, army, *211.
Worms, 127;
life-history and habits of, 133;
classification of, 135;
marine, *134.
_Xiphias gladius_, 285.
Yellow-hammer, *355.
Yellow-jackets, 217.
Yellow-shank, 349.
_Zenaidura macroura_, 351.
Zoogeography, 436.
Zooids, 98.
Zoology, a first course in, 3;
defined, 3;
divisions of, 2;
systematic, defined, 3.
Zoophytes, 92.
Transcriber's Notes:
Obvious punctuation and spelling errors have been fixed throughout.
Inconsistent hyphenation has been left as in the original text.
There is no figure 27, the original text goes from figure 26 to 28,
left as in the original text.
Page 245: There is no closing parenthesis for the sentence starting
"(Where the typical...".