Suffimentum (suffio) is a means of fumigating: in iis sine illius

suffimentis expiati sumus, Leg. 1, 14, 40; laurus sit suffimentum

caedis hostium et purgatio, Plin. 15, 30, 40.

Tegumentum, like operimentum, gets its fundamental meaning of

“covering” from its verb stem, (tego), but is capable of being applied

to many objects, as will be shown in Chapter III: tegumenta corporum,

vel texta, vel suta, N. D. 2, 60; scutis tegimenta detrudere non tempus

erat, B. G. 2, 21.

4. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT, WITH BOTH GENERAL AND FIGURATIVE

APPLICATION.--The generalized concrete instruments so far illustrated

have rarely any abstract meaning. The remainder of them are used both

concretely and figuratively.

Alimentum (alo) signifies a means of support or nourishment: nec

desiderabat alimenta corporis, Timaeus, 6; addidit alimenta rumoribus,

Liv. 35, 23.

Instrumentum (instruo) is a very general word meaning implement,

furniture, supplies: arma, tela, equos et cetera instrumenta militiae

parare, Sall. Jug. 25, 2; spolia, ornamenta, monumenta in instrumento

et supellectile Verris nominabuntur, Verr. 2, 4, 44; ut instrumentum

oratoris exponeret, De Or. II, 146.

Integumentum (intego) is so similar to tegumentum that it hardly

needs separate treatment; however, it is used more frequently with an

abstract meaning: istaec ego mihi semper habui aetati integumentum

meae, Trin. 313; lanx cum integumentis, quae Iovi adposita fuit, Liv.

40, 59, 7.

Monumentum (moneo) is anything that serves as a reminder: statuam quae

sit factis monumentum suis, Curc. 441; tum monumenta rerum gestarum

oratori nota esse debere, De Or. I, 201.

Ornamentum (orno) is anything for adorning or equipping: hominem cum

ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me, Pseud. 765; audieram quae

de orationis ipsius ornamentis traderentur, De Or. II, 122; vidi hunc

ipsum Q. Hortensium ornamentum rei publicae paene interfici, Milo, 37.

Saepimentum (saepio) is any means of inclosure or defense: haec omnia

quasi saepimento aliquo animus ratione vallabit, Leg. I, 62; tertium

militare saepimentum est fossa et terreus agger, Varr. R. R. 1, 142.

Stabilimentum (stabilio) is a means of support or strength: haec

sunt ventri stabilimenta: pane et assa bubula, Curc. 367; Sicilia et

Sardinia stabilimenta bellorum, Val. Max. 7, 6, 1.

5. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT, WITH SPECIALIZED APPLICATION.--This

concludes the list of generalized concrete instruments. Those with

specialized meanings are as follows; sometimes the verb stem is

specialized, but more often not.

Armentum (aro) always means cattle, originally those used for plowing:

et variae crescunt pecudes, armenta feraeque, Lucr. 5, 228; armentum

aegrotat in agris, Hor. Ep. I, 8, 6. This word can mean only the

secondary instrument for plowing, _viz._, cattle, because there is

another word (aratrum) for the plow itself.

Calceamentum (calceo) always means a shoe, an “instrument” for covering

the feet: mihi amictui est Scythicum tegimen, calceamentum solorum

callum, T. 5, 90.

Frumentum (fruor) always means grain, a “means of enjoyment”: ut hortum

fodiat atque ut frumentum metat, Poen. 1020; non modo frumenta in agris

mature non erant, B. G. I, 16, 2.

Lomentum (lavo) is a “means” of washing, of a particular kind, however,

_viz._, a cosmetic: lomento rugas condere temptas, Mart. 3, 42, 1. In

Ciceronian Latin it occurs only once, and then figuratively: persuasum

ei censuram lomentum aut nitrum esse, Fam. VIII, 14, 4.

In iugumentum (iugo) it is a little difficult to see the influence

of the stem. The two occurrences of it in Cato are the only ones in

literature, and from the context it would seem to mean “threshold” or

some other part of the front of the house: limina, postes iugumenta,

asseres, fulmentas faber faciat oportet, R. R. 14, 1; iugumenta et

antepagmenta quae opus erunt indito, R. R. 14, 5.

Iumentum (iungo) always means an animal for drawing or carrying, a

beast of burden: iumento nihil opus est, Att. XII, 32; omnia sarcinaria

iumenta interfici iubet, B. C. 1, 81.

Supplementum (suppleo) before the Augustan period means only that

with which an army is “filled up” or recruited: partem copiarum ex

provincia supplementumque quod ex Italia adduxerat, convenire iubet, B.

G. 7, 7, 5; ceterum supplementum etiam laetus decreverat, Sall. Jug.

84, 3. Later it has its literal meaning: ex geminis singula capita in

supplementum gregis reservantur, Col. 7, 6, 7.

In vestimentum, the verb stem vestio has the same influence that

“clothe” does in our word clothing: me vides ornatus ut sim vestimentis

uvidis, Rud. 573; huc est intro latus lectus vestimentis stratus,

Heaut. 903.

Libamentum (libo) is a libation, drink offering: dona magnifica, quasi

libamenta praedarum, Rep. 2, 44; haec ego ad aras libamenta tuli, Stat.

S. 3, 1, 163.

6. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT, WITH BOTH SPECIALIZED AND FIGURATIVE

APPLICATION.--The specialized concrete nouns so far given are never

used figuratively; there are six additional ones which do sometimes

have an abstract meaning.

Tormentum (torqueo) is an instrument of torture, an instrument for

hurling, or torture itself: rotam id est genus quoddam tormenti apud

Graecas, T. 5, 24; castella constituit ibique tormenta collocavit, B.

G. 8, 3; huic licebit tum dicere se beatum in summo cruciatu atque

tormentis, T. 5, 73.

Condimentum (condio) is anything used for spicing or seasoning: cocos

equidem nimio demiror, qui utuntur condimentis, Cas. 219: animus aequus

optumumst aerumnae condimentum, Rud. 402.

Fundamentum (fundo) is that with which anything is founded, a

foundation: quin cum fundamento aedes perierint, Most. 148; fundamenta

rei publicae ieci, Fam. XII, 25, 2.

Impedimentum (impedio) is a means of hindrance, and in the plural,

baggage: hinc vos amolimini, nam mi impedimenta estis, And. 707;

Demosthenes impedimenta naturae diligentia industriaque superavit, De

Or. I. 61, 260; ad impedimenta et carros se contulerunt, B. G. 1, 26.

Nutrimentum (nutrio) like alimentum, is a means of nourishment or

support, but it is not found meaning food for the body: educata

huius generis nutrimentis eloquentia, Orat. 42; arida circum [igni]

nutrimenta dedit, Aen. 1, 176.

Pigmentum (pingo) is paint, or material for coloring: quem Appella et

Zeuxis duo pingent pigmentis ulmeis, Epid. 626; sententiae tam verae,

tam sine pigmentis fucoque puerili, De Or. II, 188.

7. NOUNS NOT CLASSIFIED.--This completes the list of concrete _-mentum_

words on verb stems with the exception of three whose stems are unusual

or uncertain and contribute little if any influence to the meaning

of the word. They do not mean instrument, nor result of action. The

fewness of examples also makes it difficult to say just what the words

mean. However, they probably have the following signification.

Antepagmentum (from pango, with prefix ante-) from the context seems

to be some sort of ornament for the exterior of a house: iugumenta et

antepagmenta quae opus erunt indito, Cato, R. R. 14, 5; fulloniam I,

antepagmenta, vasa torcula II faber faciat oportet, Cato, R. R. 14, 2;

ostiorum et eorum antepagmentorum in aedibus hae sunt rationes, Vitr.

4, 6.

Coagmenta (cogo) undoubtedly means a “joint” of some kind, as may be

seen from the context: viden coagmenta in foribus? Most. 829; ut aptior

sit oratio, ipsa verba compone et quasi coagmenta, quod ne Graeci

quidem veteres factitaverunt, Brut. 68.

Omentum, whatever its etymology, means “fat”: omentum in flamma pingue

liquefaciens, Catul. 90, 6.

Each of these _-mentum_ nouns has been illustrated not for the purpose

of showing that the verb stem does have influence on the meaning of

the noun--that is of course very obvious; the purpose has rather been

to show that the character of the verb stem--_e. g._, whether it admits

of general or special application, or whether it suggests the result of

action or requires an instrument--so affects the resulting character

of the noun, as to make it, as a rule, similar to that of the stem. Of

this second class of nouns (those that mean instrument) we may say that

among other influences of the verb stems, one is that they have such

a meaning as requires an instrument for the accomplishment of their

action. This does not imply that those in the first class do not also

require an instrument. While these nouns do mean instrument or result

of action, when viewed in regard to their verb stems, we can not say

that such meaning is always felt in every occurrence of the noun. In

certain contexts, even most contexts, they lose it entirely and are

used as perfect equivalents of nouns that have no such meaning.

Of the two classes of concrete _-mentum_ words on verb stems,

therefore, the smaller class has the tendency to mean result of action,

the larger class, instrument of action. Whether the instrument is

literal or figurative (as it is in the case of a few of these nouns),

must be ascertained from the context.

B. CONCRETE -MENTUM WORDS ON NOUN AND ADJECTIVE STEMS

The concrete _-mentum_ nouns on noun and adjective stems must, on

account of their fewness, clearly be analogical formations. They cannot

express the instrument or result of an action, but are only an extended

form of the noun with a specialized meaning.

Ferramenta are tools made of iron (ferrum): de ferramentorum varietate

Cato scribit permulta, ut falces, palas, rastros, Varro, R. R. 1, 22, 5.

Nidamentum (used only once, and allegorically) is material for a nest

(nidus): in nervum ille hodie nidamenta congeret, Rud. 889.

Pulpamentum (and its shorter form pulmentum) are tidbits made from

pulpa (meat): voltisne olivas, aut pulpamentum, aut capparim? Curc. 90;

mihi est cubile terra, pulpamentum fames, T. 5, 90; primus ad cibum

vocatur, primo pulmentum datur, M. G. 349; num ego pulmento utor magis

unctiusculo? Pseud. 220.

Salsamenta are pickled fish (salsus) although once in Cicero the

word in the singular means brine: salsamenta haec, Stephanio, fac

macerentur, Adel. 380; de vino aut salsamento putes loqui quae

evanescunt vetustate, Div. II, 117.

Sincipitamentum (Ritschl and Brix) is a comic word, with the same

meaning as its noun stem, sinciput: iube opsonarier pernonidam aut

sincipitamenta porcina, Men. 211; comedam, inquit, flebile nati

sinciput elixi, Juv. 13, 85.

Atramentum is a liquid possessing the quality expressed by the

adjective stem (ater); this context shows it to mean ink: calamo et

atramento res agitur, Q. fr. II, 14, 1. In one example it means shoe

blacking: pater accusatus a M. Antonio sutorio atramento absolutus

putatur, Fam. IX, 21, 3. In one example also, it is used in speaking of

fish: atramenti effusione sepiae se tutant, N. II, 127.

Scitamenta (scitus) are tidbits, dainties both literal and figurative:

iube aliquid scitamentorum de foro opsonarier, Men. 209; ὁμοιοτέλευτα

καὶ ὁμοιόπτωτα ceteraque huiusmodi scitamenta, Gell. 18, 8, 1.

Perhaps the variety of meaning of these analogical formations indicates

that no single precise meaning had become attached to _-mentum_.

C. ABSTRACT -MENTUM WORDS ON VERB STEMS

The majority of abstract _-mentum_ words also fall into the two large

classes of result of action and instrument, but there is a small list

of nouns which plainly express the action itself. There are only two

words on noun stems.

1. NOUNS DENOTING RESULT OF ACTION.--Additamentum (addo) is an

increase, or accession: intercessit Ligus iste nescio qui, additamentum

amicorum meorum, Sest. 31; sapientia erit ultimum vitae instrumentum

et, ut ita dicam, additamentum, Sen. Ep. 17.

Adiumentum (adiuvo) means aid, assistance: Romae vos esse tuto posse

per Dolabellam eamque rem posse nobis adiumento esse, Fam. XIV, 18, 1;

nulla res est quae plura adiumenta doctrinae desideret, De Or. III, 84.

Cruciamentum (crucio) is not the instrument of torture, but torture

itself, or rather the feeling caused by torturing: vidi ego multa

saepe picta quae Acherunti fierent cruciamenta, Capt. 998; carnificum

cruciamenta et morborum tormenta, Phil. XI. 4, 8.

Delenimentum (delenio) is an allurement or blandishment; illam furiam

omnibus delenimentis animum suum avertisse atque alienasse, Liv. 30,

13; paulatim discursum ad delenimenta vitiorum, Tac. A. 21; simul

comparant delenimenta et differunt vos in adventum Cn. Pompei, Sall.

Macer, 21.

Dehonestamentum[182] (dehonesto) is a general word for any object

of dishonor or disgrace: Fufidius, ancilla turpis, bonorum omnium

dehonestamentum, Sall. Lep. 22; auribus decisis vivere iubet, ostentui

clementiae suae, et in nos dehonestamento, Tac. A. 12.

Deliramenta (deliro) means nonsense, the result of “going out of the

furrow”: audin tu ut deliramenta loquitur? Men. 920; matrimonia inter

deos credi puerilium prope deliramentorum est, Plin. 2, 7, 5.

Detrimentum (detero) nowhere has its literal meaning of “loss by

rubbing”, but only loss in general, more often disadvantage or

misfortune: tantis detrimentis acceptis Octavius sese ad Pompeium

recepit, B. C. 3, 9, 8; futurum ut detrimentum in bonum verteret, B.

C. 3, 73, 6; ne quid res publica detrimenti accipiat, Cat. 1, 2. (_et

saepe_).

For the etymology of the interesting word elementum, see Walde.

Emolumentum (emolior) means the result of effort, gain, reward:

suscepta videntur a viris fortibus sine emolumento ac praemio, De Or.

II, 346.

Inanimentum (inanio) occurs only once, but in its context clearly means

“emptiness”: inanimentis explementum quaerito, Stich. 174.

Intertrimentum (intertero) unlike detrimentum, does have the literal

meaning of “loss by rubbing” as well as loss in general: in auro vero,

in quo nihil intertrimenti est, quae malignitas est? Liv. 34, 7; sine

magno intertrimento non potest haberi, quidvis dare cupis, Heaut. 448.

Laxamentum (laxo) means relaxation, alleviation, any unit of time or

space: ego nactus in navigatione nostra pusillum laxamenti, Fam. XII,

16, 3; alii removentes parietes aedis efficiunt amplum laxamentum

cellae, Vitr. 4, 7; eo laxamento cogitationibus dato, quievit in

praesentia seditio, Liv. 7, 38.

Momentum (moveo) means weight, impulse, importance: astra forma ipsa

figuraque sua momenta sustentat, N. II, 117; animus paulo momento

huc vel illuc impellitur, And. 266; sentiebat nullius momenti apud

exercitum futurum, Nep. VII, 8, 4.

Temperamentum (tempero) means moderation, moderate condition: senatus

Caesar orationem habuit meditato temperamento, Tac. A. III, 12;

egregium principatus temperamentum, si demptis utriusque vitiis solae

virtutes miscerentur, Tac. H. 2, 5.

Termentum (tero) is used once, in Plautus, where it is equivalent to

detrimentum: non pedibus termento fuit praeut ego erum expugnabo meum,

Bacch. 929. Festus says (p. 363) termentum pro eo, quod nunc dicitur

detrimentum, utitur Plautus in Bacchidibus.

Formamentum may be, and probably is, only an extended form of the noun

stem forma. It is not inconceivable that it is made on the verb stem

formo, but the other supposition is better. In the one occurrence of

it in classical Latin, the context plainly shows that it means shape,

form: omnia principiorum formamenta queunt in quovis esse nitore, Lucr.

2, 817. Arnobius (3, 109) uses it of the gods: formamenta divina.

2. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT.--As was the case in the corresponding

list of concrete words, the foregoing words are all formed on verb

stems which suggest the result of their action. And again there is a

larger class of abstract _-mentum_ words which in a general way express

the figurative instrument. The idea of instrument is not always strong,

but when viewed in regard to their verb stem, all the nouns will be

seen to show this meaning in a greater or less degree.

Allevamentum (allevo) is ἃπαξ λεγόμενον; the context shows it to mean a

remedy or means of alleviation: Sulla coactus est in adversis sine ullo

remedio atque allevamento permanere, Sulla, 66.

Auctoramentum (auctoro) is a means of binding, or of bringing one

under obligation, a contract, also the pay or hire: illius turpissimi

auctoramenti [gladiatorii] sunt verba: uri, vinciri, ferroque necari,

Sen. Ep. 37; est in ipsa merces, auctoramentum servitutis, Off. 1, 42.

Argumentum (arguo) is primarily a means of proving, a proof, but

takes also many other meanings as will be shown in the next chapter:

quid nunc? vincon argumentis te non esse Sosiam?, Am. 433; quod ipsum

argumento mihi fuit diligentiae tuae, Fam. X. 5, 1.

Blandimentum (blandio) is a means of flattering or alluring: illum

spero immutari potest blandimentis, oramentis, ceteris meretriciis,

Truc. 318; epistolae muliebris blandimentis infectae, Tac. H. 1, 174.

Complementum (compleo) is a means of filling up: apud alios numero

servientes inculcata reperias inania quaedam verba, quasi complementa

numerorum, Orat. 69.

Documentum (doceo) is a very general word, meaning primarily a means

of warning or instructing: documento, quantum in bello fortuna posset,

B. C. 3, 10, 6; ego illis captivis aliis documentum dabo ne...., Capt.

752; quarum rerum maxima documenta haec habeo, Sall. Cat. 9. 4.

The strong influence of the verb stem is seen in this noun by the

subordinate adverbial clauses which follow it, as in the first two

examples given. It is interesting also to note the contrast between

documentum and monumentum; their verb stems are practically synonymous,

but one noun is prevailingly concrete, while the other is always

abstract or figurative. Monumentum has an additional shade of meaning,

in that it regularly looks toward the past, while documentum looks

toward the future. The explanation for this is difficult to find;

perhaps it is only the result of usage and association.

Explementum (expleo) is a means of filling: inanimentis explementum

quaerito, Stich. 174. (“Look for something to fill your empty stomach

with.”).

Hostimentum (hostio) is a means of making requital, a recompense: par

pari datum hostimentum est, opera pro pecunia, As. 172.

Incitamentum (incito) is a means of inducing or inciting: hoc maximum

et periculorum et laborum incitamentum est, Arch. 23; quae apud

concordes vincula caritatis, incitamenta irarum apud infensos erant,

Tac. A. 1, 55, 15.

Invitamentum (invito) is the means of inducing or attracting: cum multa

haberet invitamenta urbis et fori propter summa studia amicorum, Sulla,

74.

Irritamentum (irrito) is very similar to the preceding two nouns,

meaning a provocative or incentive: neque salem neque alia irritamenta

gulae quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7; iras militum irritamentis acuebat,

Liv. 40, 27.

Hortamentum (hortor) is probably the exhortation itself as well as

the means of exhorting: ea cuncta Romanis ex tenebris et editioribus

locis facilia visu magnoque hortamento erant, Sall. Jug. 98, 7; in

conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum quae magna etiam absentibus

hortamenta animi sunt, Liv. 7, 11, 6.

Oblectamentum is probably the condition of delight as well as the means

of delighting: ut meae senectutis requietem oblectamentumque noscatis,

C. 15; cum spinae albae cauliculi inter oblectamenta gulae condiantur,

Plin. 21, 2, 39.

Levamentum (levo) is a means of alleviating, also the resulting

condition: nos non solum beatae vitae istam esse oblectationem

videmus, sed etiam levamentum miseriarum, F. 5, 53; ad unicum doloris

levamentum, studia confugio, Plin. Ep. 8, 19.

Opprobramentum (opprobro) is another example of ἃπαξ λεγόμενον but

clearly means, like opprobrium, a disgrace or reproach: facere damni

mavolo quam opprobramentum aut flagitium muliebre exferri domo, Merc.

423.

Praepedimentum (praepedio) occurs only once, and then with a meaning

exactly equivalent to impedimentum: intro abite, ne hic vos conspicatur

leno neu fallaciae praepedimentum obiciatur, Poen. 606.

Turbamentum (turbo) occurs twice, meaning in both cases, a means of

disturbance: maxima turbamenta rei publicae atque exitia probate, Sall.

Lep. 25; inserendo ambiguos de Galba sermones, quaeque alia turbamenta

vulgi, Tac. H. 1, 23.

Firmamentum (firmo) is a means of strengthening, a support:

transversaria tigna iniciuntur, quae firmamento esse possint, B. C. 2,

15, 2. In this instance it is concrete; more often it is abstract: eum

ordinem firmamentum ceterorum ordinum recte esse dicemus, Pomp. 7, 17.

Libramentum (libro) is probably rather the result of the action than

the instrument, at least in the meaning of “level surface” which it

has in its only occurence in Ciceronian Latin: punctum esse, quod

magnitudinem nullam habet, extremitatem et quasi libramentum, in quo

nulla omnino crassitudo sit, Ac. II, 116. In Livy it means “weight”:

arietem admotum, libramento plumbi gravatum, ad terram urgebant, Liv.

42, 63.

3. NOUNS DENOTING ACTION.--There remain a few nouns which clearly

express the action itself. The reason for this does not lie in the

suffix--even in _-tio_ nouns it does not lie in the suffix; but these

nouns, through usage and association, came to have this meaning in

spite of the fact that the tendency of other nouns with the same suffix

was to mean instrument or result of action.

Molimentum (molior) means exertion, effort: neque se exercitum sine

magno commeatu atque molimento in unum locum contrahere posse, B. G. 1,

34, 3.

Experimentum (experior) means a trial, experiment: probatur

experimento, sitne feracius...., Plin. Ep. 10, 43. More often the

result is emphasized and it means proof: hoc maximum est experimentum,

aegritudinem vetustate tolli, T. 3, 74.

Oramentum (oro) is not found in the manuscripts, but is adopted

by Ritschl and Leo, and as we may judge from its context, means

a begging, or praying: spero illum immutari potest blandimentis,

oramentis, ceteris meretriciis, Truc. 317. The Ambrosian manuscript has

hortamentis, the others ornamentis, but neither of these readings is

suitable.

Sternumentum (sternuo) is a sneezing: pedis offensio nobis et

sternumenta erunt observanda, Div. 2, 84. But in Pliny and Celsus it

sometimes also means a provocative of sneezing, sneezing powder: fit ex

callitriche sternumentum, Plin. 25, 86; radix ranunculi sicca concisa

sternumentum est, Plin. 13, 109.

Tinnimentum (tinnio) occurs only once, but from the context it plainly

means a tinkling: illud quidem edepol tinnimentumst auribus, Rud. 806.

D. ABSTRACT -MENTUM WORDS ON NOUN STEMS

Of the two noun stem words in this class of abstract words, cognomentum

is properly not a _-mentum_ word. According to Lindsay (p. 335) the

_-to_ suffix is merely added to the _-men_ suffix. An example is: meum

cognomentum commemorat, M. G. 1038.

Lineamentum (linea) is seen from the following parallel examples to

have the same meaning as its noun stem: in geometria lineamenta,

formae, intervalla, magnitudines sunt, De Or. I, 187; ignis rectis

lineis in caelestem locum subvolat, T. 1, 40; lineamentum esse

longitudinem latitudine carentem, Ac. II, 116; eam M. Varro ita

definit: linea est, inquit, longitudo quaedam sine latidudine et

altitudine, Gell. 1, 20, 7.

This detailed view of the _-mentum_ words gives occasion for making

the following comment: the tendency of these nouns is to mean the

instrument of an action, often the result of an action, rarely action

itself. The verb stems are such as require an instrument for their

action or suggest its result. The instrument is sometimes literal,

sometimes figurative, and whether it is the one or the other is

determined by the context. Given a verb stem which both suggests the

result of action and requires an instrument, it is difficult to explain

why a _-mentum_ noun formed on it should mean only instrument, and not

result of action, or vice versa.

II -BULUM

The list of _-bulum_ words is small, and they are nearly all concrete.

Only two are abstract. As these two denote only figurative instruments,

the treatment here will take no account of the division into concrete

and abstract. There are two noun stem words. Three distinct classes of

these words may be made, when viewed in relation to their verb stems:

(1) Those denoting instrument; (2) Those denoting place; (3) Those

denoting person. The second meaning is quite as common as the first,

the third very rare (found only in two nouns).

1. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT.--Infundibulum (infundo) is an instrument

for pouring from one vessel to another, a funnel: illa quae reflexa

et resupina, more infundibuli per medullam transmittit quidquid

aquarum superfluit, Col. 3, 18; in qua machina impedens infundibulum

subministrat molis frumentum, Vitr. 10, 10.

Patibulum (pateo) is plainly an instrument, but having the _shape_

expressed by the verb stem, a fork-shaped yoke: dispessis manibus

patibulum quom habebis, M. G. 360; caedes, patibula, ignes, cruces

festinabant, Tac. A. 14, 33.

Rutabulum (ruo) is an instrument for raking or stirring up: iubebis

rutabulo ligneo agitari quod decoxeris, Col. 12, 20. It occurs twice in

Cato, in a list of other tools for use around a fire-place.

Tintinnabulum (tinnio) is an instrument for making a ringing noise,

a bell: lanios inde accersam duo cum tintinnabulis, Pseud. 332;

tintinnabula quae vento agitata longe sonitus referant, Plin. 36, 13,

19.

Pabulum (pasco) is that with which anything is fed, usually with

reference to the feed of cattle: bubus pabulum parare oportet, Cato, R.

R. 54, 1.

Venabulum (venor) is a hunting spear, an instrument for hunting: tantam

bestiam percussisset venabulo, Verr. 5, 7.

Exorabulum, which occurs only twice, is perhaps rather the begging

(exoro) itself, which is, in turn, a means of obtaining something:

quod modis pereat, quotque exoretur exorabulis, Truc. 27; exorabula

incidantium, decipula adversantium artificia dicentium perdidicit, App.

Flor. n. 18. The first example is interesting as the noun is used with

a form of the same verb as its verb stem.

Vocabulum (voco) is the instrument for calling or naming, a name:

si res suum nomen et proprium vocabulum non habet, De Or. III, 159;

Aristotelis orationis duas partes esse dixit, vocabula et verba, ut

homo et equus, ut legit et currit, Varr. L. L. 8.

Two interesting analogical formations with the suffix _-bulum_ are

nucifrangibula and dentifrangibula in Plautus: ne nucifrangibula

excussit ex malis meis, Bacc. 598; ita dentifrangibula haec meis

manibus gestiunt, Bacc. 596.

2. NOUNS DENOTING PLACE.--Conciliabulum (concilio) is a place

of assembly[183], a public place, but also the assembly itself:

supplicationem in biduum per omnia fora conciliabulaque edixerunt, Liv.

40, 37; ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset damni conciliabulum, Trin.

314; per conciliabula et coetus seditiosa disserebant, Tac. A. 3, 40.

Latibulum (lateo) is a hiding place: cum etiam ferae latibulis se

tegant, Rab. Post. 42.

Sessibulum is a place for sitting, a chair: quae tibi olant stabulumque

stratumque, sellam et sessibulum merum, Poen. 268.

Stabulum (sto) is in general a place for standing; its precise meanings

as acquired from the context will be illustrated in the next chapter:

neutrubi habeam stabile stabulum, siquid divorti fuat, Aul. 233.

Vestibulum[184], is probably originally the place for putting on and

taking off garments (vestio), then entrance, or space in front of a

house[185]: viden vestibulum ante aedes hoc? Most. 819; si te armati

non modo limine tectoque aedium tuarum, sed primo aditu vestibuloque

prohibuerint, Caec. 12, 35.

Acetabulum and turibulum are both formed on noun stems, and are both

receptacles for holding the material denoted by the noun stem. But all

the examples of acetabulum show the noun extended to mean any kind of

vessel, or a measure: melanthi acetabulum conterito in vini veteris

hemina, Cato, R. R. 102; turibulis ante ianuas positis atque accenso

ture, Liv. 29, 14, 13.

Desidiabulum occurs only once, and from the context clearly means the

place of action of its stem, which is a verbal noun (desidia): ut celem

tua flagitia aut damna aut desidiabula, Bacc. 376.

Cunabula and incunabula are formed on the same noun stem cunae, the

latter with the preposition _in_ prefixed. Both the nouns and the stem

all mean the same thing (cradle, or origin), but incunabula has the

additional meaning of “swaddling clothes”: opus est pulvinis, cunis,

incunabulis, Truc. 905; qui cum esset in cunabulis, Div. F. 79; de

oratoris quasi incunabulis dicere, Orat. 42; si puer in cunis occidit,

ne quaerendum quidem, T. 1, 93; qui non in cunabulis sed in campis sunt

consules facti, Agr. 2, 100.

3. NOUNS DENOTING PERSON.--The two _-bulum_ words that denote persons

are mendicabulum (mendicor) and prostibulum (prostare). Their bad

meaning is due in large part to the stem; but undoubtedly the contempt

underlying the application to a person of a neuter word denoting a

thing is also responsible for the formation of these words as neuters

and with the suffix _-bulum_. Examples of such terms of reproach are

seen also in _monstrum hominis_, and in the German _das Mensch_.

Mendicabulum is found only twice: istos reges ceteros memorare nolo,

hominum mendicabula, Aul. 703; cum crotalis et cymbalis circumforaneum

mendicabulum producor ad viam, App. Met. 9.

Of prostibulum also there are only two examples: bellum et pudicum

vero prostibulum popli, Aul. 285; nam meretricem adstare in via solam

prostibuli sanest, Cist. 331.

The influence of stem meaning on the _-bulum_ words may then be said to

be the same as in the case of the _-mentum_ words, only here there is

a class of verb stems that suggest the place of action, and none that

suggest the result of action.

III -CULUM

A. CONCRETE -CULUM WORDS

The great majority of _-culum_ words[186] also are concrete. They may

be grouped into three classes as far as their verb stems are concerned:

(1) Those denoting instrument; (2) Those denoting place; (3) Those

denoting the object of the action expressed by their verb stems.

1. NOUNS DENOTING INSTRUMENT.--Adminiculum (ad-manus) is properly

anything on which the hand may rest, but the examples show it meaning

regularly a prop, or support, both concretely and figuratively:

adminiculorum ordines me delectant, capitum iugatio, religatio vitium,

C. 53; natura semper ad aliquod tamquam adminiculum adnititur, Lael. 88.

Baculum (etymology very uncertain, but probably same root as seen in

βαίνω) from its verb stem, should mean only a walking stick, but it

is applied to almost any kind of staff or sceptre: proximus lictor

converso baculo oculos misero tundere vehementissime coepit, Verr. 5,

142; baculum aureum regis berylli distinguebant, Curt. 9, 1, 30.

Everriculum (everro) is a sweep net (also used figuratively): neque

everriculo in litus educere possent, Varr. R. R. 3, 17, 7; quod umquam

huiusmodi everriculum ulla in provincia fuit?, Verr. 4, 5, 3.

Ferculum (fero) is that on which anything is carried: spolia ducis

hostium caesi suspensa fabricato ad id apte ferculo gerens in

Capitolium ascendit, Liv. 1, 10, 5; ubi multa de magna superessent

fercula cena, Hor. S. 2, 6, 104.

Gubernaculum (guberno) is an instrument for guiding: piscium meatus

gubernaculi modo regunt caudae, Plin. 11, 50, 111; hic ille naufragus

ad gubernaculum accessit, et navi, quod potuit, est opitulatus, Inv. 2,

154.

Incerniculum (incerno) is an instrument for sifting, a sieve; it occurs

only twice, and it is difficult to see how it differs from another

noun on the same stem, cribrum: opus est incerniculum unum, cribrum

unum, Cato, R. R. 13; Athenienses decretum fecere, ne frumentarii

negotiatores ab incerniculis eum [mulum] arcerent, Plin. 8, 44, 69.

In the latter example the incernicula are the vessels in which bran,

sifted from the flour, was set up for sale.

Operculum (operio) like operimentum is an instrument for covering:

aspera arteria tegitur quodam quasi operculo quod ob eam causam datum

est, ne spiritus impediretur, N. II, 136; operculum in dolium imponito,

Cato, R. R. 104.

Perpendiculum (perpendo) is a plumb line, but is found most frequently

with _ad_ forming an adverbial phrase meaning perpendicularly: non

egeremus perpendiculis, non normis, non regulis, Cic. A. fr. 8; tigna

non directa ad perpendiculum, sed prone et fastigate, B. G. 4, 17.

Piaculum is a means of appeasing, an offering; perhaps also the

appeasing itself; and the act requiring expiation: decrevit habendas

triduum ferias, et porco femina piaculum pati, Leg. 2, 22; nonne in

mentem venit quantum piaculi committatur? Liv. 5, 52; duc nigras

pecudes: ea prima piacula sunto, Aen. 6, 153.

Poculum (probably from root seen in bibo) is a drinking vessel, cup:

Socrates paene in manu iam mortiferum illud tenens poculum, T. 1, 71.

Redimiculum (redimio) is anything used for binding, a band or fillet:

et tunicae manicas, et habent redimicula mitrae, Aen. 9, 616; ut esset

aliquis laqueus et redimiculum, reversionem ut ad me fecerit denuo,

Truc. 395.

Retinaculum (retineo), always used in the plural, is anything which

holds back or binds: ratem pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore

ripae religatam humo iniecta constraverunt, Liv. 21, 28; missae pastum

retinacula mulae nauta piger saxo religat, Hor. S. 1, 5, 18.

Spiraculum (spiro) is a breathing hole: per spiracula mundi exitus

introitusque elementis redditus exstat, Lucr. 6, 493.

Subligaculum (subligo) is a waistband, judging from the context in

which the only example of it occurs: scenicorum quidem mos tantam habet

veteri disciplina verecundiam, ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat

nemo, Off. 1, 35.

Sarculum (sario) is an instrument for hoeing, a hoe: familiam cum

ferreis sarculis exire oportet, Cato, R. R. 155; gaudentem patrios

findere sarculo agros numquam dimoveas, Hor. C. 1, 1, 11.

Vehiculum (vehor) is a means of transportation, a carriage or ship; its

meaning and that of ferculum differ exactly as their stems differ: ut

procul divinum et novum vehiculum Argonautorum e monte conspexit, N.

II, 89; mihi aequum est dare vehicula, qui vehar, Aul. 502.

2. NOUNS DENOTING PLACE.--Cenaculum (ceno) originally was the dining

room.[187] As this was usually in an upper story, the word came to

have the regular meaning of attic or garret, and the force of the stem

meaning was lost: in superiore qui habito cenaculo, Am. 863; ipse

Circenses ex amicorum cenaculis spectabat, Suet. Aug. 45.

Conventiculum (convenio) like conciliabulum, means both the place of

assembly and the assembly itself. As far as the form is concerned, it

might be a diminutive from conventus, but it shows no such meaning:

exstructa sunt apud nemus conventicula, Tac. A. 14, 15; conventicula

hominum quae postea civitates nominatae sunt, Sest. 91.

Cubiculum (cubo) always means a place for reclining, a bedroom: cubui

in eodem lecto tecum una in cubiculo, Am. 808.

Deverticulum (deverto) is a place to turn aside, a by-path, also a

lodging: ubi ad ipsum veni deverticulum, constiti, Eun. 635; cum gladii

abditi ex omnibus locis deverticuli protraherentur, Liv. 1, 51.

Hibernaculum (hiberno) is a place for spending the winter, and,

particularly in the plural, the winter quarters of soldiers: hoc

hibernaculum, hoc gymnasium meorum est, Plin. Ep. 2, 17, 7; legionum

aliae itinere terrestri in hibernacula remissae sunt, Tac. A. 2, 23.

Propugnaculum (propugno) is the place for (means of?) defending,

a bulwark or tower: solidati muri, propugnacula addita, auctae

turres, Tac. H. 2, 19; lex Aelia, et Fufia eversa est, propugnacula

tranquillitatis atque otii, Piso, 9.

Receptaculum (recepto) is a place to receive or keep things, also a

place of refuge: illud tibi oppidum receptaculum praedae fuit, Verr. 5,

59; insula incolis valida et receptaculum perfugarum, Tac. A. 14, 29.

Tabernaculum (taberna), “tent,” has a meaning specialized from its

noun stem: Caesar eo die tabernacula statui passus non est, B. C. 1, 81.

Umbraculum (umbra) means both a shady place and the thing that

furnishes shade: aurea pellebant tepidos umbracula soles, Ov. F. 2,

311; prope aream faciundum umbracula, quo succedant homines in aestu

tempore meridiano, Varro, R. R. 1, 51, 2.

3. NOUNS DENOTING OBJECT OF ACTION.--There is also a small group of

concrete _-culum_ words which are alike in that they denote the object

of the action expressed by their verb stems.

Deridiculum (derideo) is something to laugh at, an object of derision,

(also ridicule itself): deridiculo fuit senex foedissimae adulationis

tantum infamia usurus, Tac. A. 3, 57; quid tu me deridiculi gratia sic

salutas? Am. 682.

Ientaculum (iento) is something to eat, or breakfast: epulas

interdum quadrifariam dispertiebat: in ientacula et prandia et cenas

commissationesque, Suet. Vit. 13.

Miraculum (miror) is something to wonder at, a miracle: audite portenta

et miracula philosophorum somniantium, N. 1, 18; omnia transformat sese

in miracula rerum, Ignemque horribilemque feram, Georg. 4, 441.

Spectaculum is something to look at, a spectacle, show: quom hoc mihi

optulisti tam lepidum spectaculum, Poen. 209.

The verb stems of these four nouns, with the exception of the first,

could conceivably form nouns meaning instrument, or result of action,

or place; but only one of them, spectaculum, has any of these meanings,

and that, of place: tantus est ex omnibus spectaculis usque a Capitolio

plausus excitatus est, Sest. 124.

B. ABSTRACT -CULUM WORDS, ALL DENOTING ACTION

There are four abstract _-culum_ words, all expressing primarily action

itself.

Curriculum (curro) is a running: curre in Piraeum atque unum curriculum

face, Trin. 1103.

Periculum (stem seen in experire) is a trial, attempt, also danger,

risk: fac semel periculum, Cist. 504; nescio quanto in periculo sumus,

Phor. 58.

Saeculum (sero), if this etymology is correct, is originally a sowing,

then the thing sown, a generation, race, period of time: quid mirum si

se temnunt mortalia saecula, Lucr. 5, 1238; et muliebre oritur patrio

de semine saeculum, Lucr. 4, 1227; saeculum spatium annorum centum

vocarunt, Varro, L. L. 6, 2.

Oraculum (oro) is an utterance, usually of some god or prophet,

sometimes the place where it is given: oracula ex eo ipso appellata

sunt, quod inest in his deorum oratio, Top. 20, 77; exposui somnii et

furoris oracula, quae carere arte dixeram, Div. 1, 32, 70; numquam

illud oraculum Delphis tam celebre fuisset nisi...., Div. 1, 19, 37.

With regard, then, to the verb stems of the _-culum_ nouns we may say

that they are such as require an instrument, suggest a place, or imply

the object of their action, while a few form nouns denoting action

itself.

* * * * *

The tendency seen in the above classification must not be taken as a

systematic and conscious process of language for the purpose of making

these suffixes mean one thing more than another. The verb stems do

strongly influence the meaning of the whole noun, usually more than

anything else does, but the variety of precise meanings due to context,

which will be shown in the next chapter, almost precludes a systematic

classification on any basis.

CHAPTER III

INFLUENCE OF CONTEXT

An attempt was made in the preceding chapter to show how the meaning of

words formed with _-mentum_, _-bulum_ and _-culum_ was influenced by

the verb stem. It will be the purpose of this chapter to illustrate how

such general meanings get still greater precision from some element in

the context. This study, as is intimated in the introductory paragraph

of this paper, is a semantic one, but it is not lexicographical; and

no attempt will be made to explain, any farther than was done in the

preceding chapter, such words as show no variation in meaning due to

context. For example, frumentum always means grain, no matter in what

context it stands; iumentum, cattle; testamentum, a will; venabulum, a

hunting spear; cubiculum, a bed-room. The reason is that these words

are neat expressions of a precise idea and their meaning is therefore

less likely to be shifted. This fact also illustrates, in general,

the difference in variation possible in a noun and in an adjective.

The latter, being in so many instances equivalent to a genitive, can,

like the genitive, express a great variety of relations between its

governing noun and its noun stem; while a noun, being a more finished

product, that is, its meaning settling more easily in clear-cut limits,

cannot be expected to show such wide variations. Aside from the

figurative use of the nouns, the most frequent influence of context

comes from a genitive dependent on the noun. The other elements that

enter in will be noticed as each word is discussed, and wherever

possible, the word or group of words which contributes to the meaning

will be italicized.

First, there are a few nouns which are used in apposition with a proper

noun, or are applied to persons. This use is a special illustration of

the figurative meaning of these words: intercessit iste _Ligus_ nescio

qui, additamentum inimicorum meorum, Sest. 68; _Sertia_ uxor, quae

incitamentum mortis et particeps fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; in conspectu

_parentum coniugumque_ ac _liberorum_, quae magna etiam absentibus

hortamenta animi sunt, Liv. 7, 11, 6; acerrima seditionum ac discordiae

incitamenta, _interfectores_ Galbae, Tac. H. 2, 23; Fufidius, ancilla

turpis bonorum omnium dehonestamentum, Sall. Lep. 22; _P. Rutilius_ qui

fuit documentum hominibus nostris virtutis, antiquitatis, prudentiae,

Rab. Post. 27; illius _sum_ integumentum corporis, Bacc. 602; vidi hunc

ipsum _Hortensium_, ornamentum rei publicae, paene interfici, Milo, 37;

_ipsa quae_ sis stabulum nequitiae, Truc. 587; quod umquam huiuscemodi

everriculum [_Verres_] ulla in provincia fuit, Verres, 4, 5, 3; quid,

duo propugnacula belli Punici, _Cn._ et _P. Scipiones_ cogitassene

videntur, P. 12; qui sibi _me_ pro deridiculo et delectamento putat,

Heaut. 952.

These examples show that the suffixes do not imprint on the nouns the

idea of instrument, or any other idea, so strongly that the nouns may

not be applied to human beings as well.

Of those nouns which get precision of meaning from a dependent

genitive, perhaps there is no better example than fragmentum, which,

expressing the result of the action of breaking, may mean a piece

or fragment of any breakable object: tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis

_saeptorum_, Sest. 79; ut glaebum aut fragmentum _lapidis_ dicemus, N.

II, 82; fragmenta _tegularum_, Liv. 34, 89, 11; fragmenta _ramorum_,

Liv. 23, 24, 10; fragmenta _crystalli_ sarciri nullo modo queunt, Plin.

37, 2, 10; fragmenta _panis_, Plin. 9, 8, 8; mille carinis abstulit

Emathiae secum fragmenta _ruinae_ [the remnants of the army], Lucan, 9,

38. The genitives all answer the question, fragments of what?

Another noun of general meaning which gets precision from a genitive

is fundamentum; whether literal or figurative, we want to know, the

foundations of what? and the context tells, though not always merely by

means of a genitive: quin cum fundamento _aedes_ perierunt, Most. 148;

solum et quasi fundamentum _oratoris_ vides, _locutionem emendatam_ et

_Latinam_, Brut. 258; fundamenta _rei publicae_ ieci, Fam. XII, 25,

2; fundamenta ieci _salutis_ tuae, Fam. X, 29, 1; _arcem_ Syracusis

a fundamentis disiecit, Nepos, XX, 3, 3; hic locus sicut aliquod

fundamentum est huius _constitutionis_, Inv. II, 19; qui a fundamentis

mi usque movisti _mare_, Rud. 539; prima fundamenta _urbi_ iacere, Liv.

1, 12, 4; alta fundamenta _theatri_ locare, Aen. 1, 428; fundamenta

altae _Carthaginis_ locare, Aen. 4, 266; _urbs_ a fundamentis diruta,

Liv. 42, 63, 11; fodere fundamenta _delubro_, Plin. 28, 2, 4; _pietas_

fundamentum est omnium _virtutum_, Planc. 29; fundamentum _iustitiae_

est fides, Off. 1, 7, 23; narratio est fundamentum _constituendae

fidei_, Part. 9, 31; fundamentum _eloquentiae_, De Or. 3, 151;

fundamentum _philosophiae_, Div. 2, 1, 2; initium ac fundamentum

_defensionis_, Clu. 10, 30; quod fundamentum huius _quaestionis_ est,

id videtis, N. I, 44; fundamentum horum _criminum_, Cael. 13, 30;

disciplina nixa fundamento _veritatis_, Gell. 14, 1, 20; fundamentum et

causa _imperii_, Sen. Ep. 87, 41; fundamenta _libertatis_, Balb. 13,

31; fundamentum _consulatus_ tui, Pis. 4, 9; senectus quae fundamentis

_adolescentiae_ constituta est, C. 18, 62; fundamenta _pacis_ ieci,

Phil. 1, 1, 1; fundamentum _domus novae_ iacere, Suet. Cal. 22; _villa_

a fundamentis inchoata, Suet. Caes. 46.

Incitamentum is nearly always followed by a genitive or a gerundive

construction expressing the object toward which a thing or circumstance

is an inducement. The noun is used most frequently in Tacitus: hoc

maximum et _periculorum_ incitamentum est et _laborum_, Arch. 23; uxor,

quae incitamentum _mortis_ fuit, Tac. A. 6, 29; incitamenta _irarum_,

Tac. A. 1, 55; incitamenta _victoriae_, Tac. Agr. 32; incitamentum

_ad_ honeste _moriendum_, Curt. 9, 5, 4; incitamentum _fortitudinis_,

Tac. G. 7, 9; incitamentum _cupidinis_, Tac. A. 6, 1, 10; incitamenta

_belli_, Tac. A. 12, 34, 2; est magna illa eloquentia alumna licentiae,

comes seditionum, _effrenati populi_ incitamentum, Tac. D. 40, 11. In

the last example the genitive is a real objective genitive, while the

participle limiting it expresses the result of incitement expressed by

the genitives in the other examples.

Like incitamentum, invitamentum and irritamentum usually get precision

of meaning from a genitive: invitamenta _urbis_ et _fori_, Sulla, 74;

honos, non invitamentum _ad tempus_, sed perpetuae virtutis praemium,

Fam. X, 10, 2; invitamenta _temeritatis_, Liv. 2, 42, 6; invitamentum

_sceleris_, Vell. 2, 67, 3; pulchritudinem eius non _libidinis_

habuerat invitamentum, sed _gloriae_, Curt. 4, 10, 24; fons reperiendus

est, in quo sint prima invitamenta _naturae_, Fin. 5, 6; neque

irritamenta _gulae_ quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7; quod irritamentum

_certaminum_ equestrium est, Liv. 30, 11; _opes_, irritamenta

_malorum_, Ov. M. 1, 140; irritamenta _luxuriae_, Val. Max. 2, 6, 1;

irritamentum _invidiae_, Tac. A. 3, 9; irritamentum _pacis_, Tac. Agr.

20.

Tegumentum and integumentum have only their general meaning of “cover”

which they get from their verb stem, unless something in the context

tells what it is a covering for: _lanx_ cum integumentis, quae Iovi

adposita fuit, Liv. 40, 59, 7; illius sum integumentum _corporis_,

Bacc. 602; istaec ego mihi semper habui integumentum meae, Trin. 313;

integumentum _frontis_, Cic. post Red. in Sen. 7, 15; integumentum

_flagitiorum_, Cael. 20, 47; integumentum _dissimulationis_, De Or. 2,

86; tegumenta _galeis_ milites ex viminibus facere iubet, B. C. 3, 62,

1; ad tegumenta detrahenda _scutis_ tempus defuerit, B. G. 2, 21, 5;

quae [_palpebrae_] sunt tegmenta _oculorum_, N. II, 142; _tunicos_ aut

tegimenta fuerant, B. G. 3, 44, 7; _humus_ satis solidum est tegimentum

_repellendis caloribus_, Sen. Ep. 90; _equo_ purpurea tegumenta dedit,

Suet. Cal. 55.

Documentum has the meaning of “example”, particularly when there

is a limiting genitive: Rutilius qui documentum fuit _virtutis_,

_antiquitatis_, _prudentiae_, Rab. Post. 10, 27. The common occurrence

of the word with verbs like dare, together with an indirect question,

shows it to mean proof: _dederas_ enim, quam contemneres populares

insanias, iam ab adolescentia documenta maxima, Mil. 8; multa documenta

egregii principis _dedit_, Suet. Galb. 14. With capere the natural

meaning is “warning” or “instruction”: ex quo documentum nos _capere_

fortuna voluit, quid esset victis pertimescendum, Phil. 11, 2. This

meaning is also very commonly seen in the use of the dative case to

express purpose, followed by a supplementary clause of purpose. The

noun need not be in the dative, however: insigne documentum Sagunti

ruinae erunt _ne_ quis fidei Romanae aut societati confidat, Liv.

21, 19, 10; deletum cum duce exercitum documento fuisse, _ne_ deinde

turbato gentium iure comitia haberentur, Liv. 7, 6, 11.

Monumentum is quite as general in meaning as documentum, and shows

as great variety of meaning. It is applied to a whip: vos monumentis

commonefaciam _bubulis_, Stich. 63; a statue: _statuam_ volt dare,

factis monumentum suis, Curc. 441; a literary record: monumenta

_rerum gestarum_ oratori nota esse debent, De Or. I, 201; an action

or circumstance: cum Sex. Pompeium _restituit_ civitati, clarissimum

monimentum _clementiae_ suae, Phil. 5, 39; a tomb: _sepultus est_ in

monumento avunculi sui, Nepos, Att. 22, 4. Sometimes the word gets

precision of meaning from an appositional genitive: hoc _statuae_

monumento non eget, Phil. 9, 11; ut tu monumentum aliquod _decreti_

aut _litterarum_ tuarum relinquas, Q. fr. I, 2, 11; _sepulcri_

monumento donatus est, Nep. Dion. 10. Sometimes it is used without any

suggestion of a concrete object (cf. also the third example above):

nullum monumentum _laudis_ postulo praeterquam huius diei memoriam

sempiternam, Cat. 3, 11, 26.

Argumentum (always abstract) has the very frequent general meaning of

proof, reason, argument: quid nunc? _vincon_ argumentis te non esse

Sosiam?, Am. 437; nunc, huc _qua causa_ veni, argumentum eloquar, Rud.

31; _quod_ pridie noctu conclamatum esset in Caesaris castris argumenti

sumebant loco non posse clam exiri B. C. 1, 67, 1. A common meaning

in comedy is plot, or theme of a play (our “argument” of an epic or a

drama): ne exspectetis argumentum _fabulae_, Adel. 22. Then it comes

to mean the subject matter of a speech or letter: ut mihi nascatur

_epistulae_ argumentum, Fam. XV, 1, 22, 2; a sign or indication: ubi

lyrae, tibia et cantus, _animi_ felicia _laeti_ argumenta, sonant,

Ov. M. 4, 762; reality or meaning: haec tota _fabella_ quam est sine

argumento, Cael. 27; the subject of artistic representations: ex

_ebore_ perfecta argumenta erant in _valvis_, Verr. II, 4, 56. Twice

in Ciceronian Latin this word is defined in two of the ways mentioned:

argumentum est ficta res quae tamen fieri potuit, velut argumentum

comoediarum, Ad Her. 1, 8; argumentum esse rationem quae rei dubiae

faciat fidem, Top. 8.

Experimentum, when followed by indirect discourse, as in the following

example, must mean the result of trial; _viz._, “proof”: hoc maximum

est experimentum _hanc vim esse_ in cogitatione diuturna, T. 4, 56.

In the plural, being the accumulation of a number of trials, it is

equivalent to experientia, (experience): Metello experimentis _cognitum

erat_, genus Numidarum infidum esse, Sall. Jug. 46, 3.

Firmamentum often gets precise meaning from a limiting genitive, which

is also sometimes appositional: ossa nervique et articuli, firmamenta

_totius corporis_, Sen. De Ira, 2, 1, 2; firmamenta _stabilitatis

constantiaeque_ est eius quam in amicitia quaerimus fides, Lael. 65;

eum _ordinem_ firmamentum ceterorum _ordinum_ recte esse dicimus, Pomp.

17; transversaria _tigna_ iniciuntur, quae firmamento esse possint, B.

G. 2, 15, 2; firmamentum ac robur totius _accusationis_, Mur. 28, 58;

firmamentum _rei publicae_, Planc. 9, 23; firmamentum _dignitatis_, T.

4, 7; inventa ratione firmamentum [_orationi_] quaerendum est, Inv. I,

34.

Instrumentum is a word which has the most general meaning, and really

receives less influence from its verb stem than from the context. Even

when there is a qualifying genitive or other limiting factor it retains

more or less of its general character. Probably its most definite

meaning is that of furniture (of a house): decora atque ornamentum

fanorum in instrumento ac _supellectili_ C. Verris nominabuntur, Verr.

2, 4, 44; instrumenti ne magni siet (of a _villa_), Cato, R. R. I. 5.

A common meaning is that of a tool, or utensil of any kind: inest huic

computationi sumptus fabrorum et _venatorii_ instrumenti, Plin. 3,

19; crudelia iussae instrumenta necis, _ferrumque ignisque_ parantur,

Ov. M. 3, 697; _arma_, _tela_, _equos_ et cetera instrumenta militiae

parare, Sall. Jug. 43, 3; naves _nautico_ instrumento aptae, Liv. 30,

10, 3. The following example shows it meaning a legal document: opus

est intueri omne _litis_ instrumentum; quod videre non est satis,

_perlegendum_ est, Quint. 12, 8, 12. The meaning of supply, provisions

(both literal and figurative) is illustrated by the following

examples: quid _viatici_, quid instrumenti satis sit, Att. XII, 32, 2;

instrumenta _naturae_ deerant, sed tantus animi splendor erat ut..,

Brut. 77, 268; in _oratoris_ vero instrumento tam lautam supellectilem

numquam videram, De Or. I, 36, 165. In one instance it plainly means

apparel, dress: in iuvenem rediit, _anilia_ demit instrumenta, Ov. M.

14, 766. The meaning of aid or assistance is seen in these citations:

quanta instrumenta habeat _ad obtinendam_ adipiscendamque sapientiam,

Leg. 1, 22; industriae _subsidia_ atque instrumenta virtutis in

libidine audaciaque consumpsit, Cat. 2, 5.

Ornamentum is very similar in meaning to instrumentum, and shows

similar variety of signification due to context, although the verb

stem is a little more specialized. The number of things which may be

spoken of as having ornamenta are seen from the examples: ornamenta

_bubus_, ornamenta _asinis_ instrata (esse oporteat), Cato, R. R. 11,

4; _elephantos_ ornatos armatosque cum turribus et ornamentis capit,

Auct. B. Afr. 86; _pecuniam_ omniaque ornamenta ex _fano_ Herculis

in oppidum Gadis contulit, B. C. 2, 18, 2; _eloquentia_ principibus

maximo ornamento est, F. 4, 61; pecuniam et ornamenta _triumphi_

Caesaris retinenda curaret, Auct. B. Afr. 28, 2; audieram quae de

_orationis_ ipsius ornamentis traderentur, De Or. I, 144; pulcherrima

totius Galliae _urbs_, quae praesidio et ornamento est _civitati_,

B. G. 7, 15; mihi hoc subsidium comparavi ad decus atque ornamentum

_senectutis_, Orat. 1, 45; Hortensius, lumen atque ornamentum _rei

publicae_, Mil. 14; _urceoli_ sex, ornamentum _abaci_, Juv. 3, 203;

neminem omnium tot et tanta, quanta sunt in Crasso, habuisse ornamenta

_dicendi_, Orat. 2, 28. Sometimes adjectives show the ornamenta to

be a special sort of distinction: pluribus _triumphalia_ ornamenta

decernenda curavit, Suet. Aug. 38; decem praetoriis viris _consularia_

ornamenta tribuit, Suet. Caes. 76. In comedy especially it means dress,

costume: ipse ornamenta a _chorago_ haec sumpsit: si potero ornamentis

_hominem circumducere_, dabo operam ut...., Trin. 859, 860; hominem

cum ornamentis omnibus _exornatum_ adducite ad me, Pseud. 756; also

trinkets: i, Palaestrio, _aurum_, ornamenta, _vestem_, omnia duc, M.

G. 1302; in one instance, the dress of tragedy: ornamenta absunt:

_Aiacem_, hunc quom vides ipsum vides, Capt. 615.

Stramentum is applied to a number of things which can be conceived

of as being strewn or covered with straw, but is also sometimes used

absolutely: _fasces_ stramentorum _virgultorumque_ incenderunt, B. G.

8, 15, 5; iubet magnum numerum _mulorum_ produci deque his stramenta

detrahi, B. G. 7, 45; cum ea noctem in stramentis _pernoctare_ (a

bed), Truc. 278; stramenta si deerunt, _frondem ligneam_ legito: eam

substernito _ovibus bubusque_, Cato, R. R. 5. There are two examples in

which it means the roof of a house, or thatch: _casae_, quae stramentis

_tectae erant_, B. G. 5, 43; pars ignes _casis_ stramento arido

_tectis_ iniciunt, Liv. 25, 39.

Tormentum, an instrument with which anything is turned or twisted, is

applied especially to a military engine for hurling missiles: aciem

eo loco constituit, unde tormento _missa tela_ in hostium cuneos

conici possent, B. G. 8, 14, 5; the missile itself: quod unum genus

tegumenti nullo _telo_ neque tormento _transici_ posse, B. C. 2, 9; a

(twisted) cord or rope: praesectis omnium mulierum _crinibus_ tormenta

_effecerunt_, B. C. 3, 9, 3; a chain or fetter: nam si non ferat,

tormento non _retineri_ potuit _ferreo_, Curc. 227; an instrument

of torture: _rotam_, id est genus quoddam tormenti apud Graecos, T.

5, 24; tum _verberibus_ ac tormentis quaestionem habuit pecuniae

publicae, Phil. 11, 2, 5; torture, pain: cum incredibles _cruciatus_ et

indignissima tormenta pateretur, Plin. Ep. 1, 12, 6; hinc licebit tum

dicere se beatum in summo _cruciatu_ atque tormentis, T. 5, 73.

Vestimentum, in addition to having its common meaning of clothing: me

vides ut sim vestimentis _uvidis_, Rud. 573; is once applied to the

covering of a bed: huc est intro latus _lectus_, vestimentis stratus,

Heaut. 903.

From the above examples it will be clear that at least some _-mentum_

words get precision of meaning from the context. The different means

by which the context exerts influence would be difficult to classify;

still less could one assert that _-mentum_ tends to have any meaning.

Perhaps we should not speak of a word varying semantically when it

is used figuratively, yet it is only from the context that we can

ascertain whether it is used figuratively or not. A word can be used in

a figurative sense only when, in one context, it has certain elements

identical with those which it has in another context. The more definite

and concrete the object expressed by a noun, the less variability will

be expected, either in a literal or figurative use. This is true of the

_-bulum_ and _-culum_ words, which, while admitting a small range of

variation, are much more limited in their variation than the _-mentum_

words were found to be. The best examples will be given below.

Conciliabulum is a place of assembly and is expressly so defined by

Festus (cf. Chapter II, p. 25): mulieres _ex oppidis_ conciliabulisque

conveniebant, Liv. 34, 1, 6; sacerdotes non Romae modo, sed per omnia

_fora_ et conciliabula conquiri, Liv. 39, 14, 7. The following example,

however, shows that it may also mean the assembly itself: igitur per

conciliabula et _coetus_ seditiosa disserebant, Tac. A. 3, 40. In a few

instances it takes on a bad meaning: ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset

_damni_ conciliabulum, Trin. 314; forte aut cena, ut solet in _istis_

fieri conciliabulis, Bacc. 80.

Latibulum is seen to be a hiding place for different animals and even

of men, and also a refuge (figurative): cum etiam se _ferae_ latibulis

tegant, Rab. Post. 42; repente te tamquam _serpens_ a latibulis

intulisti, Vatin. 4; defendendi facilis est cautio non solum latibulis

occultorum _locorum_, sed etiam tempestatum moderatione et conversione

(of pirates), Flacc. 13, 31; ego autem volo aliquod emere latibulum et

perfugium _doloris_ mei, Att. XII, 13, 2.

Pabulum is used not only of food for animals but also, in poetry,

of food for men, and sometimes for the pastures, or feeding places.

Its figurative meaning is also quite common: _bubus_ pabulum parare

oportet, Cato, R. R. 54, 1; pabula carpsit _ovis_, Ov. F. 4, 750; ferae

_pecudes persultant_ pabula laeta, Lucr. 1, 14; novitas mundi pabula

dura tulit, miseris _mortalibus_ ampla, Lucr. 5, 944; si animus habet

aliquod tamquam pabulum _studii_ atque _doctrinae_, C. 49; sed fugitare

decet simulacra et pabula _amoris_, Lucr. 4, 1063.

Stabulum has its literal and general meaning of standing-place in

only two examples: neutrubi _habeam stabile_ stabulum, siquid divorti

fuat, Aul. 233; nusquam stabulum _confidentiae_, Most. 350. Most

frequently it means a stable for animals or lair of wild beasts: neque

iam stabulis gaudet _pecus_ aut arator igni, Hor. C. 1, 4, 3; itur in

antiquam silvam, stabula alta _ferarum_, Aen. 6, 179. The agricultural

writers use it in speaking of a variety of animals, birds and fishes:

_pecudibus_ sient stabula, Col. 1, 6, 4; _avium_ cohortalium stabula

(an aviary), Col. 8, 1; ut sit _pavonum_ stabulum, Col. 8, 11, 3; hac

ratione stabulis ordinatis _aquatile pecus_ inducemus, Col. 8, 17,

7; absint et picti squalentia terga lacerti pinguibus a stabulis (of

bees), Georg. 4, 14. It also means a cottage, a hut, a dwelling like a

stable: cum Catilina _pastorum_ stabula praedari coepisset, Sest. 12;

pueros ab eo ad stabula _Larentiae uxori_ educandos datos, Liv. 1, 4,

7. A number of times the context shows it applied to a house of ill

fame: pistorum _amicas_, quae tibi olant stabulum stratumque, Poen.

267. Twice it is applied to persons as a term of reproach: _ipsa quae_

sis stabulum flagitii, Truc. 587; faciam uti proinde ut est dignus

vitam colat, Acheruntis pabulum, stabulum _nequitiae_, Cas. 160. In the

last example pabulum is also used with an emotional tone.

Vocabulum is a name or appellation, the name of the thing itself

being expressed, if at all, in the genitive, or in the nominative

with vocabulum in the ablative: si res suum _nomen_ et proprium

vocabulum non habet, De Or. III, 159; deligitur artifex talium vocabulo

_Locusta_, Tac. A. 12, 66. It also signifies as a grammatical term,

a noun, as opposed to a verb: Aristotelis orationis duas partes esse

dicit, vocabula et _verba_, ut homo et equus, et legis et currit,

Varro, L. L. 8.

Conventiculum regularly means an assembly (without any diminutive

notion): conventicula _hominum_ quae postea _civitates_ nominatae sunt,

Sest. 91; but it may also mean the place of assembly: _exstructa_ sunt

apud nemus conventicula, Tac. A. 14, 15.

Oraculum may mean a prophetic declaration by gods, or by men: cum

praesertim _deorum immortalium_ iussis atque oraculis id fecisse

dicantur, Sex. Rosc. 66; haec ego nunc _physicorum_ oracula fundo, vera

an falsa nescio, N. 1, 66. Also the place where oracular responses were

given: numquam illud oraculum _Delphis_ tam celebre fuisset nisi....,

Div. I, 19, 37.

Periculum, in the sense of trial, is always the object of the verb

facere: _fac_ semel periculum, Cist. 504; priusquam periculum

_faceret_, B. G. 4, 21. Its change to the meaning of danger must have

been by some such step as is seen in the following example, although

periculum facere, “make a trial,” is also practically the same as

“run a risk”: nescio quanto in periculo _sumus_, Phor. 58. The common

meaning of risk or danger hardly needs to be illustrated: salus

sociorum summum _in_ periculum _vocatur_, Pomp. 5, 12. The context

shows it to have also two other meanings; _viz._, a lawsuit: meus

labor in periculis _privatorum_ caste integreque _versatus_, Pomp. 1,

2; a judicial sentence: petiit ut _in_ periculo suo _inscriberent_,

Nep. Ep. 8; est honestus, quod eorum hominum fidei _tabulae publicae_

periculaque _magistratuum_ committuntur, Verr. 2, 3, 79.

Piaculum is properly an offering performed as a means of appeasing a

deity: porco femina piaculum _faciundum_ est, Leg. II, 57; apparet

omnia nec ullis piaculis _expiari_ posse, Liv. 5, 53; and then

naturally it is applied to the victim itself: duc _nigras pecudes_:

ea prima piacula sunto, Aen. 6, 153; then also a sinful action, which

needs expiation: nonne in mentem venit, quantum piaculi _committatur_?,

Liv. 5, 52.

Spectaculum is properly a “sight”, anything seen: quom hoc mihi

_optulisti_ tam lepidum spectaculum, Poen. 209; then a show, on

the stage or in the arena: spectacula sunt tributim _data_, Muren.

72. Once in Plautus it clearly means a part of the theater itself:

exoritur ventus turbo, spectacula ibi _ruont_, Curc. 647; that it means

also the theater in general is seen from a few examples: _resonant_

spectacula plausu, Ov. M. 10, 668; _ex_ omnibus spectaculis _plausus

est excitatus_, Sest. 58.

Umbraculum is a shady place: faciundum umbracula, _quo succedant_

homines in aestu tempore meridiano, Varro, R. R. I, 51; also anything

that furnishes shade, an umbrella: aurea _pellebant_ tepidos umbracula

_soles_, Ov. F. II, 311. The limiting genitive in the following example

shows the noun to have lost its regular stem-meaning and to have been

used for “school”: Demetrius mirabiliter doctrinam ex umbraculis

_eruditorum_ otioque produxit, Leg. III, 14.

Vehiculum, a means of transportation, is applied to wagons or carts:

omnes di, qui vehiculis _tensarum_ solemnes coitus ludorum initis,

Verr. 5, 186; but also to ships: ut procul divinum et novum vehiculum

_Argonautarum_ e monte conspexit, N. II, 89.

* * * * *

That the words which we have treated vary in meaning according to

the context seems perfectly obvious; but the extent to which this is

true in general has received little if any attention from linguistic

students. The tracing of the meaning of a word through various

periods of the language has been commonly enough done; that side of

the question, however, this investigation has not touched except

incidentally. But the material presented in this chapter and the

preceding has, it is hoped, been sufficient to illustrate how the words

formed with our suffixes, while revealing a limited tendency in meaning

due to their verb stems, often also owe much of their meaning to the

context in which they are used.

CHAPTER IV

OVERLAPPING OF SUFFIXES

However great a tendency the suffixes under investigation have toward

giving to the nouns a certain meaning, the variations of which they

are capable,--due, as has been shown, to stem and context,--strongly

suggest that there can be nothing very stable in the suffix itself. If

there really were a fundamental meaning in the suffixes, there would be

no such variation as we find.

But a consideration which points even more to the comparatively fluid

condition of these suffixes is the fact that we find other words,

formed on the same stem, but with a different suffix, meaning precisely

the same as the nouns made with these suffixes. Here again, the

meanings are derived from an examination of the context. Sometimes the

contexts are exactly parallel, at other times there is a sufficiently

large element common to both to warrant us in saying that the nouns do

not, at least in these particular instances, differ in meaning.

The fact that some of these parallel words occur at different periods

in the language does not weaken the argument, as the mere occurrence

of them shows the unstable influence of the suffix; and, moreover, we

need not suppose because one word is not found at a certain period

while another on the same stem with a different suffix is found, that

the first word was not in existence. It is just as reasonable to assume

that the preservation of one word and not the other is due merely

to common usage or the personal preference of the author. Metrical

considerations might exclude the use of a certain word in poetry, but

the instances are very rare, and will be noted in the proper place.

The most common suffix which makes accessory forms with _-mentum_ is

_-men_. Most authorities regard _-mentum_ as an extension of _-men_ by

the addition of _-to_. Whether this is true or not, there _are_ many

_-mentum_ words that have no accessory forms in _-men_, and a large

number of _-men_ words that have no accessory forms in _-mentum_.

Corssen (_Krit. Nach._ p. 125 ff.) gives fifty-one _-men_ words

from old, classical, and later Latin to which there are no forms in

_-mentum_, fifty-two _-mentum_ words from the same periods to which

there are no forms in _-men_; twenty-five words with both forms in

any one period. He also gives a table showing how the words in the

older and classical language preferred the form _-men_ while in later

Latin the same words preferred the form _-mentum_. He says the suffix

_-mentum_ is only the the extension, on Latin soil, of the suffix

_-men_ (Sanskrit, _-man_) with _-to_; and this explains why in later

Latin the forms in _-mentum_ become more frequent, also why they are

not found in other Italic dialects, nor in the Greek and other related

languages.

Lindsay says (p. 335) that the suffix _-men_ is found more often in

poetry, while _-mentum_ predominates in prose.

Etymologically, the suffixes _-bulum_ and _-culum_ go back to original

_-dhlo_ and _-tlo_ respectively (Lindsay pp. 334 and 332).

A study of the other suffixes which make accessory forms to these words

would probably yield results similar to those seen in the case of our

suffixes; but all that will be attempted here will be to show parallels

wherever possible. Italics will be used here, also, to show what

elements in the context go to prove the equivalence in semantic content

of the nouns under discussion.

A. PARALLELS OF -MENTUM AND ACCESSORY SUFFIXES

One of the neatest examples of identity in meaning is the following

exactly parallel usage of stramen and stramentum: _tectam_ stramine

vidit _casam_, Ov. M. 5, 443; _casae_, quae stramentis _tectae_ erant,

B. G. 5, 43.

From the use of a genitive denoting a concrete object, fragmentum and

fragmen are seen to be identical in meaning in the following examples:

adiacebant fragmina _telorum_ equorumque artus, Tac. A. 1, 61; tribunum

adoriuntur fragmentis _saeptorum_, Sest. 79.

The genitives depending on irritamen and irritamentum in the following

examples are not exactly alike, one being concrete and the other

abstract; but they are near enough in meaning, and the nouns themselves

are used in sufficiently similar contexts to justify us in saying that

either one might have been used in place of the other: nisi adiecisset

opes, irritamen _animi_ avari, Ov. M. 13, 434; neque salem neque alia

irritamenta _gulae_ quaerebant, Sall. Jug. 89, 7.

Levamen and levamentum are used in parallel examples: cuius _mali_

(debt) plebes nullum levamen speraret, Liv. 6, 35, 1; non aliud

_malorum_ levamentum quam si linquerent castra, Tac. H. 1, 30, 9.

The verbs used with medicamen and medicamentum show a lack of

differentiation between these nouns: quod diceres te violentis

quibusdam medicaminibus solere _curari_, Pis. 6, 13; si eo medicamento

_sanus factus_ esset, Off. 3, 92.

The verbs with molimen and molimentum in the following examples are

very similar, and there is the same adjective modifying each noun:

temptat _revellere_ annosam pinum _magno_ molimine, Ov. M. 12, 357;

neque exercitum sine _magno_ commeatu atque molimento in unum locum

_contrahere_ posse, B. G. I, 34, 3.

Identity of verbs and the case of momen and momentum show there

is no difference in their meaning: momine uti _parvo_ possint

_impulsa_ moveri, Lucr. 3, 188; animus _paulo_ momento huc vel illuc

_impellitur_, And. 266.

Parallel instances of blanditia and blandimenta are seen in these

examples: haec _meretrix_ meum erum sua blanditia intulit in pauperiem,

Truc. 572; illum spero immutari potest blandimentis, oramentis,

ceteris _meretriciis_, Truc. 318; _benevolentiam_ civium blanditiis

et adsentando _colligere_ turpe est, Lael. 61; Lepida blandimentis ac

largitionibus iuvenilem _animum devinciebat_, Tac. H. 13, 13.

Adiutorium is a rare word, but in the following examples it is seen to

have the same general meaning as adiumentum, “help”: sine adiutorio

_ignis_ nihil calidum est, Sen. Ep. 31; neque apud homines res est ulla

difficilior neque quae plura adiumenta _doctrinae_ desideret, De Or.

III, 84.

Experimentum in the plural naturally means the same as experientia

(experience), but in the singular also they both mean a trial or

attempt, or the result of trial, proof: debemus _temptare_ experientia

quaedam, sequentes non aleam, sed rationem aliquam, Varro, R. R. 1, 18,

8; hoc est maximum experimentum, _hanc vim_ esse non in die positam

sed in cogitatione diuturna, T. 3, 74. With the meaning of experience:

Agrippa non _aetate_ neque _rerum_ experientia tantae moli par, Tac.

A. 1, 4; Metello experimentis _cognitum erat_, genus Numidarum infidum

esse, Sall. Jug. 40, 3.

Firmamen and firmamentum might be interchanged, in both their

figurative and literal meanings: ruptosque obliqua per ungues

porrigitur _radix_, longi firmamina _trunci_, Ov. M. 10, 491; _ossa

nervique_, firmamenta totius _corporis_, Sen. De Ira, 2, 1, 2. Both the

dependent genitives above express concrete objects; in the following

they express abstract objects: unicum lapsae _domus_ firmamen, unum

lumen afflicto malis temet reserva, Sen. Herc. Fur. 1251; sic ille

annus duo firmamenta _rei publicae_ per me unum constituta evertit,

Att. I, 18, 3.

Documen occurs only once, but its context shows it to be equivalent in

meaning to documentum, which is used in strikingly similar contexts:

flammas ut fulguris halent pectore perfixo, documen _mortalibus acre_,

Lucr. 6, 391; ut sint reliquis documento et magnitudine _poenae

perterreant_ alios, B. G. 7, 4, 10.

Words with the suffix _-tio_ we naturally think of as verbals, or

nomina actionis, but in the following examples the context makes it

fairly certain that they mean the same as their corresponding _-mentum_

nouns.

Formamenta is found only twice: omnia _principiorum_ formamenta queunt

in quovis esse nitore, Lucr. 2, 819; si vos fateremini id quod vestra

suspicio credidisset formamentis _divinis_ attribuisse, minus erat

iniuriae praesumpta in opinatione peccasse, Arn. 3, 16. In the first

example, formamenta is used closely following formae and must mean

the same thing, the “shapes” of the atoms; in the second example the

adjective “divinis” indicates a similar meaning for formamentum; in

the following example Vitruvius is giving directions concerning the

building of a forum: ita enim erit _oblonga_ eius [_forum_] formatio

et ad spectaculorum rationem utilis dispositio, Vitr. 5, 1. While

the directions for the future building might lead us to believe that

the word has a predominant verbal force, yet it is just as possible

to conceive of it as expressing the result of the process; and this

interpretation is even more probable, as the adjective oblonga would

properly not be applied to a purely verbal noun.

The verb fodior shows the identity in meaning between fundatio and

fundamenta in the following instances: cum _fodientes_ delubro

fundamenta caput humanum invenissent, Plin. 28, 2, 4; fundationes

eorum operum _fodiantur_, Vitr. 3, 3. Res Romana and libertas are

near enough alike to show that fundamen and fundamentum have the same

general meaning in these instances: fundamine magno _res Romana_ valet,

Ov. M. 4, 808; haec sunt fundamenta firmissima nostrae _libertatis_,

Balb. 13.

The contexts of hortamen and hortamentum in the two following examples

are near enough alike to warrant our saying that the nouns might be

interchanged: Decii eventus, ingens hortamen _ad_ omnia pro re publicia

_audenda_, Liv. 10, 29, 5; in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac

liberorum quae magna etiam _absentibus_ hortamenta _animi_ sunt, Liv.

7, 11, 6.

There is undoubtedly no more verbal force in the following example of

allevatio than in the example of allevamentum, (which is the only one

extant): _tantis rebus_ urgemur, _nullam_ ut allevationem quisquam non

stultissimus sperare debeat, Fam. IX, 1; Sulla coactus est in _adversis

fortunis sine ullo_ remedio atque allevamento permanere, Sulla, 66.

Besides alimentum there are two other nouns, formed on the verb alo,

alimonium and alimonia, which also mean support or nourishment, as seen

from these parallel examples: plus alimenti in _pane_ quam in ullo

alio est, Cels. 2, 18; quid temperatus ab alimonio _panis_, cui rei

dedistis nomen castus?, Arn. 5, 16; amisso omni _naturalis_ alimoniae

fundamento, homo _exhaustus intereat_, Gell. 17, 15, 5.

Although _-tus_ is also usually considered as forming nomina actionis,

the example of cruciatus clearly is parallel with that of cruciamentum:

_confectus_ iam cruciatu maximorum _dolorum_, ne id quidem scribere

possim, quod...., Att. XI. 11, 1; nec _graviora_ sunt tormenta

carnificum, quam interdum cruciamenta _morborum_, Phil. 11, 4.

Calceamentum, “shoe” or covering for the feet, has two accessory forms,

calceamen and calceatus, which are synonymous with it (the former being

found only in Pliny): mihi est calciamentum _solorum callum_, amictui

Scythicum tegimen, T. 5, 90; _vestitu_ calceatuque et cetero habitu

neque patrio neque civili usus est, Suet. Calig. 52; hinc [_sparto_]

strata rusticis eorum, hinc ignes facesque, hinc calceamina et pastorum

_vestis_, Plin. 19, 2, 7.

The use of _ad_ and a gerund after both invitatio and invitamenta

indicate their lack of difference in meaning in these two instances: ad

eundem fontem revertendum est, _aegritudinem omnem abesse_ a sapiente,

quod inanis sit, quod frustra suscipiatur, quod non natura exoriatur,

sed iudicio, sed opinione sed quadam invitatione _ad dolendum_, cum id

decreverimus ita fieri oportere, T. 3, 82; quocirca intellegi necesse

est in ipsis rebus, quae discuntur et cognoscuntur, invitamenta inesse,

quibus _ad discendum_ cognoscendumque moveamur, F. 5, 52.

Munitio is another _-tio_ noun that ordinarily has verbal force, but

not at all infrequently it coincides in meaning with both munimen and

munimentum: cum urbem _operibus_ munitionibusque saepsisset, Phil. 13,

9, 20; _castella_ et munitiones idoneis locis imponens, Tac. A. 3, 74.

The genitives following munimen and munitio are alike in meaning and

function, both being appositional: confisus munitione _fossae_, B. C.

1, 42, 3; narrat esse locum solidae tectum munimine _molis_, Ov. M. 4,

771. Munimentum is used of the same kind of “fortification”: _fossa_,

haud parvum munimentum, Liv. 1, 33, 7.

Natura and ignis are the similar elements in the following contexts

that indicate the identity in meaning between nutrimen and nutrimentum:

nempe ubi terra cibos alimentaque pinguia flammae

non dabit absumptis per longum viribus aevum

_naturaeque_ suum nutrimen deerit edaci, Ov. M. 15, 354;

suscepit _ignem_ foliis atque arida circum

nutrimenta dedit, Aen. 1, 176.

In the first example, curiously enough, nutrimen seems to be also

synonymous with alimenta in the second line before it.

Nato and puerorum following oblectamina and oblectamenta indicate

identity in meaning, although the latter is still vague, while the

former is specified by “flores”: carpserat _flores_, quos oblectamina

_nato_ porrigeret, Ov. M. 9, 342; obsecro te non ut vincla virorum

sint, sed ut oblectamenta _puerorum_, Par. 5, 2, 38.

We have the clear testimony of Varro that operculum and operimentum are

both used to mean “covering”: quibus operibantur operimenta et opercula

dixerunt, Varro, L. L. 5, 167; and the fact is illustrated by the

following examples, in which both are used in the ablative after tego:

aspera arteria _tegitur_ quasi quodam operculo, N. 2, 54; nuces gemino

_protectae_ operimento sunt, Plin. 15, 22.

Both ornatus and ornamentum are used of a speech, oratio: mihi

eripuisti ornamentum _orationis_ meae, Planc. 83; reliqua quasi lumina

afferunt magnum ornatum _orationi_, Or. 39, 134. The following examples

of these nouns, although still general in meaning, are interesting as

being used with the verb which is their stem: ornatus appellatur cultus

ipse, quo quis _ornatur_, Fest. 184; hominem cum ornamentis omnibus

_exornatum_ adducite ad me, Bacc. 756.

Although the circumstances in the following passages are not alike, the

immediate contexts are similar enough to show that sarmen and sarmentum

have the same meaning: iam iubeo _ignem_ et sarmen _arae_, carnifex,

_circumdari_, Most. 1114; _ligna_ et sarmenta _ignemque circumdare_

coeperunt, Verr. 2, 1, 69.

Tegimen and tegimentum both mean a covering for the body: mihi

_amictui_ Scythicum tegimen est, T. 5, 90; pennarum contextu _corpori_

tegimentum faciebat, F. 5, 32.

As shown earlier in this paper, tinnimentum in its single occurrence

undoubtedly means a “tinkling” in the ears, caused by chattering talk;

tinnitus also seems to mean the same thing in the following contexts:

cuminum silvestre _auribus_ instillatur ad _sonitus_ atque tinnitus,

Plin. 20, 15, 57; illud tinnimentumst _auribus_, Rud. 806.

If there is any difference between vestitus and vestimentum in these

two examples, it is difficult to find: credo te audisse, venisse, eo

_muliebri_ vestitu virum, Att. I, 13, 3; mulierem aequomst vestimentum

_muliebre_ dare foras, virum virile, Men. 659.

From the fragments in Nonius we find that two of our _-mentum_ nouns

have accessory forms in _-menta_ (fem.) with the same meaning: ipsius

armentas ad easdem, Ennius ap. Non. 190, 20; tu cornifrontes pascere

armentas soles, Pacuvius ap. Non. 190, 22; labei labuntur saxa,

caementae cadunt, Ennius ap. Non. 196, 30.

B. PARALLELS OF -BULUM AND ACCESSORY SUFFIXES

Latibulum and latebra: repente te tamquam _serpens_ e latibulis

intulisti, Vat. 2; curvis frustra defensa latebris _vipera_, Georg. 3,

544; cum etiam _ferae_ latibulis se tegant, Rab. Post. 15, 42; Maenala

transieram latebris horrenda _ferarum_, Ov. M. 1, 216. Latibulum is an

example of a word that could not be used in verse on account of the

quantity of its syllables.

Common elements in the context show identity of meaning in sedile

and sessibulum: cum pater _assedisset_ appositumque esset aliud filio

quoque eius _sedile_, Gell. 2, 2, 8; _asside_ istic, nam prae metu

latronum nulla sessibula parare nobis licet, App. Met. 1. Varro (L. L.

8, 54) says that a form sediculum is also correctly made, but not in

use.

Stabulatio, another apparent verbal noun, must mean the same as

stabulum in the following examples, both on account of the adjective

and the general significance of the passages: _hibernae_ stabulationi

eorum (cattle) praeparanda sunt stramenta, Col. 6, 3, 1; iubeo stabula

a ventis _hiberno_ opponere soli, Georg. 3, 302.

Besides a few examples in Arnobius, only one instance of vocamen is

found, in Lucretius, but that it means the same as vocabulum can be

seen from the parallel passages: si quis Bacchi _nomine_ abuti Mavult

quam _laticis proprium_ proferre vocamen, Lucr. 2, 657; si res suum

_nomen_ et vocabulum proprium non habet, De Or. III, 159.

C. PARALLELS OF -CULUM AND ACCESSORY SUFFIXES

Among _-culum_ words, we find cenaculum having an accessory form

cenatio that has, not the verbal idea, but the genuine meaning of place

for eating, while cenaculum has lost its literal meaning and taken a

more general signification: vel _cubiculum_ grande vel _modica_ cenatio

[sit] quae plurimo sole lucet, Plin. Ep. 2, 17, 10; nos ampliores

triginta vidimus in cenatione _quam_ Callistus _exaedificaverat_, Plin.

36, 7, 12; ubi cubabant, cubiculum, ubi cenabant, cenaculum vocitabant;

posteaquam in superiore parte cenitare coeperunt superioris domus

universa cenacula dicta, Varro, L. L. 5, 162.

On the stem curro there are three nouns, all signifying “a running”:

_exercent_ sese _ad_ cursuram, Most. 861; ibi _cursu_, luctando sese

_exercebant_, Bacc. 428; unum curriculum _face_, Trin. 1103. A use of

curriculum with exerceo would parallel the first two examples, but in

such a case it takes on the meaning of place (running course): cum

athletae se _exercentes in_ curriculo videret, C. 27.

In the same paragraph deversorium and deverticulum are used of the same

place: ut _in_ deversorium eius vim magnam gladiorum _inferri_ clam

sineret, Liv. 1, 51; cum gladii abditi _ex_ omnibus locis deverticuli

_protraherentur_, Liv. 1, 51.

Feretrum and ferculum both are used depending on suspensa in the two

following examples, but mean different kinds of “instruments for

carrying”: quis opima volenti _dona_ Iovis portet feretro _suspensa_

cruento, Sil. 5, 168; _spolia_ ducis hostium caesi _suspensa_ fabricato

ad id apte ferculo gerens in Capitolium ascendit, Liv. 1, 10, 5.

The stem cerno (sift) forms two nouns which both mean a sieve,

although the use of them side by side indicates that there must be

some difference; as there are no other examples of incerniculum, this

difference cannot be discovered: in torcularium quod opus est cribrum

unum, incerniculum unum, Cato, R. R. I, 13, 3; caseum _per_ cribrum

facito _transeat_ in mortarium, Cato, R. R. 76, 3.

In the following examples, spiramen and spiracula are both used to mean

“breathing holes” in the earth or universe, while spiramenta is applied

to the cells in a beehive:

sunt qui spiramina _terris_

esse putent magnosque cavae compages hiatus,

Lucan, 10, 247;

quasi per magni circum spiracula _mundi_

exitus introitusque elementis redditus exstat, Lucr. 6, 493;

_apes_ in tectis certatim tenuia _cera_

spiramenta _linunt_, Georg. 4, 39.

No difference can be seen in spectamen and spectaculum in these

examples: _miserum_ funestumque spectamen _aspexi_, App. M. 4, 151;

potius quam hoc spectaculum _viderem_, Mil. 38, 103; constitutur in

foro Laodiceae spectaculum acerbum et _miserum_, Verr. I, 76.

CHAPTER V

SUFFIXES AND THE THEORY OF ADAPTATION

As stated in the introductory chapter, it has been the primary object

of this paper to examine certain word-building suffixes for the purpose

of finding out, if possible, what the force of the suffixes themselves

is, and how the nouns formed with them get their meaning. The material

presented has, it is hoped, shown that these nouns are capable of

wide semantic variation, the influencing elements being the verb stem

and context (the former exerting greater influence than the latter);

also that these suffixes overlap with other suffixes in forming words

of identical semantic content to such an extent that they cannot be

said to have any sort of fundamental meaning whatever. This is the

significance of our investigation in so far as semantics is concerned.

But it is possible also to connect our results with another question,

the entire solution of which will doubtless never be possible, at least

not soon; _viz._, the theory of the origin of inflection. Nothing but

mere suggestion can be made in this direction from the conclusions of

this study; the field will need much wider working-over before any

thing definite can be asserted.

Of the two chief explanations of the origin of inflection, one,

the theory of adaptation, as held at the present time, answers the

question by saying that “inflectional endings are not essentially

different from word-building suffixes, but are rather to be regarded

as word-building suffixes in a new rôle and partially systematized

into paradigms. Inflection comes at the point--wherever in the long

course of development that point may be--where the endings of two or

more different forms of a word begin to be felt to be the carriers

of relations of case, or of mode and tense, to a certain extent

independently of stem and context. It is therefore not properly a

matter of forms, but of meanings, and that theory which accounts for

the meanings and for their association with forms explains inflection,

whether it accounts for the forms or not.”[188]

In other words, inflectional forms got their meanings in a manner

similar to that we have illustrated in the case of our nouns.

(1.) The apparent definiteness that case-endings have does depend

largely on their stem-meaning. Many of the functional distinctions of

case can be made only by the meaning of the nouns, _e. g._, in “gladiis

pugnatum est”, Caes. B. G. 1, 52; “uno tempore omnibus locis pugnatur,”

B. G. 7, 84; “pugnatum continenter horis quinque vario certamine,” B.

C. 1, 46, we have five ablatives, expressing instrument, time when,

duration of time, manner, and place, only because the words in the

ablative are capable of these meanings. Just so, we saw that our nouns

got their general meaning of instrument, place, result of action, etc.,

because their verb stems were such as to admit of such meaning.

(2.) While our nouns naturally get an important part of their meaning

from the verb stem, yet they derive great specialization of meaning

from some element in the context. It is very probable, too, that

originally our so-called inflectional system was in reality only

a large number of undifferentiated forms which, by a process of

centralization and adaptation, and influenced by the associations in

which they were used, acquired their present meaning.

(3.) The variety and overlapping of suffixes may also be paralleled by

case-endings; for example, in both the first and second declensions

the same form serves for the dative and ablative plural, while there

is another form for the other declensions. The genitive singular,

and nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declension are

alike in form. In the historical language, the genitive singular,

dative singular, and nominative plural of the first declension have

become identical in form. Other similar comparisons might be drawn to

illustrate the similarity in meaning of forms with different endings,

and from the verb as well as the noun. The very fact that we have five

declensions and four conjugations, with many variations inside the

system and irregularities outside, goes to show that it is not real

system that we have here, but the survival of an original mass of

undifferentiated forms, which through a long period of development

have acquired their present inflectional meaning.

The parallel suggested here is put forth merely as a suggestion; all we

can say is, that it is possible that inflectional forms did get their

meaning in some such way as the nouns treated in this paper got theirs.

More evidence will be necessary for establishing this theory, if it can

be established at all.

INDEX OF WORDS

acetabulum, 26

additamentum, 18, 32

adiumentum, 18, 45

adminiculum, 27

alimentum, 13, 47

allevamentum, 20, 47

ammentum, 13

antepagmentum, 16

argumentum, 20, 36

armamentum, 13

armentum, 14, 49

atramentum, 18

auctoramentum, 20

baculum, 27

blandimentum, 21, 45

caementum, 11, 49

calceamentum, 14, 47

cenaculum, 29, 50

coagmentum, 16

cognomentum, 23

complementum, 21

conciliabulum, 25, 39

condimentum, 16

conventiculum, 29, 40

cruciamentum, 18, 47

cubiculum, 29

cunabulum, 26

curriculum, 30, 50

dehonestamentum, 19, 33

delectamentum, 11, 33

delenimentum, 18

deliramentum, 19

dentifrangibulum, 25

deridiculum, 30, 33

desidiabulum, 26

detrimentum, 19

deverticulum, 29, 50

documentum, 21, 33, 36, 46

emolumentum, 19

everriculum, 27, 33

exorabulum, 25

experimentum, 23, 36, 45

explementum, 21

ferculum, 27, 51

ferramentum, 17

firmamentum, 22, 36, 46

formamentum, 20, 46

fragmentum, 11, 33

frumentum, 15

fundamentum, 16, 33, 46

gubernaculum, 27

hibernaculum, 29

hortamentum, 22, 33, 47

hostimentum, 21

ientaculum, 30

impedimentum, 16

inanimentum, 19

incerniculum, 27, 51

incitamentum, 21, 33, 34

incunabulum, 26

infundibulum, 24

instrumentum, 14, 37

integumentum, 14, 33, 35

intertrimentum, 19

invitamentum, 21, 34, 47

irritamentum, 21, 34, 44

iugumentum, 15

iumentum, 15

latibulum, 25, 39, 49

laxamentum, 19

levamentum, 22, 45

libamentum, 15

libramentum, 22

lineamentum, 23

lomentum, 15

lutamentum, 12

medicamentum, 13, 45

mendicabulum, 26

miraculum, 30

molimentum, 23, 45

momentum, 20, 45

monumentum, 14, 35

munimentum, 48

nidamentum, 17

nucifrangibulum, 25

nutrimentum, 16, 48

oblectamentum, 22, 48

omentum, 16

operculum, 28

operimentum, 13, 48

opprobramentum, 22

oraculum, 31, 40

oramentum, 23

ornamentum, 14, 33, 37, 48

pabulum, 25, 39

patibulum, 24

pavimentum, 12

periculum, 30, 41

perpendiculum, 28

piaculum, 28, 41

pigmentum, 16

poculum, 28

praepedimentum, 22

propugnaculum, 29, 33

prostibulum, 26

pulpamentum, 17

ramentum, 11

receptaculum, 29

redimiculum, 28

retinaculum, 28

rutabulum, 24

saeculum, 30

saepimentum, 14

salsamentum, 17

sarculum, 28

sarmentum, 12, 49

scitamentum, 18

sessibulum, 25, 50

sicilimentum, 12

sincipitamentum, 18

spectaculum, 30, 41, 51

spiraculum, 28, 51

stabilimentum, 14

stabulum, 25, 33, 40, 50

sternumentum, 23

stramentum, 11, 38, 44

subligaculum, 28

suffimentum, 13

supplementum, 15

tabernaculum, 29

tegumentum, 13, 35, 49

temperamentum, 20

termentum, 20

testamentum, 12

tinnimentum, 23, 49

tintinnabulum, 24

tormentum, 15, 38

turbamentum, 22

turibulum, 26

umbraculum, 30, 41

vehiculum, 29, 42

venabulum, 25

vestibulum, 25

vestimentum, 15, 39, 49

vocabulum, 25, 40, 50

FOOTNOTES:

[181] Cf. Morris, _Principles and Methods in Latin Syntax_, p.

65. It must be noted, however, that this is only one direction in

which semantic development takes place. The opposite (decrease of

connotation) is also observable as a definite line of semantic

development.

[182] This is one of four _-mentum_ words which occur first in Sallust.

The others are hortamentum, irritamentum, turbamentum. Norden mentions

the use of _-mentum_ words as a peculiarity of Sallust’s style (Gercke

und Norden. _Einleitung in die Alt. Wiss._ I. 578), but with the

exception of these four words, which occur, moreover, only once each in

this author, the examples scarcely justify the statement.

[183] Cf. Festus, p. 38: conciliabulum dicitur locus, ubi in concilium

venitur.

[184] Cf. Walde, who gives as the etymology of this word,

ver(o)-stabulum, in which *uer = “door”.

[185] See Mommsen, _Röm. Gesch._ Bk. I, Ch. XV.

[186] Only those _-culum_ words were examined which were not

diminutives. Some of the words formed with this suffix do have

diminutive meaning, but for a diminutive to be formed on a verb stem is

impossible.

[187] Cf. Varro, _Lingua Latina_, 5, Art. 162.

[188] See the article by Professors Oertel and Morris on _The Nature

and Origin of Indo-European Inflection_, Harvard Class. Stud., Vol.

XVI, p. 89.

END OF VOLUME ONE

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS HUMANISTIC STUDIES

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:

This text contains Greek phrases in several places and numerous words

and phrases in Latin. Greek and Latin passages have been rendered as

they appear in the original publication. No attempt has been made to

make corrections.

Obvious punctuation errors have been repaired. Occasional missing

commas have been left unchanged. Identifyable inconsistencies in

punctuation in headings, footnotes, index, and bibliography have been

repaired.

Variations in hyphenation and spelling, particularly in the use of

accent marks, have, for the most part, been left unchanged. If it was

clear from the predominance of occurrences that the difference was due

to a typo and not the intent of the author, the correction was made.

However, the variations were frequently the result of references or

quotes from different sources and therefor the variations were left

as found. For instance, the reader will find the following variations

left as found in the original: Bocca-dell’-Verità also appears as

Bocca-dell’-Verita; Marriage à la Mode sometimes appears as Marriage a

la Mode; both Lévy-Bruhl and Levy-Bruhl are used; De Vulgari Eloquio is

also spelled De Vulgario Eloquio; The Rival Queans is also given as The

Rival Queens.

Spelling of non-dialect wording in the text was made consistent when

a predominant preference was found in this book; if no predominant

preference was found, or if there is only one occurrence of the word,

spelling was not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced

quotation marks repaired.

The original text has duplicate words in several places. For example,

Page 308 ... “is only the the extension, on Latin soil”; Page 146 ...

“matter to each each other”. These have been rendered as found without

correction.

Because of the propensity in this text for quotations starting and

ending in the middle of a sentence, ellipsis have been rendered

as found in the text with no assumptions made as to the ending of

sentences within quotations. Ellipsis that are obviously errors have

been standardized to common usage. In several places within the English

text and in the Latin phrases, periods have apparently been used to

represent missing letters in a word or name. These have been rendered

as found in the original.

There are several typographical errors in sequential numbering in the

Appendix for section 3, the paper on Browning and Italian Arts and

Artists. On page 253, the section shown in the original as “IV. Pippa

Passes.” should be numbered “III.” if properly sequenced. On page 258,

the section shown in the original as “XX. Pacchiarotto and How He Worked

in Distemper.” should be numbered “XXIV.” if properly sequenced. On page

257, under “XX. The Ring and the Book”, the numbering skips for “8” to

“10”, leaving out “9”. All these have been repaired.

In the Appendix for section 3, the paper on Browning and Italian Arts

and Artists, some of the Roman Numerals are in parenthesis. About a

third of them have the period inside the parenthesis [i.e. (III.)] and

about 2/3 have the period outside the parenthesis [i.e. (III).]. No

attempt has been made to standardize these. They have been left as

found in the original text.