It happened this summer that a party of little folks went out with me on

a salamander hunt. We found three kinds: the _Spotted Salamander_, which

is black with yellow spots on each side of the back; the _Red-back

Salamander_, which usually has a reddish brown band along the back; and

a black one covered with whitish spots. This black one with whitish

spots was named "Freckles" by one of our number, a much more attractive

name than his own, which is _Pleth'-o-don glu-ti-no'-sus_.

We placed the three in a box, and as I closed it the large spotted

salamander seemed very well satisfied (no wonder!), while the other two

raised their heads in a most appealing way. I was firm, however, and

made them prisoners, feeling sure that they would be comfortable in the

nice large terrarium.

When morning came we opened the box, for we were ready to put our little

neighbors into their new home. What was our surprise to find the spotted

salamander alone! As to countenance he was well content; as to sides he

was much bulged out. Poor little "Freckles" and poor little Red Back! I

wish I had listened to your appeal!

[Illustration: _Fig. 344. Isabella tiger moths, male and female. The red

and black woolly-bear is the larva or caterpillar of this moth. The

smaller moth is the male._]

SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY.

1. A terrarium is "an inclosed bit of earth on which things may live and

grow." Do not think that it is necessary to have one as well made at

first as that in the illustration. (Fig. 341.) Uncle John will be well

pleased to know that you have made some arrangement for having

outdoor-folk live in the schoolroom. Any such home will be a terrarium.

2. Every one can have grasshoppers for study. How many different kinds

can you find? Do all have the feelers or antennæ the same length?

Observe the growth of the wings in the nymph, as the young grasshopper

is called. In the grown-up ones notice that the narrow wing is on the

outside and the pretty ones underneath.

3. Every one can also find crickets, and no terrarium will be complete

without them. In the warm schoolroom or home they will make music until

late in the year. Watch the black cricket make music with his wings.

Notice a tiny light speck near the elbow of the cricket's front leg.

This is the ear; so you see the little fellows "listen with their

elbows."

The mother cricket has a spear at the end of her body. With this she

makes a hole in the ground in which to place her eggs. She cannot chirp,

but the father makes enough music for the family. You will see that the

mother seems to enjoy it.

Plant fresh grass seed and grain occasionally in the cricket corner of

your terrarium.

4. If you do not own an insect net, try to find a lace-winged fly

without one. It will not be difficult for young naturalists to see the

flies resting on the bushes along the roadside. These insects are

valuable to farmers because their children, the aphis-lions, eat so many

plant-lice and other insects.

[Illustration: _Fig. 345. Golden-eyes or lace-winged fly; eggs, larva or

aphis-lion, cocoon, adult._]

Look on the under side of the leaves for the cocoon illustrated in Fig.

345. It has the appearance of a small pearl. The first time I found one

I did not know what it was. I left it on my desk hoping that something

interesting would come out of it. The next morning there was a pretty

green insect trying to get out of the window and I wondered how it had

come there. While thinking about it my eye fell on the cocoon lying on

my desk. I noticed that a lid had been raised on it and suspected at

once how golden-eyes had found her way into my room. Who will succeed

in getting the eggs, an aphis-lion, a cocoon, or a lace-winged fly? Let

us know.

5. The larger the number of butterflies you can bring into the

schoolroom, the gayer will be the terrarium world. Gather fresh thistles

or other flowers from which they can suck the nectar or give them

sweetened water in a dish. Notice their long mouth-parts as they eat.

One of the most common of all butterflies is the large brown and black

one. This is called the monarch butterfly. Notice that many of these fly

together on autumn days. They are going south with the birds.

6. Be sure to keep the moss damp for the salamanders and add

occasionally fresh pieces in which they will get food. Perhaps you can

teach them to eat raw meat after they have been with you awhile.

7. The terrarium will not be complete without a toad or two. You can

feed them flies, other insects, and earthworms, and they may then leave

the salamanders alone. You need not be afraid to handle the toads for

_they cannot give you warts_. When they have been in the terrarium

awhile they will show you how they like to spend the winter.

[Illustration: _A terrarium in School No. 23, Buffalo._]

LEAFLET LXXII.

MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.[93]

BY ALICE G. MCCLOSKEY.

[93] Junior Naturalist Monthly, March, 1902.

[Illustration]

Of all the insects that interest boys and girls, moths and butterflies

seem to hold the first place. I find, however, that young people are not

always able to distinguish these insects one from another, and do not

know very much of the strange lives they lead. Perhaps you may have

found out a few facts about them in books, but this is not _knowing_. To

know, one must see some of the wonderful things that they do. When you

have watched the whole life-story of a moth or butterfly, you will have

a far greater interest in these animals than their handsome wings and

graceful flight have ever given you.

The most important thing to remember in the study of moths and

butterflies is that they appear in four different forms during their

lives. These forms are:

_The egg._ _The larva._ _The pupa._ _The adult._

THE EGGS.

The eggs are laid singly or in clusters. They are usually found on the

plant which is the favorite food of the young. Look for the shining

masses of the eggs of the tent-caterpillar on apple and wild cherry

trees; also for the yellow eggs of potato beetles on potato leaves.

THE LARVA.

The larva or "worm" hatches from the egg. During this period in its

history the insect _eats_ and _grows_. If you doubt that they have good

appetites, undertake to feed a few healthy caterpillars this spring. If

you doubt that they are particular as to the kind of food they have,

find out for yourselves whether the apple tree "worm" will eat

milk-weed leaves or whether the milk-weed caterpillar will eat leaves

taken from an apple tree.

One of the most interesting things to notice in the study of larvæ or

caterpillars is that they occasionally appear in bright new coats, and

we find the old ones have been cast aside. It is necessity, not pride,

that leads them to do this. You see, an insect's skeleton is on the

outside of its body; and if it could not be shed once in a while how

would there be room for the little creature to grow?

[Illustration: _Fig. 346. Chrys'-a-lids of the mourning-cloak

butterfly._]

THE PUPA.

[Illustration: _Fig. 347. Cocoon of the cecropia moth. It is often

attached to the twig of a fruit tree._]

Of all the forms in which moths and butterflies appear, the pupa is the

strangest. Although we speak of this period in the life of the insect as

one of rest or sleep, it is the time when the most wonderful changes

take place in its body.

The queer little objects that you see illustrated in Fig. 346 are the

pupæ of the mourning-cloak butterfly. When the caterpillars were about

to shed their coats for the last time, they hung themselves head

downward from a twig by means of a silk button which they had spun. Then

they cast off their skins, leaving the chrysalids or naked pupæ hanging;

protected from birds by their spiny form and protected from many

enemies, even from young naturalists, by their wood-brown color which so

closely resembles the support from which they are suspended.

[Illustration: _Fig. 348. The cecropia pupa inside the cocoon. Nearly

natural size._]

Let us next look at the pupa of a moth. This is often inside a covering

which is called a cocoon. If you look on the fruit trees or shade trees

about your home you may find a cocoon of the ce-cró-pi-a moth. You will

see that it is made of silk. This covering was spun by the giant

silkworm as a protection against the storms of winter. How snug the pupa

is inside, and how firmly the cocoon is fastened to the twig on which

you found it! Figs. 347, 348, 349 show this interesting insect.

When you are studying pupæ remember that butterflies do not come out of

cocoons. Their chrysalis or pupa is always uncovered. In the case of

moths, however, the pupa is either inside a cocoon or protected by being

underground or in some well sheltered place. These facts suggest a

question. Is there any reason why the one should be better fitted to

endure cold and storms than the other?

THE ADULT.

We now come to the fourth period in the lives of moths and butterflies,

a period which has ever had and ever will have an interest for young and

old. Since there are many persons, little and big, who cannot

distinguish the two groups, butterflies and moths, let us learn the

marks by which they may be known.

[Illustration: _Fig. 349. Cecropia moth just emerged from the cocoon, on

which it hangs. The moth comes from the pupa._]

Butterflies have uncovered pupæ. They fly by day. The wings are folded

over the back when at rest. The antennæ or feelers have _knobs_ on the

ends. (Fig. 350 B.) The body is slender.

Moths have pupae either inside cocoons or protected by being underground

or in some sheltered place. Many moths fly at night. The antennæ are

never knobbed. (Fig. 350 M M.) leave the wings spread when they are at

rest. The body is stout.

Occasionally you may come across insects that very closely resemble

butterflies, yet have some characters that are similar to those of

moths. They are the skippers, so named because of their strong and rapid

flight. The antennæ have knobs, but these knobs are drawn out and turned

back in the form of a hook. (Fig. 350 S.) The body is rather stout. The

pupa is covered by a thin cocoon. In some species the wings are held

vertically, in others horizontally.

SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY.

Cocoons and butterfly chrysalids are very hard to find because they so

closely resemble the withered leaves that cling to shrubs and trees.

[Illustration: _Fig. 350. Antennæ or feelers._]

You will probably find cocoons of the ce-cro-pi-a and pro-mé-the-a

moths. The former, illustrated by Figs. 347 to 349, is commonly found on

fruit trees; the latter swings loosely from a branch of ash, wild

cherry, or lilac. The promethea cocoon is enfolded in a leaf which the

caterpillar fastened to a twig by means of silk before it spun the

cocoon. If you are rewarded for your search by finding some of these

winter homes, leave a few of them in a cool place and occasionally dip

them in water that they may not become too dry. Look at them carefully

from time to time and note any changes that take place. Following are a

few suggestions that will help you in the study of cocoons:

1. Observe the covering of the pupa closely. Is it made of other

material beside silk? When the woolly-bear, that many of you have cared

for all winter, spins his cocoon, he will use some of his own hair as

well as silk.

[Illustration: _Fig. 351. Luna moth and swallow-tail butterfly._]

2. Open the cocoon. Is the pupa free from it? Are the threads of silk

woven in the same direction in all parts of the covering?

3. Out of which end do you think the moth will come?

4. Describe the inside of the cocoon. Do you find anything in it beside

the pupa?

5. The cocoons of the Chinese silkworm are soaked in hot water or

softened by steam before the thread can be unwound. Put one of the

cocoons that you find in hot water and see whether you can unwind the

silk. I wish you could secure some cocoons of the real silkworm.

Boys and girls often ask us what they shall feed moths and butterflies.

Many of the adult insects do not eat at all. Some, however, sip the

nectar of flowers or sap of trees. Oftentimes they will drink sweetened

water or the juice of fruit. If you have an opportunity, watch one while

it eats. Notice the long "tongue" through which it takes its food. This

is made of two pieces grooved on the inner side, and when held together

they form a tube. When the insect is not eating these mouth-parts are

coiled.

[Illustration: _Fig. 352. The life-story of an insect, the forest tent

caterpillar. m, male moth; f, female; p, pupa; e, egg-ring recently

laid; g, hatched egg-ring; c, caterpillar. Moths and caterpillars are

natural size, and eggs and pupa are slightly enlarged._]

LEAFLET LXXIII.

THE PAPER-MAKERS.[94]

BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY.

[94] Junior Naturalist Monthly, February and March, 1901.

A CASTLE MADE OF PAPER.

[Illustration]

Many school rooms in the State have a hornet's nest which some boy or

girl has brought to show the teacher. It is usually hung on the wall or

used as an ornament on top of the bookcase. Let us take it down some day

this month and learn something about it.

Do you think the nest can be called a castle? Why not? Look inside. Is

it not several stories high? Are there not spacious galleries in it? Is

it not as well guarded when the wasps are at home as if an army of

soldiers stood outside?

[Illustration: _Fig. 353. The paper castle._]

Let us see how this castle is built. You have heard that wasps were the

first paper makers. In the early summer you will see them around wood

that has been worn by the weather. They take off loose fibres and by

means of their mouth-parts work them into pulp. Can the rain get through

this paper? Find out whether it is waterproof.

Some of the nests made by vespa (Fig. 353), as the hornets or

yellow-jackets are called, are very large. Do you think a wasp could

make one alone? No, these are social wasps; that is, a great many live

together. There are males, females, and workers. Some day we shall tell

you how the wasps form their colony, but for this lesson we want you to

study the nest.

Notice the envelope which covers the cells. How many layers of paper are

there in it? We might call each layer a clapboard.

Can you see any difference in the direction of the outside layers on top

of the nest and those which are below?

[Illustration: _Fig. 354. Interior arrangement of white-faced hornet's

nest._]

How many stories high is the nest?

Note the difference in the size of the stories. Where do you find the

smallest?

Count the rooms or cells in each.

You know, of course, that an egg is placed in each cell. When the larvæ,

as the young of the wasps are called, are hatched, they still live in

the cells.

How do they manage to keep in their cells? You see the nest is really

turned upside down. Their little heads must hang where the worker wasps

can feed them easily. I wonder whether you can tell me why the young

wasps do not fall out?

The workers chew all the food which they give the little ones. When in

summer you see hornets about your flower beds or feeding on other

insects, it may be that they are preparing breakfast for the young.

Notice the flowers which they visit.

POLISTES, THE PAPER-MAKER.

In the previous lesson I spoke of vespa wasps that make homes of paper.

You learned that they bite off pieces of weather-worn wood with their

jaws and chew it until it is made into pulp. Were you interested in

these social wasps? If so, you may like to hear about another member of

the same family.

[Illustration: _Fig. 355. Home of polistes, the paper-maker._]

Hiding in some crevice about your house or the school building there is

probably a wasp which naturalists call po-lis´-tes. She has been there

ever since the cold weather came. In the spring you may see her tearing

off pieces of wood from some unpainted building or weather-worn fence.

Let us see what she is going to do.

This wasp is the founder of a colony. The first thing she does is to

select a place for her home. Then she makes a few cells--only a few, for

she has no help. When you find a nest like the one in the picture (Fig.

355), you will see how the comb is fastened to the roof or to a tree or

to the under side of a stone.

As soon as the cells are completed, the mother lays an egg in each. From

these eggs little grubs or larvæ are hatched. They are fed by the mother

until they become pupæ. The cells are sealed over while the wasps are in

the pupa state. They have to break open the seals before they can come

out.

All members of the first brood are workers. As soon as they are hatched

the mother has nothing to do but to provide eggs. They clean out the

cells in which they passed their early days; they make additions to the

nests; they take care of the young. Do you remember how the vespa

workers prepared food for the larvæ in their colony and what they fed

them? The young polistes are cared for in the same way.

You may see the workers flying about in your garden this summer, getting

the sweets from the various flowers that you have planted. You will know

why they are so busy through the long sunny days. You will think of the

hungry little wasps waiting for their dinner. You will wonder whether

they put their heads out of the cells when the workers feed them.

NEST OF POLISTES.

1. Compare the nest of polistes with that of vespa.

2. In what ways do they differ?

3. Where did you find the nest?

4. How was it held in place?

5. How many cells are there in it?

6. Notice the pieces of the seals which still remain on the nest. Tell

us whether they are made of the same material as the cells. Of what

utility are the seals?

LEAFLET LXXIV.

SOME CARPENTER ANTS AND THEIR KIN.[95]

BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY.

(Compare Leaflet XXI.)

[95] Junior Naturalist Monthly, October, 1903.

[Illustration]

One bright August morning, as we were walking along the edge of a wood,

we found an old tree trunk lying on the ground. I am sure it had been

there a long time. Large pieces of bark were loose enough to be lifted

up; being naturalists, we took advantage of this fact to see whether

anything was living underneath.

What queer little outdoor folk we found: "thousand-legged worms,"

sow-bugs, a black beetle that looked as if its back were made of

patent-leather, and best of all a colony of ants! These ants were large

black ones known as carpenter ants. They had made very comfortable

quarters in this old log. How alarmed they were when we so rudely

exposed them to the light!

One brave ant impressed me more than any other member of the colony. I

wish that all of our girls and boys might have seen it. With my knife I

commenced to cut down the wall of one of the rooms to see what was

inside. The soldier-like ant stood near and, instead of running away, it

attacked the large steel blade with its jaws. Was not that a brave thing

to do? Are you surprised that I closed the knife and put it into my

pocket?

During all this time there was great commotion in the colony. The worker

ants were scurrying off with the younger members of the family, trying

to find a safe place for them. Some of these little brothers and sisters

were tiny white legless creatures; some were covered up in what looked

like little bags; others were ghost-like things, very white and

apparently lifeless.

Now before you can understand what is going on in an ant's nest, you

must know four things:

1. The white oblong eggs are very small. You will not see them readily.

2. The little legless creatures, or larvæ, hatch from the eggs and are

fed by the workers. Mrs. Comstock says that an ant larva looks like a

crook-neck squash.

3. The larvæ either spin cocoons or rest awhile without any covering

before they become fully grown ants. In their resting form they are

called pupæ. Children usually think the little sack-like pupæ are the

eggs.

4. The fully grown ants come from the pupæ.

[Illustration: _Fig. 356. Making a home for ants._]

We want every Junior Naturalist Club to have an ant's nest in the school

room and to observe the following:

In time of danger do the ants look to their own safety first?

Watch the workers feed and clean the young.

Try to see an ant help a younger relative out of the pupa skin.

Notice how many uses the ants seem to have for their antennæ or feelers.

Has it ever seemed to you that ants carry on a conversation when they

meet?

See how many different kinds of ants you can find out-of-doors, Tell us

about their homes.

HOW TO MAKE AN ANT'S NEST.

In the illustration (Fig. 356) you will see an ant's nest. For this kind

of nest you will need a plank, near the outside edge of which is a deep

groove. The plank should be painted; can you tell why? In the center use

two pieces of glass laid flat and separated by narrow sticks along each

side, so that they are about one-eighth of an inch apart. The sticks

should not come close together at one corner. This leaves a little

doorway for the ants. Cover the top glass with black paper or cloth so

that the space between the two pieces of glass may seem a nice, dark,

safe room in which ants may live. It will be a good thing to keep a

small piece of damp blotting paper in one corner of this room in case

the workers want a moist place for the young ones. Fill the groove in

the plank with water and the nest is ready.

The best ant colony to take indoors is the one that you find under

stones in a pasture. With a trowel lift up the ants, pupæ, larvæ, and

sand and put the contents carefully into a pint can. When you reach the

schoolroom put the contents of the can on the plank and watch what

happens. If the ants do not find the room you have made for them, place

a few larvae and pupæ within it. They will probably find them.

Do not neglect to provide food for the colony. Ants like to eat cracker

soaked in sweetened water, bread, cake, berry jams, sugar, bits of raw

meat, yolk of hard-boiled egg, and custard.

[Illustration: _Junior naturalist museum in the school. District No. 2,

Sheridan, N. Y._]

LEAFLET LXXV.

A GARDEN ALL YOUR OWN.[96]

BY JOHN W. SPENCER.

[96] Junior Naturalist Monthly, May, 1904.

MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES:

[Illustration]

Would you like to have a garden this summer--a garden all your very own?

If so, you can surely have one. A man up in a balloon could have one if

he were to try; a man living down in a coal mine could not, because

there would be no sunlight. Plants must have light from the sun, which

is the vital source of all light. I consider that anyone who cares for a

plant, growing either in a window box or in a tomato can, has a garden.

Yes; a plant growing in an eggshell constitutes a garden.

A LITTLE GIRL'S GARDEN.

Near my desk is a picture of a little girl, holding in her arms a big

pumpkin that she raised in a garden all her own. I do not know how many

pies could have been made from that pumpkin, but, at any rate, it was a

big pumpkin. The seed from which the vine started was planted in an

egg-shell in the school-room. When the bright May days came the

egg-shell had become too small for the plant or the plant had become too

large for the egg-shell, so the little girl planted it in the open

ground at her home. She must have been a tiny girl or the soil in her

garden must have been very hard, for without help she was unable to

spade it and make it fine. She hired her father to do it for her and

paid him by carrying his dinner every day for a week to the shop where

he worked. When lunch time came, papa and she had a little picnic all by

themselves. There is no prettier picture than is made by such strong

comradeship between a little girl and her father.

MAKE A BARGAIN WITH YOUR TEACHER.

I hope your teacher will permit you to have some boxes of earth (I mean

_soil_) in the windows of your school-room, in which you may plant

flower or vegetable seeds. In early June, just before the close of

school, you can divide the plants among yourselves and set them out in

the open ground or in window boxes at your home. Ask your teacher

whether you may have such a privilege. Promise that if she will grant

this favor you will be just as good as the "little girl who had a little

curl that hung in the middle of her fore-head," and if at any time you

become "horrid" the teacher may give your share of the plants to some

one better behaved than yourself. If she is a wise teacher she will

consent, but not until she has made a bargain with you that you are to

do all the work and to ask nothing from her but advice when you need it.

[Illustration: _Fig. 357. Sweet peas._]

A PLANT NURSERY.

[Illustration: _Fig. 358. A nest of window pots._]

Your first garden should be in a shallow box, called a "flat," which you

may consider a kind of nursery for the plants. Let this nursery, or

cradle, be as long and as wide as a soap box, and not more than three or

four inches deep. You can make a "flat," as gardeners do, by sawing a

soap box in two. In the bottom of the box make some small auger holes

for drainage. Some of you may be so fortunate as to be able to gather

from the woods and fields the material for fitting up the flat. Some

moss,--say about an inch of it,--should first be laid in the bottom.

When moss cannot be found, use stones or pieces of broken pottery to

cover the drainage holes. This is to prevent the soil from washing

through. The remainder of the flat should be filled with good woods

earth. Pack the soil firmly. Fill the flat not even full, but to within

half an inch of the top. Those who cannot go to the fields must get the

best garden soil to be found. A few children may be unable to get even

garden soil. They will be obliged to go to the florist's for soil, as

they must do when they fill their window boxes. Because of the frequent

waterings required by all plants growing in boxes, it is important to

get soil that is not sticky and that will not pack hard.

SOWING THE SEED.

When the time comes for the sowing of seeds, you had better ask your

teacher to look over your shoulder to see that you do it correctly. In

sowing, put the seeds in straight rows. These rows may be made by

denting the soil with the sharp edge of a stick or ruler. Let the rows

extend the entire width of the flat. Into the dent, drop the seeds at

regular intervals. If any seeds drop outside of the dent, gently push

them into place with a toothpick. Half a dozen rows of one variety of

flowers or vegetables having small seeds will give a large number of

plants. One flat may accommodate a number of varieties.

At the point where one variety stops and another begins, a neat label of

wood should be stuck. This affords a good chance for a boy to bring his

new jack-knife into use. On the label should be written the name of each

variety. This will give an excellent opportunity for one who writes a

good vertical hand to make himself useful. Begin at the very top of the

label and write towards the lower end; then if the lower part of the

label rots off or becomes discolored, you will still have the first and

most important part of the name left. The label should never be

disturbed, for a careless boy or girl might not put it back into the

exact place where it was found, which would be indeed unfortunate. The

Smiths and Joneses of that plant community would become so mixed that

the Joneses would be called Smiths and the Smiths would be known as

Joneses. It would be as bad as changing door-plates.

When the seeds have been evenly distributed in rows like houses along a

street there comes another very important step,--the covering of the

seeds. If seeds are covered too deep they will rot because of too much

moisture; if the covering is too thin, the soil will dry so rapidly that

the seeds will fail because of insufficient moisture. The size of the

seed usually determines the amount of covering necessary. As a broad

general rule, the soil covering should be about four times the thickness

of the seed.

Having been covered, the earth must be thoroughly watered. This must be

done gently and carefully. If done with a rush, the water will wash the

covering away and many of the seeds will be left bare. Whenever such an

accident occurs, the seed may be pushed into the soil with a toothpick.

At most times when watering, continue to apply the water until it just

begins to drain through the bottom of the flat. This should be

practiced even after the seeds have germinated and become growing

plants. Keep the flats shaded until the plants begin to push their heads

through the soil. After this time strong light should gradually be given

them that the plants may not become tall and spindling, or "leggy," as

gardeners say.

[Illustration: _Fig. 359. Transplanted into a pot._]

If the seed boxes are in a sunny or windy place, the soil may dry out

too rapidly. This can be prevented by laying a newspaper over the flat

when the sun strikes it. As the plantlets grow, care must be taken not

to shade them too much.

A PLANT KINDERGARTEN.

In some plants the first leaves are called the "seed-leaves," and, like

children's milk teeth, soon disappear. The next set are the true leaves.

After the true leaves appear, if the plants seem crowded and

uncomfortable, like three boys trying to sleep in a narrow bed,

transplant them into other flats prepared similarly to the one into

which the seeds were sown. You may think of this as the promotion of the

young plants from the cradle to the kindergarten. Here the plants should

be placed about an inch from each other, in squares. Wet the plants

thoroughly before taking them up and also the soil into which they are

to make their second home. After this is done, the soil should be

pressed firmly about the roots, as you snuggle the bedclothes about your

neck on a cold winter's night. It is entertaining practice to transplant

the plants into pots, if you happen to have any florist's pots of small

size.

[Illustration: _Fig. 360. A soap box put to use._]

This transplanting of plants in the school-room gives a quiet occupation

to boys and girls who for a time may not be engaged in study. The

disobedient child or the would-be "smart" one might better be denied

the privilege. I say "privilege," because the wise teacher will make

window gardening a privilege and not required work. After the

transplanting has been completed and the plants thoroughly soaked with

water, they must be shaded for about twenty-four hours, after which they

had better receive the strong light once more, when they will resume

their growth.

PLANTS NEED WATER.

If plants could feel and talk, they would tell of periods when they had

endured great suffering because of thirst: suffering as great as that

sometimes experienced by travelers in crossing a desert. Often it has

been so great as almost to ruin a plant's constitution. I am often

asked, "How frequently shall I water plants?" It is as difficult to give

a fixed rule for watering as to determine how often a boy should be

allowed a drink. During cool cloudy weather, plants do not require as

much water as when the sun shines bright and hot on them. I can give no

better general direction than this:--water plants when the surface of

the soil seems dry and powder-like, when a pinch of it rolled between

the thumb and finger does not form a little ball. Under conditions in

which the drainage is good, plants should receive water until the

surplus begins to trickle out of the holes at the bottom. If you follow

these directions carefully, your schoolroom garden should afford a good

lot of plants for cultivation at home in the open ground or in boxes.

WHAT YOU MAY PLANT.

As to the kind of seeds to sow, you must be governed by what you most

desire to have in your home garden for summer cultivation. If you are

able to have a garden in the open ground, I would have you make a

selection of both flowers and vegetables. Do not choose a large variety

of either, for children are but little men and women and must shape

their tasks to fit their shoulders. It would be better to have a garden

the size of a horse blanket and have it in good condition all summer

than to have a larger one and allow it to become a wilderness of weeds.

In the vegetable line, you can have radishes and lettuce that may be

harvested by the Fourth of July. After the first crop has been removed

the ground should be spaded and wax beans planted in rows about eighteen

inches apart and the beans six inches apart in the rows. These give the

juiciest of pods, excellent for pickling. Kings and princes could have

none better. This plan gives you two crops from the same ground in one

summer. Plant radishes in rows twelve inches apart and about two inches

apart in the row. Pull them for the table when the roots are

three-quarters of an inch or a little more in diameter. Set lettuce

about three inches apart in the row, which is twice or more as thick as

the plants should be when full grown. When half grown or more every

other plant may be pulled out for table use and the remaining ones will

soon fill the vacancies.

[Illustration: _Fig. 361. A window-garden of one's own._]

In suggesting your selection of flowers, I shall mention but a few. I

have chosen the following kinds because they are not too particular or

exacting as to care, while some are equally well adapted for cultivation

either in the open ground or in window boxes. I hope you will include

sweet peas, dahlias, and gladioli in your selection. I have not named

them in this list because they are not suitable for planting in flats,

but are planted directly in the open ground where they are to spend

their lives. Gladioli and most dahlias you will not raise from seeds.

The following is a list from which you may make a selection for planting

in your school-room, to divide later with your mates for home

planting:--

Petunia }

Nasturtium } Suitable for planting either in

Sweet Alyssum } window boxes or in the open ground.

Mignonette }

Bachelor's Button }

Salvia (Flowering Sage) }

Phlox } To be planted in

Aster } the open ground.

Marigold }

Candytuft }

[Illustration: _Fig. 362. Plan of the improvement of the school ground,

shown in Fig. 365._]

MAKE A GARDEN IN A BOX.

There is no reason why you cannot have a window-box as attractive as the

one shown in Fig. 361. Plants will grow as well for you as for the

richest or the greatest man of whom you ever heard. All they require is

to be made comfortable. The two things most necessary for their comfort

are water as often as they need it, and fertile soil that will not

become hard from frequent watering. Plants in boxes need water much

oftener than those in the open ground. I once knew of a window-box on a

tin roof on the south side of the house that was watered morning, noon,

and night. Those plants must have been comfortable, for they made

thrifty growth.

When you have learned how to make plants comfortable in a flat, you will

know what is necessary for their comfort in a window-box. They should

have the same kind of earth, but more of it. The box should never be

less than eight inches wide and eight inches deep and as long as you can

afford to fill with earth and plants. There must be holes in the bottom

for drainage, and moss or small stones placed over the holes to prevent

the soil from washing away.

The plants should be set four to six inches apart in the box. At first,

this will seem too great a distance, but after a few weeks of growth,

the plants will cover all bare spots. When transplanting either to

window-boxes or to the open ground, do it the same way as when changing

plants from the cradle flat to the kindergarten flat.

I know of a brother and a sister who found enough soil to fill some

egg-shells. The shells had small drainage holes in the bottom. In time

the plants grew and became too large for the egg-shells. Then the

children went in search of more soil. They found enough to fill a few

tomato cans. These cans also had drainage holes in the bottom. In each

can they set a plant. They then put the cans into a soap box. Then they

packed excelsior into all the vacant places in the soapbox. The

excelsior helped to hold the moisture. The box stood on a back veranda

where the plants had plenty of sunshine. So long as they were

comfortable they did their best, which is as much as they could have

done if they had been in expensive vases in the grounds of the White

House at Washington.

CONSIDER YOUR SCHOOL GROUNDS.

On the last page of this leaflet are two pictures of a school-house. The

first shows how it looked when it had not a friend. The second shows

what the friendship of the teacher and the children could do for it. In

both cases the building remains the same. Look at one picture and then

at the other. See, if you can, what one thing has been done to make the

difference--a difference as great as that between a tramp and a

gentleman. A few shrubs have been planted by the friends, but the

greatest thing they did was to clean up. They took away everything that

looked untidy and shabby.

At this time of the year you see many beautiful crocuses, tulips,

daffodils, and hyacinths. Nothing children can plant will give so much

for the labor as these bulbs. Why not have some on the school grounds?

When school begins next September, write me for directions how to grow

them.

[Illustration: _Fig. 363. Product of a child's garden._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 364. School premises before improving._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 365. School premises after improving._

_Could you not do as much for your school grounds?_]

LEAFLET LXXVI.

THE GARDENS AND THE SCHOOL GROUNDS.[97]

BY JOHN W. SPENCER.

[97] Junior Naturalist Monthly, June, 1903.

MY DEAR BOYS AND GIRLS:

[Illustration]

Of course you believe that Columbus discovered America, even though you

were not with him. If you had been on the deck of his ship when San

Salvador raised its head on the rim of the sea, you would be talking

about it every day of your life. As it is, your knowledge comes to you

through books, and you think you are fortunate if you are able to answer

questions correctly on examination. This leads me to remark that there

is much more interest in things that we have helped to "make happen"

than in things that we read about and that were "made to happen" by some

one else.

There is a chance for each of you boys and girls, in a way, to become a

Columbus. It is true that, not counting the north and south poles, all

the continents are discovered, but there is much pleasure and "fun" in

discovering facts. I am now speaking from experience. I think that James

Buchanan was President when I learned, in such a way that I could

explain to others, the principles of a suction-pump. Some of the

suggestions led me to make a squirt gun from a bit of elder stalk.

Sometimes when I made a demonstration the water would fly in the faces

of my audience. I started a squirt gun factory, but the teacher stopped

the enterprise because it made too much litter in the school-room.

I have a suggestion that will start you on a voyage of discovery. When

you have gone as far as you can I wish you would write me, telling what

you have learned. Writers of agricultural books sometimes use the

expression, "There is fertility in tillage." Is that true?

By fertility is meant the power of the soil to furnish plant-food.

Fertile soil is "rich" soil. By tillage is meant frequent stirring of

the soil. For example, Billy Boy and his chum each have a flower garden

side by side of equal size. Each boy sows seeds from the same bag. The

same sunshine and the same rains give vigor to each flower-bed alike.

Billy Boy spades the soil deep and makes it fine. His chum stirs the top

and leaves clods on the surface. With the end of a sharp stick Billy

makes a straight drill for the seed. On the bottom of the drill the soil

is fine like meal, and the seed is sown with great care and is covered

with the finest soil. If the seed is small he makes the soil covering

very thin. The last thing he does is to firm the soil by patting it with

either his hand or the flat part of a hoe, and he does it in an

affectionate way as if he were patting a dog. His chum makes the drill

for the seed in a hasty way, leaving in the bottom little clods of earth

as large as hickory nuts. He sows the seed as if he were glad to get rid

of it, and he covers it as if he wanted it out of sight as soon as

possible.

Which of the two boys gave the better tillage to the soil? During the

summer you will see how others care for their plants and you will see

instances of good tillage and poor tillage. You must observe and write

me which of the two had the better success in having the seed come up.

The difference between the two ways does not end in sowing and

germination of seed, but continues all summer until the end of the

season. Billy Boy will care for the soil by combing it with a rake

several times a week, with the same care and affection with which the

lover of a horse will groom the animal each morning. The chum will think

the plants are all like goats, and ought to live with almost any chance.

Billy Boy will have no weeds among his plants and his chum will have

them in great numbers. The chum may say that weeds shade the plants and

thereby protect them from drought. I have known grown-up farmers to say

that. Is it true? Go on a voyage of discovery and find out.

I hope your garden may be of the Billy Boy kind, receiving plenty of

tillage. You will have no trouble to find any number of the other kind

of gardens growing to weeds and receiving no tillage. It will please me

very much if you will write me, giving as many reasons as you can why

tillage makes the soil more fertile (or "rich") and able to produce

better plants and flowers. Each letter will be carefully read.

AN EXPERIMENT.

Perhaps you can answer the questions by watching your garden or some

one's else garden; but you can answer them better if you will grow a few

"hills" of corn. In the fall I shall have many questions to ask you

about corn, and I want you to be able to answer by telling me what you

have seen with your own eyes. Those of you who are Junior Naturalists

have done well with your dues this year, but we must always do better

next year than we did last; so I want you to know many things about

Indian corn when you come back to school in the fall. Your teacher has

also been asked to study corn, and I am going to study it myself. I am a

farmer and I have grown corn all my life. Once I thought that I knew all

about it; but frequently some one asks me a question about it that I

cannot answer.

Now, I hope that you can plant at least ten "hills" of corn, or, if you

do not plant it in "hills," you may make two rows, each of them five or

ten feet long. I want you to plant part of these hills (or one of the

rows) in good rich soil. Perhaps your father will let you plant them in

the best part of the garden along with the cabbages or other crops; or,

perhaps, your mother will let you plant them at the back part of the

flower garden. Then I want you to keep down the weeds and break or

cultivate the ground often with a hoe or rake so that the soil is always

loose. Then I want you to plant the other part of the corn in a poor or

dry piece of ground, where the weeds grow. This part you need not

cultivate. I think that before the summer is half over you will learn a

very great lesson by looking at these two pieces of corn. Some of you

will say that you know beforehand what will happen; but I want you to

grow the corn nevertheless.

By fall I hope you will be able to write me whether you can tell a rich

soil when you see it, and also why you think it is rich. I want everyone

of the Junior Gardeners to tell me that much when school opens.

* * * * *

_To the Teacher:_

We must depend upon your courtesy to help in reporting what has been

done by you and your pupils in improvement of school grounds. In

addition to this we hope it may be your pleasure to ask all the children

who are able to write to tell us in detail, at some language period,

what they have done. We are never able to get reports of all this good

work. Many teachers feel that nothing but heroic deeds in the planting

of school grounds are worthy of mention. This is a mistake. Some grounds

may be more improved by attention to simple tidiness than by expensive

planting, and they are equally worthy of mention.

The attendance at some schools is small and the pupils are young. Small

efforts from them are relatively great when compared with what is done

by schools with ample facilities. We know a teacher who began her first

teaching in the fall of 1902. The pupils were eight in number and most

of them were small. The school was in the country. The interior of the

building was shabby. The teacher was courageous and resolute. With her

small handful of not over-competent pupils, she had school "exercises"

and the children sold tickets. By this means enough paper was bought to

cover the walls, and the teacher and the children put the paper on. Then

they made other sales, for which they received as commission three

pictures creditably framed. They were hung on the walls of the

school-house. By this time, the tide of civic improvement in that

community began to turn towards the improving of the school building and

grounds. We are eagerly awaiting reports to know what was done on Arbor

Day. Under such conditions, it was no small thing that the teacher and

children accomplished.

[Illustration: _Fig. 366. Making a school-garden in Massachusetts._]

LEAFLET LXXVII.

SOMETHING FOR YOUNG FARMERS.[98]

BY JOHN W. SPENCER.

[98] Supplement to Junior Naturalist Monthly, April, 1902.

MY DEAR NEPHEWS AND NIECES:

[Illustration]

I wish to make farmers of you all. I will try to tell you how to have

farms all your own--farms on which you can plant seeds and see the

plants grow. Once a little girl in Buffalo, who is one of my Junior

Naturalists, asked me whether I would call at her home and see the

harvest from seeds she planted on one of her farms the spring before.

The principal of the school went with me, for he knew all about the

little girl's success, and seemed proud of what she had accomplished.

What do you think it was she had raised? It was something that filled

her lap and was good to eat. It was a fine pumpkin. It weighed

twenty-two pounds. I wish I could have a photograph of her holding the

pumpkin, her face glowing with pride and satisfaction.

You are surely able to do as much as this little girl did. Perhaps you

would prefer some other crop to pumpkins, in which case you have many

kinds of seeds from which to choose.

Last spring, in school, this little girl with other boys and girls began

planting and caring for egg-shell farms. It costs no money and but

little trouble to own several such farms. The greatest pleasure and

profit is to be found in having them in school, for then you have the

opportunity of seeing how others manage their farms, and there is a spur

in doing what others are doing. When you have read all about my plan I

wish you would ask your teacher whether you cannot have some egg-shell

farms in your grade. When your plants are large enough to put

permanently in the open ground, you can plant them in a garden or

window-box at your home. If it is not convenient to have egg-shell

farms at school, ask your parents if you cannot have some at home.

Please give me your ears and your attention while I tell you how to get

your farms.

In April you have eggs at some one of the three meals of the day, and

the empty shells can be easily obtained. The end of the shell to be

broken is the sharp or "peaked" end. Break away about a quarter or a

third of it and pour out the white and the yolk that is inside. This

empty shell is to hold the soil of your farm, and you can have as many

farms as may be convenient to care for. On each egg-shell you may write

your name, for the same reason that people have door plates on the doors

of their houses or signs on their places of business. Some very

methodical boys and girls write also the names of the kind of seeds

sown, and the dates of planting and sprouting. Do not forget to put a

hole through the bottom of each one of your farms for drainage. I wish I

could be with you when you get your soil; we would go out to the

pastures and the woods for a supply. I should be able to tell you much

about different soils, and how they have been made. It is an interesting

story that I must tell you when we are past the hurry of spring's work.

If we could go afield we should find the best soil for your egg-shell

farms about the roots of rotted stumps or in rotted leaves. It is

necessary that the soil shall not bake hard because of frequent

waterings, shall not dry out quickly, and shall have plenty of

plant-food. I fancy the most convenient plan will be for all of you who

wish soil to form a syndicate by contributing a cent each and go to a

florist and buy your soil. Tell the florist you wish it for your use and

the probabilities are that he will be so much interested in your plants

that you will get more for the same amount of money than I could if I

were to go for you.

The next difficulty will be to keep your farms right side up. That is

easily accomplished by putting some sand or sawdust in a shallow box and

making a dent where you wish each farm to stand. If you have your farms

in the school-room, Tom, Dick, and Harry can have all their farms in the

same box. There will be no trouble in separating them if the owner's

name is written on each one.

Next comes the planting of seeds and the problem of the amount of earth

to put over them. Big seeds require more covering than little seeds.

Seeds like peas, beans, and corn may be thrust into the middle of your

farm. Small seeds, like those of the petunia, which are almost like

dust, require only the gentlest sprinkling of soil. Seeds as large as

those of the aster and the balsam should be covered with a layer of

earth as thick as a lead pencil. I advise you to plant twice as many

seeds as you wish to have grow. Many accidents may happen and if all

grow, the surplus plants can be replanted later or thrown away. The

earth covering should be sprinkled or sifted over the seeds, and then it

must be patted or pressed down firmly. By this means the particles of

soil are snuggled close together, and the seed and the soil hold

moisture much better than when the particles lie loose and far apart.

The next thing to do after planting is to sprinkle water over your

farms. Do this as gently as possible, for with all your care some seeds

may be uncovered. Look over the ground carefully, and those you find

exposed poke into the earth with the point of a pencil or a stick.

The soil of your farms must be kept moist at all times. This is a point

that will require your continued attention. When your Uncle John

attended school, many years ago, there was a passage in his reader that

taught him that "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." The

attention required to keep plants suitably watered does not fall much

short of eternal vigilance. This need not scare you. If you care for

your farms you will find it a pleasure to wait on your plants.

If you have your egg-shell farms in the school-room, there will be no

opportunity to water your plants Saturday or Sunday, when school is not

in session. I think if you make your farms soaking wet Friday at the

close of school, and then set them back from the window out of the

direct rays of the sun, no harm will come from dryness before Monday

morning.

You must watch to see whether all members of the same family do the same

thing precisely alike. After sowing your seeds and watering your farms

you will go to them many times to see whether anything has happened. You

will not be able to see anything or hear anything, and you will conclude

that nothing is going on in the soil.

In this you will be mistaken, for some active changes are taking place.

They are of a kind that you can neither see nor hear. In days to come,

when you are men and women, you will be able to appreciate the fact that

some of the most important events come about silently and some of the

least important come with a racket.

The first leaves that appear on most plants are called the seed-leaves.

If your plants are comfortable, but a few days will pass before true

leaves develop. You will find the latter very different from the

seed-leaves. Before the first or seed-leaves appear it is not important

that your farms have the strong sunlight. In fact I always put my

egg-shell farms in the shade while the seeds are germinating, but at the

first peep of a leaf or stem I put them in the full sunshine.

Most of you will no doubt have your farms on the window ledge. Among the

first things you will observe is a way all the leaves have of looking

out of doors. If you turn your farms around so the leaves are looking in

the room, the time will not be long before all of them will be faced out

of doors again. Once on a time one of my Junior Naturalists told me that

plants take to sunshine as a duck does to water. A duck is never so

comfortable as when in water; and I am certain that sunshine is

important to the comfort of most plants. Some of my nephews and nieces

will understand why light is so necessary to plants, for I have spoken

of this before.

I hope you will this moment decide to have some egg-shell farms, and sow

some seed immediately after getting your soil. Later, when the plants

are large enough to plant in the open ground, we will talk of what is

best to do with them. In Leaflet LII you will find a picture of an

egg-shell farm.

LEAFLET LXXVIII.

BULBS.[99]

BY JOHN W. SPENCER.

[99] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899.

A BULB GARDEN.

[Illustration]

"It's rather dark in the earth to-day,"

Said one little bulb to his brother;

"But I thought that I felt a sunbeam ray--

We must strive and grow till we find the way?"

And they nestled close to each other.

Then they struggled and toiled by day and by night

Till two little snowdrops in green and white,

Rose out of the darkness and into the light,

And softly kissed one another.--_Boston Journal._

To succeed with the cultivation of flowers, the first thing to have in

mind is to make the plant comfortable. This condition should be not only

the first thought, but also the last thought. If you can do this

successfully, the plant will do the rest of the work and your results

will be abundant.

What plant comfort is, is a question more easily suggested than

answered, for it is a very large subject--about as large as the surface

of the earth. As a venture we will say that there are as many different

kinds of plants as there are people. It is at least safe to say that

plants have as many different notions as to their conditions of life as

have the people of the different nations and tribes of the world.

If you were to have a birthday party and should invite as your guests

the children from the four corners of the earth, and by magic could

bring them to you in a jiffy, the boys and girls from Greenland would

come enfolded in seal-skin, and those from Hawaii would bring only their

bathing suits. You would have a busy time keeping them comfortable, for

when you opened the door to cool off the little Greenlanders, the little

Kanakas would complain of too much draft; and at the table the former

would ask if you happened to have some tallow candles for dessert, and

the latter would ask for bread-fruit and bananas.

Many of our flowering plants have been brought together from such remote

quarters as that. We have bulbs from Holland, and pansies from England,

and phlox from the dry atmosphere of Texas.

[Illustration: _Fig. 367. The Snow-drop._]

There is as much difference in the conditions necessary for comfort in

these different plants as there is in the requirements of the little

Eskimos and little Polynesians. To some extent, plants can change their

manner of living, but in the main they are happiest when they can have

their own way, just as you and I are.

We cannot bring about the foggy, damp weather of Holland and England

when we want it; neither can we bring the dry atmosphere of Texas--air

so dry that meat will cure hard in the hottest weather without tainting.

It so happens, however, that from one Fourth of July to the next we have

many kinds of weather, and if one could not find conditions suited to

almost any kind of plant it would be strange. If we cannot make the

weather accommodate itself to the best comfort of the plant, we must set

the plant so as to accommodate itself to the weather.

Pansies from foggy England and bulbs from the lowlands of Holland should

be planted to bloom in the cool days of spring, and the phlox from Texas

will prosper in the heat and drought of July and August.

With this idea well fixed in your mind, you will easily see that when

you know the country from which a plant has come, a knowledge of the

physical geography of that country will be helpful in knowing how to

make the plant happy and prosperous.

We must also make the plant comfortable in the soil. There is great

difference in what plants require to make them comfortable. Some, like

thistles or mullein or ragweed, will thrive on almost any soil and are

no more exacting as to food than a goat or a mule; but other plants are

as notional as children reared in the lap of luxury. As a rule,

flowering plants belong to the "lap-of-luxury" class.

Soil covers the land as thin skin covers an apple or as a thin coat of

butter covers bread, and it holds more or less plant-food. When men

erect school buildings and afterwards grade the ground they usually turn

a part of the soil upside down. There is also considerable rubbish of

the builders left scattered about, such as brick-bats, chips of stone,

and the like, that go to make the place an uncomfortable one for

notional plants. For this reason I wish particularly to call your

attention to the manner in which you should prepare the ground on which

you intend to plant. The first thing to do is to spade the ground

thoroughly to the depth of at least ten inches. All stones as large as a

big boy's fist should be thrown out, and all lumps given a bat with the

back of the spade to break them into fine particles. This is to be a

flower-bed and should be soft like your own bed. It would be better to

make it up more than once. After the first spading it would be well to

cover the bed with a coat of stable fertilizer to a depth of six to

eight inches, which will give additional plant-food; and in spading the

second time, this fertilizer will become thoroughly mixed with the soil.

The surface should next be raked smooth, and your flower-bed will then

be ready for planting.

We all admire the bright bulb flowers that are among the first to

blossom in the spring. These mostly come from Holland, or at least

attain their perfection there. We have just spoken of the importance of

planting flowers at such a time that they may live their career when our

climate is most like that from which they come. In the case of bulbs,

spring and early summer is the most favorable time for them in this

country, and fall is the proper time for planting.

The exact time in the fall to plant, how to plant, what bulbs to plant,

when to put a winter overcoat on the bed, and other details, I will

leave for Mr. Hunn to tell in the following Leaflet. He has had many

years' experience in the management of flowers, and I advise you to read

carefully what he says.

[Illustration: _Fig. 368. A bulb bed at the school house._]

LEAFLET LXXIX.

A TALK ABOUT BULBS BY THE GARDENER.[100]

BY C. E. HUNN.

[100] Nature-Study Quarterly, October, 1899.

[Illustration]

Perhaps you would like to hear from the gardener. Your Uncle John has

told you something about preparing a bed for your plants. His advice is

very good; but the bulbs we are to talk about are like those notional

children whom he mentions and they do not want tallow candles for any

part of their meal.

You should know that bulbs do not want to come into direct contact with

the stable fertilizer. They want the fertilizer below them where the

feeding roots may nibble at it when the bulb is hard at work developing

the leaves and flower. You know that all the leaves and the flowers were

made the year before, and the bulb simply holds them until the new roots

have formed. No kind of treatment will make a bulb produce more flowers

than were formed in the year it grew (last year); but the better the

treatment the larger and finer the flowers will be.

If I wanted to make a bulb bed, I should choose, if possible, a sandy

soil and throw out the top soil to the depth of six inches. Then I

should put into the bottom of the bed about two inches of well rotted

manure and spade it into the soil. Then I should throw back half of the

top soil, level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed, and

then cover them with the remainder of the soil; in this way you will

have the bulbs from three to four inches below the surface. It is dark

down there and in the fall months the top of the ground is cooler than

at the depth of five or six inches and the top of the bulb will not want

to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry, will send out

roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring.

When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the

bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks,

or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of six inches if the material

is coarse; but if you use leaves, three inches will be enough, because

the leaves lie close together and may smother out the frost that is in

the ground and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep

until spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March

and early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are

near or above the surface. Early in April the covering may be removed

gradually and should all be off the beds before the leaves show above

the ground.

[Illustration: _Fig. 369. Simple designs for bulb beds._]

Perhaps many of you cannot find a sandy place for your beds; if not,

make your beds as has been told you, leaving the stones in the bottom of

the bed for drainage. Then, when you are ready to set the bulb, place a

large handful of sand where your bulb is to go and set your bulb on it;

this will keep the water from standing around the bulb. Very good

results may be obtained on heavy soil by this method.

What kind of bulbs shall we put into these beds? Choose hyacinths,

tulips, narcissus, or daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various

colors around the edge.

If you use hyacinths you can have the national colors, red, white, and

blue, or many shades of either color, as shown in the diagrams (Fig.

369). Of tulips you can have stars or ribbons of yellow, white, or

crimson, or in fact almost any color except true blue. In narcissus,

yellow, sulfur, and white are the colors. The little crocuses come in

yellow, blue, white, and striped colors, and are in bloom and gone

before the large flowers take your attention. Many other bulbs are fine

for spring flowering; but as most of them are more difficult to grow

and many of them rather expensive, I do not think we will discuss them

now.

Suppose we want a bed of red, white, and blue hyacinths (Fig. 369), and

make it six feet in diameter: how many bulbs would you want? Now,

hyacinths should be planted six inches apart each way, and the outside

row should be at least three inches from the edge of the bed. You see

you will want a little over one hundred bulbs, which, if one person had

to buy them, would cost him a considerable sum; but if fifty or more

boys and girls would club together it would be easy for everyone.

If you want a bed of tulips, they should be planted four or five inches

apart instead of six inches. So you will need more bulbs; but they are

cheaper than hyacinths. The narcissus bulbs, being still smaller than

tulips, may be planted three inches apart; and the little crocuses, the

first flowers of spring, should touch one another, as should also the

snowdrops.

Perhaps many of you do not wish to wait until spring for your bulbs to

flower, in which case we must try to persuade them to bloom through the

winter, say at Christmas. Nearly all bulbs are good-natured, and may be

coaxed to do things that nature never asks them to do; so if we go at it

right we shall find it very easy to make them think their time to bloom

has come, even if the ground is covered with snow and the ice is thick

on the ponds. Hyacinths, narcissus, and crocus can all be made to flower

in the winter by starting this way. Get the bulbs so as to be able to

pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier all the better.

The soil should be rich, sandy loam if possible; if not, the best you

can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of sand and mix

thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in the bottom a

few pieces of broken pots, charcoal, or small stones for drainage; then

fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the dirt the

top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill around it with

soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the dirt. If the

soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful of sand under

the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in the beds

outdoors. If you do not have pots you may use boxes. Starch boxes are a

good size to use as they are not heavy to handle; and I have seen

excellent flowers on bulbs planted in old tomato cans. If boxes or cans

are used, care must be taken to have holes in the bottoms to let the

water run out. A large-size hyacinth bulb will do well in a five-inch

pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcissuses or eight to

twelve crocuses.

After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they

should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar or on

the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to

the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to

grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will

give good flowers. When the weather gets cold enough so that a crust is

frozen on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and

as the weather gets colder more straw must be used. From six to eight

weeks after planting, the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow

the plant, and the pots may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a

week or so; after which, if the plants have started into growth, they

may be taken into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light.

They will grow very rapidly now and will want lots of water; after the

flowers begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the

time. When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part

of the time to help bring out the color of the flowers. Fig. 370 shows a

pot of tulips.

[Illustration: _Fig. 370. Pot of tulips._]

I want to tell you of two bulbs that do not need so much fussing with to

get them to bloom for Christmas. One of them is called freesia (Fig.

371) and if I could have but one kind of bulb to flower in the winter, I

should choose this. The little bulbs are not half as large as crocus

bulbs and you will be astonished at the large leaves and flowers such a

bulb can produce. The bulbs are about the cheapest of all winter bulbs

and they grow without putting them away to make roots, as the tops do

not seem as impatient to start as those of most other bulbs, but wait

until there are roots to help them along. The flowers are borne on a

slender stem and look very graceful, either on the plant or in bouquets.

They are also very fragrant, and a pot with five or six bulbs will

perfume a large room. All they need is good light soil, sunlight, water,

and warmth to make glad the heart of anyone who plants them.

[Illustration: _Fig. 371. Pot of the freesia._]

The other bulb I should select is the oriental narcissus or Chinese

sacred lily. This grows in water without any soil whatever. Just take a

bowl or glass dish about three times the size of the bulb; put some

pretty stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with

stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or

three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet;

then fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it

evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the

fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume and you

will have the pleasure of watching the roots start and grow, the top

throw up long green leaves, and the flower clusters develop and open

their flowers. Hyacinths may also be grown in water, but not as easily

as this narcissus, or in such inexpensive dishes.

[Illustration: _Fig. 372. Winter box of bulbs._]

The picture (Fig. 372) of a bulb box was taken last winter from a box of

mixed bulbs grown at Cornell. The calla in the center and the Kenilworth

ivy trailing over the front were planted in the box in September, and

pots of geraniums and other plants set on the dirt to fill the space.

When the bulbs that were in pots were ready to be started they were

taken out of the pots and set in the dirt in the box, where they grew

and flowered; the tall stems are paper white narcissus, the best variety

for winter. On each side there is a hyacinth just starting and in front

a little freesia in bloom. When these bulbs were done flowering, small

pots of blooming plants were set on the box and a charming window box

was obtained with many different things in it through the winter.

WHERE TO PLANT BULBS; AND OTHER ADVICE FOR THE OUTDOOR GARDEN.

A large part of the beauty of the flower-bed lies in its position. A

flower-bed in the middle of the lawn is usually out of place. It has no

"setting," as the artists say. It lacks background. It is merely an

incidental thing dropped into the sward. It is out of place. A

flower-bed should belong to some part of the general planting of the

grounds, or it should be a part of the border or boundary surrounding

the place. The center of any grounds should be left open, or free from

heavy planting. A few trees may be planted in the center, if one desires

shade; but all the masses of foliage and flowers should be somewhere

near the sides or else near the foundations of the house or near other

definite boundary lines. In such places the flower-bed is supported by

other herbage. It has relation to something else. It forms a part of a

general picture; and every good yard should be a picture.

Along the borders the beds are usually more easily cared for than they

are in the center of the lawn. In the latter place they are in danger of

being trampled over, and the roots of the grass run underneath the bed

and absorb the food and moisture which the flowers need. The beauty of a

formal bed in the center of the lawn is destroyed if some of the plants

are injured or do not develop. Symmetry is part of its merit. If,

however, the bed is along the border, a few vacant places in the bed do

not attract great attention. In school grounds it is well to have the

beds somewhat near together or continuous, in order that the labor of

taking care of them may be less.

It is always well to plant profusely. Much of the beauty of a flower-bed

lies in an abundance of color. One must consider, also, that some of the

roots, seeds, or bulbs may fail. Some of them may not grow in the first

place, and others may be injured by weather or by accidents. It is well

to provide for all these contingencies.

One of the best plants to use for the school bulb garden is the crocus,

because the bulbs are cheap and very hardy. The mixed bulbs, comprising

all the common colors, can be had for forty or fifty cents per hundred

at retail, and if one should buy them in considerable quantities, they

could be had for less than this. A thousand bulbs of mixed crocuses

should be got for three dollars or a little more, and these would make a

great display along the fence or walks of any school garden. One of the

ways to grow crocuses is to plant the bulbs in the grass, not cutting

out the grass where they are planted. That is, they grow right in the

sod. By the time the lawn needs to be mown in the spring, the flowers

are gone and the crocuses can be cut with the grass. The crocuses will

not last so long in a mown sod as they will in beds which are especially

prepared for them, but they will ordinarily give good results for two or

three years if the land is good; and they are so cheap that they can be

renewed from time to time.

Other good, hardy bulbs for fall planting out-of-doors, aside from

lilies, are hyacinth, snowdrop, snowflake, tulip, narcissus of various

kinds (including daffodils and jonquils), grape hyacinth, squill. All

these are early spring bloomers and will delight the children's eyes.

[Illustration: _Fig. 373. A good arrangement of shrubbery and

flower-beds._]

LEAFLET LXXX.

HORSES.[101]

BY ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and I. P. ROBERTS.

[101] Junior Naturalist Monthly, December, 1904.

[Illustration]

A few minutes ago I went into the stable to see Peg and Nan, the two bay

horses. On the outside of each stall I found a door-plate, with _Nan_

written in large, black letters on one, _Peg_ on the other. I visited

each old friend in turn.

They are quite different in disposition, these two horses. Nan is

gentle, affectionate, patient; Peg is spirited, unfriendly, restless. I

am very fond of them both and as yet have not been able to decide which

I enjoy the more, quiet Nan or spirited Peg.

All horses are interesting to me. As I take my daily walk, I like to

look at the different ones I meet along the way. There is the baker's

horse and the butcher's; the doctor's horse, sleek and active; the heavy

gray horses that haul loads of coal up the hill all through the winter

weather; "Old Speckle," the postman's horse; and the friendly bay I so

often see feeding in the meadow.

[Illustration: _Fig. 374. Nan._]

Of all these wayside acquaintances, I like best the one I meet in the

meadow. Perhaps I associate him with the meadow-lark's song, the fresh,

green grass, and the gay little dandelions that were about when I first

crossed his path; or, perhaps our friendship progressed more rapidly

than city streets ever will permit. He seems to know when I am

approaching and raises his head in welcome. I always pet him and talk to

him a bit, and we both know that two friends have met.

There are many things about horses that everyone ought to know. If we

were to ask Junior Naturalists how coach horses differ from roadsters

and how roadsters differ from draft horses, how many would be able to

tell us?

Perhaps you will ask, "What is a draft horse?" The draft horse has short

legs, a heavy body, a short, thick neck, broad deep chest and shoulders,

strong hocks and moderately large feet. It may be that your father owns

a draft horse. Ask him whether it is a Percheron, a Clydesdale, or an

English Shire. These are the most familiar breeds of draft horses. The

Percherons came from France and at first they were gray. Now they are

often black or dark brown. The Shires, commonly bay, brown or sorrel,

came from England; and the Clydesdales, similar in appearance to the

Shires but smaller and more active, came from Scotland.

[Illustration: _Fig. 375. A typical draft horse._]

All boys and girls know coach horses. As you stand by the school-room

window, you may see one pass. They have long arched necks and fine

heads. Their bodies are rounded and well proportioned.

Roadsters, trotters, and saddle horses are usually not so large as

coachers. Their necks are inclined to be longer and their chests

narrower than in the coach horse; however, their muscles and tendons are

strong.

[Illustration: _Fig. 376. Welsh pony and its mother._]

Now you must not think that just because a horse is drawing a load he is

a draft horse; nor because a horse is hitched to a coach he is a coach

horse; nor because he is driven on the road he is a roadster. These

three names,--draft horses, coach horses, roadsters,--represent types or

classes. They mean kinds of horses that are supposed to be best adapted

for drawing, or for coaches and carriages, or for fast driving,

providing the horse has no other work to do. But the horses that you

usually see are just mere common horses of no particular type, and are

used for a great variety of purposes. They are "nondescripts," which

means "undescribed" or "unclassified." You would not think of putting a

true draft horse, like the animal in Fig. 375, on a light carriage; nor

of hitching a coacher like that in Fig. 377 to a coal wagon. Do you

think there is any real roadster, or coach horse, or draft horse in your

neighborhood? If not, perhaps you can tell, as the horses pass you,

whether they are nearest like one type or another. Try it.

If you will observe horses closely you will find that some are large,

heavy, and strong, and that they are seldom made to move rapidly, while

others may be nearly as tall but they are slim, and carry their heads

high and their necks arched. You should also notice that the heavy draft

horse does not lift his feet high nor walk with a proud and lofty tread,

while the coach horse lifts his feet high, carries his head high, and

moves very proudly.

[Illustration: _Fig. 377. A good coacher._]

There are several breeds of draft or heavy horses. Fig. 375 shows a fine

Clydesdale horse imported from Scotland. Notice how nicely he is marked.

The horseman would say that he has four "white stockings" and plenty of

"feather" on his fetlock; strange, is it not, that this long hair should

be called feather?

If you should see a large, smooth gray horse similar to the Clyde,

without the "white stockings" or the "feather," you may conclude that he

is a Percheron horse. As we have said before, the Percheron breed of

horses came from France. It is not always gray in color. It is slightly

smaller than the Clydesdale.

After you have learned that a draft horse should be large and strong,

study the picture of the coach horse (Fig. 377). Compare him with the

draft horse. The coach horse is not a fast trotter nor even a fast

roadster, but he is usually very beautiful, strong, and stylish.

[Illustration: _Fig. 378. Arabian horse._]

Now I shall ask you to compare the neck shown in Fig. 380 with that

shown in Fig. 381. Which do you think is the more beautiful? The horse

with the long, slim neck is a noted trotter. If the neck and head were

large, would it help or hinder the trotter? Compare the neck of the

trotter with that of the draft horse and see whether you can explain why

one is heavy and the other light. Can you explain to your parents why

the draft horse should weigh more than the coach horse?

Do you admire the head and neck shown in Fig. 380? Wherein does it

differ from the others? This type is called "ewe-neck." Can you tell

why? Tell me whether you think this horse would be a safe driver.

What do you think of the head and neck of the Arabian horse (Fig-378)?

You like it, do you? Why? Can you imagine what kind of horse belongs to

that head and neck? Describe it.

Probably the Arabian horse would be too spirited for you so I shall show

you a Shetland pony. (Fig. 379.) Where is Shetland? Why are horses so

small in the country where this little fellow came from? How does he

differ from the other horses shown in the Leaflet? Note _all_ of the

differences.

[Illustration: _Fig. 379. Shetland pony._]

In Fig. 376 you will see the picture of a Welsh pony, and she has a

ponyette, a baby only a few days old. Which is the larger, the Shetland

pony or the Welsh pony? Which one would you prefer if the baby were left

out? Could you raise a calf until it became a grown cow and then trade

it for a pony? Just a plain little pony can be bought for the price of

a good cow. It is part of a good education to know how to raise and

handle cows and horses.

[Illustration: _Fig. 380. Ewe-neck, a poor horse._]

With this Leaflet in your hand, you should go to the stable, or, better

still, out on the street, and see whether you can find as good horses

and ponies as the pictures represent. As you study horses try to answer

the following questions:

1. Where is the horse's knee joint? Which way does the knee bend?

2. Where is the hock joint? Which way does it bend?

3. Can a horse sleep when standing?

4. How are the legs placed when a horse lies down?

5. How does a horse get up,--front legs first or hind legs first? How

does a cow get up?

6. When a horse starts, after standing, what foot does he put forward

first,--the left or the right? Fore or back? What foot moves next?

7. When a horse trots, do the two feet on one side move together? Or do

lefts and rights move together?

8. What does a driver mean when he says that a horse "forges" or

"over-reaches?"

9. Name the things that a horse commonly eats. What is a good feed for a

day,--how much of each thing, and when given?

[Illustration: _Fig. 381. Neck of a trotter._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 382. At pasture._]

INDEX.

["Fig." means that the page referred to contains the figure only,

no text reference.]

PAGE.

Agassiz, glacial hypothesis 105

making of surveys and maps 202, 203

Agriculture, its place in schools 45-47

Agricultural education, what it is 45-53

Air 87, 123, 124

Alfalfa 40, 354, 355, 357-360, 489-493

Alluvial fans 132

Annual rings 321, 327, 328, 329, 330, 335, 474

Ants 62, 64, (Fig.) 224, 243-251, 274, 508, 513

Ant-lions 250

Aphids 62, 68, 248-251, 539

Aphis-lion 249, 539, 540, 543

Apple, buds 328, 329

fruit 467-472

grafting of 374, 375

shape of tree 304

twigs 317-325

Apple-scab 470, (Fig.) 471

Apricot 328, 375, 377

Aquaria 59, 60, 141-156, 165, 166

Arborvitae 345, 346, 347

Asters 379-383

Azalea 331

Back-swimmers, see "Bugs."

Bagworms 61

Balsams 383

Barngrass 362

Bass, black 162

Basswood leaf-roller, see "Moths."

Beans 291, 460-466, 563, 564

Begonias 372, 373

Bees, wings of (Fig.) 224

bumble 65, 68, 351, 352

carpenter 61

honey 62, 64, 65, 353

Beet 257, 415, 416

sugar 405

Beetles 210, 223, 224, 507

engraver 61

plum curculio 68

Beetles, potato 62, 63, 68

predaceous diving 151

snapping (Fig.) 223

tiger 61

water scavenger 152

whirligig 135

wood-boring (Fig.) 223

Bibliography of nature-study 76-79

Biennial 416

Birds, leaflets on 253-290, 503, 504, 515, 516

suggestions for study 70, 71

See special birds.

Black bass, see "Bass."

Blackberry 305, 370, 375

Blackbird, redwing 263

Black-fly, see "Flies."

Bluebells 362

Bluebird 238, 261

Black-nosed dace, see "Dace."

Bordeaux mixture 381, 382, 389

Breeding cage 228

Brook, The, insects of 135-140

suggestions for study 125

work of 126-134

Brownie-bugs, see "Bugs."

Budding 376, 377

Buds

apple 317-325

apricot 328

azalea 331

butternut 474

dormant 318, 314-320, 329

elm 330

flower 319, 328, 330

hepatica 392

hickory 329, (Fig.) 330

horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474

leaf 319, 328, 330

maple 329, 473

peach 328

pear 328

pussy-willow 330

terminal 318, 474

winter 72, 331, 332, 327-336, 473, 474

Bugs, 223

brownie (Fig.) 223

back-swimmers 136, 152, 153

giant water 137, 153

June 288

Bugs, lady 210, 250

stink 223

water boatmen 136, 152

water scorpions 152, 153

water-striders 137

Bulbs 567, 577-580, 581-583

see special bulbs.

Burdock 362

Butterflies 58, 59, 61, 62, 224, 238, 544

cabbage 208, 209, 210, (Fig.) 224, 540

common blue 248

milkweed 208, 209

monarch 63, 544

viceroy 63

Butternut (Fig.) 474

Cabbage butterfly, see "Butterflies."

Caddice-worm 61, 136, 155

Cambium 375

Cankerworms 68

Carnations (Fig.) 370, 372

Carrot 257

Caterpillars 58, 62, 501

apple-tree tent 59, 69, 227-235

of cecropia moth 167, 168

cabbage 63, 68, 208, 209, 210

of codlin-moth 470

of common blue butterfly 248

of fall web-worm 61

of promethea moth 168, 169

"woolly-bear" 210, 238, 539, (Fig.) 541

Catfish 150, 161

Cat-tails 364

Cecropia moth, see "Moths."

Cereals, food value of 409-414

Chara (Fig.) 148, 149

Charcoal 144

Cherry, grafting of 377

Chestnut, grafting of 374

Chickadee 279-281, 285, 503, 504

Chickens 70, 522-524, 525, 526, 527

Child's Realm, The (poem) 451

Chinese lily, see "Narcissus."

Chipmunk 69

Choke-cherries 362

Chrysalids 58, 59

of apple-tree tent caterpillar 233

cabbage butterfly 209, 540

Chrysalids, codlin-moth 470

milkweed butterfly 208

Cicada 66, 210, (Fig.) 223, 529-535

dog-day harvest fly 534, 535

seventeen-year locust 529-535

Cion 374

Clam 150

Clarkias 383

Clay 117, 118

Clothes moth, see "Moths."

Clouds 84, 85, 88, 90

Codlin-moth, see "Moths."

Clover 124, 349-360

alsike 353

buffalo 352, 353

crimson 352

hop, see yellow.

hop trefoil, see low hop.

least hop 354

low hop 354

rabbit foot (Fig.) 353, 354

red 351, 352

scarlet, see crimson.

stone, see rabbit-foot.

zig-zag 352

See, also, "Alfalfa," "Medics," "Melilots."

Cocoons 58, 59, 167-169

of cecropia moth 167, 168

codlin-moth 508

lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543

promethea moth 168, 169

tent caterpillar (Fig.) 233, 235

"woolly-bear" 211, 539

Cockle 363

Cold-blooded animals 199

Coleus 370, 372

Common blue butterfly, see "Butterflies."

Cones, of arborvitae 345, 347

hemlock 344, 347

balsam fir 343, 347

Austrian pine 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346

pitch pine 337, 338, 346

Scotch pine 338, 339, 346

white pine (Fig.) 335, 336, 346

black spruce 341, 342, 346

Norway spruce 341, (Fig.) 342, 346

red spruce 342, 347

white spruce 342, 346

Corn, Indian 397-407, 409-414, 485-488, 571

Coreopsis 383

Corydalis, 138

Cowbird 261, 262

Crane-fly, see "Flies."

Crayfish 150

Creek chub 165

Crickets 59, 66, 543

Crocus 582, 583, 588

Crow 197, 284, 287-290, 501, 502

Cross-fertilization, see "Pollination."

Currants 305, 370, 373, (Fig.) 374, 375

Currant-worms 68

Cuttings 369-378

Cutworms 288, 400, 501

Cyanide bottle 216, 217

Dace, black-nosed 159

Daffodils 582-588

Dahlia 564

Dairy products, value in N. Y. State, 489

Damping-off 370, 371

Damsel-flies 136, 154

Dandelion 362, 363, 481, 482

Darter, Johnny 163

Delta 103, 131, 132, 133

Dew 83

Dobson 137, 138

Dock 362, 380

Dodder 360

Dog-day harvest fly, see "Cicada."

Domestic animals 70, 414

See, also, "Horses," "Poultry."

Doves 254, 261, 264

Dragon-flies 136, 154, 155, 222

Ducks 522-524, 525, 526

Duck-weed 148

Eel-grass 147, 148

Eggs, of ants 246

caterpillars 210, 229, 230, (Fig.) 235

cicada 530, 534

frogs 188

grasshoppers 210

lace-winged fly 539, 543

mosquito 238, 239

domestic fowls 524, 525

salamanders 188

spiders 181-183, 211, 288

toads 186-189, 200

Egg-shell farms 456, 566, 573-576

Electric-light bug, see "giant water bug" under "Bugs."

Elm, American 300, 303, (Fig.) 308, 309, 310-316, 330

slippery (Fig.) 299, 300, 301, 303

struggle for existence 361

Entomological supplies, dealers in 226

Evaporation 82

Evergreens 333-347

See special kinds.

Fall web-worm, see "Caterpillars."

Ferns 76, 362

Finch, grass, see "vesper sparrow" under "Sparrows."

purple 261, 265, 266

Fir, balsam 343, 347

Fireweed 364

Fish 69, 149, 150, 157-166

See special fish.

Flicker, see "Woodpeckers."

Flies 62, 224

black 139

crane (Fig.) 223

hellgrammite 138

horse 210

house 63

pomace (Fig.) 222

Flood-plain 104, 130

Flowers, pistillate 400

staminate 400

study of 71, 72

Fog 83, 86, 88, 89

Foods, value of various kinds 411, 412

bulletins on 413

Forestry 75

Fossils 107

Frog 150, 151, 188, 189, 501

Frost 426, 427

Fruits 71, 72

Galls 61

pine-cone willow 135, 136

Gardens, children's 36, 37, 40, 379-383, 559-566, 569-571, 573-576

Geese 520-522, 525, 526

Geraniums 370, 372, 419

Giant water-bug, see "Bugs."

Germination 560-562, 566, 573-576

of bean 291, 460-466

squash 291-295

Glacial scratches (Fig.) 104, 105, 108, 109, 110

Glacier (Fig.) 100, 104-113

Gladiolus 564

Gold-fish 150

Gooseberries 305, 373, 375

Grackle, bronzed 261, 262, 263

Grafting 374-378

Grape (Fig.) 363, 364, 370, 373, 375

Grape hyacinth 588

Grass 362, 363, 364, 380

Grasshoppers 56, 59, 62, 63, 66, 210, 288, 524

Guinea-pigs 70

Hail 88, 89

Hawthorn 374

Hay, value as crop in N. Y. State 489

Hellgrammite fly, see "Flies."

Hemlock 343-345, 347

Hepatica 391-393, 477, 478

Hibernation, of butterflies 61, 238

mosquitoes 238

toad 199, 200

"woolly-bear" 539

Hickory, buds 329, (Fig.) 330

small-fruited shagbark (Fig.) 298, 300

pignut (Fig.) 298, 300

High-hole, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers."

Horse-chestnut (Fig.) 474

Horse-fly, see "Flies."

Horses 589-594

See, also, "Domestic Animals."

Horticulture 75

House-fly, see "Flies."

Hyacinth 582, 583, 586, 588

Ichneumon flies 210

Imperial moth, see "Moths."

Indian turnip, see "Jack-in-the-Pulpit."

Insects, cage for 539, (Fig.) 540

how to collect and preserve 213-226

of a brook 135-140

suggestions for study 58-69

Isabella moth, see "Moths."

Jack-in-the-Pulpit 395, 396, 479, 480

Johnny Darters, see "Darter."

June bug, see "Bugs."

Katydid 66

Kingfisher 261, 266

Knotweed 262

Lace-winged fly 539, 540, 543, 544

Lady-bugs, see "Bugs."

Leaf-miners 60

Leaf-rollers 60

basswood (Fig.) 224

Leaf-scars 474

of evergreens 334

Leaves, autumn colors 71, 426, 427, 483

fall of 427

functions of 424, 425, 426, 483

Lenses 228

Lettuce 563, 564

Lightning 89, 91

Lilac 305

Lime 118

Lobster 50

Locusts, mouth parts 530

seventeen-year, see "Cicada."

Lucerne, see "Alfalfa."

Luna moths, see "Moths."

Maple, black 428

box elder 428

goose-foot, see striped.

mountain 427, (Fig.) 429

Norway 329, 428

planting of 446

red 428, (Fig.) 429, (Fig.) 473

silver 428

striped 427, (Fig.) 428

sugar 73, 74, 329, 423-430

swamp, see red.

Maple sugar 431-434

Maps, construction of 202-205

Martins 254

May-flies 138, 139

Meadow-lark 261, 263, 264, 274

Medics 350, 351

black 355

hop, see black

toothed 355

spotted 355

See, also, "Alfalfa."

Melilots 350, 351

white sweet clover 356

yellow sweet clover 356

Bokhara clover 356

Mice 69

Milkweed butterfly, see "Butterflies."

Mineral matter, in seeds 410, 411

in soils 100

Minnows 149, 165

Monarch butterfly, see "Butterflies."

Moraine 110

Mosquitoes 58, 59, 62, 153, 154, 237-241, 272

Moths, how to collect 222

how to distinguish from butterflies 224

life cycle 169

basswood leaf-roller (Fig.) 224

cecropia 167, 168

clothes 68

codlin 68, 468-471, 508

imperial (Fig.) 225

Isabella tiger 539, (Fig.) 542

luna (Fig.) 226

promethea 167, 168, 169

scallop-shell 61

tussock 68

underwing (Fig.) 225

Moulting, of caterpillars 232

cicada 531

snake 198

toad 198, 199

Mudwasps, see "Wasps."

Mulching, of soil 120, 121, 122, 380, 381

Mullein 362, 579

Museum pests 219, 220

Mushrooms 74

Narcissus 582, 583, 588

oriental 585, 586

Nature-study, outline of movement 21-29

suggestions for (graded course and bibliography) 55-79

what it is 11-20

Nettles 364

N. Y. Teachers, An appeal to 31-43

N. Y. State Teachers' Library 148

Nitella (Fig.) 148, 149

Nitrogen 350, 360

Note-taking 455-457, 458, 459, 460-466

Nuthatch, white-breasted 283-286

red-breasted 285

Nutmeg 409

Oaks, grafting of 374

scarlet 300

swamp white 300

Oil, in seeds 398, 405, 410

Oriole 515, 516

Parsley 363

Parsnips 257

Parrot's feather (Fig.) 148, 149

Peaches 328, 375, 377

Pear 374, 375

Pepperidge 300, 301, 304, 309

Petunias 383

Phlox 383

Phoebe 280, 361, 363

Pigeons 254

Pigweeds 362, 367

Pines, Austrian 338, 339, (Fig.) 340, 346

pitch 336-338, 346

Scotch 338, 339, 346

Pitchforks 362

Plantain 362

Plants, breeding of 389, 390, 405-407, 411

planting of 367, 368

physiology of 72, 73, 74, 142, 424-427

societies of 361-365

Plums 375, 377

Plum curculio, see "Beetles."

Pokeweed 364

Pollination 351, 352, 400

Polliwogs, see "Tadpoles."

Pomace flies, see "Flies."

Ponies 593, 594

Pop-corn 488

Poplar, Carolina 444

cutting of 373

Lombardy 301, (Fig.) 303, 304

Poppies 383

Potatoes 370, 374, 385-390, 407

Pot-holes 133

Poultry 517-527

See, also, "Domestic Animals."

Predaceous diving beetles, see "Beetles."

Promethea moth, see "Moths."

Protective coloration 62, 63

Protein 398, 405

Pruning 417-421, 444, 475, 476

Pumpkin 401

Pupa, of ants 244, 245, 246

butterflies, see "Chrysalids."

mosquitoes 239, 240

moths, see "Chrysalids."

Quince 374

Rabbit 56, 70

Radish 563, 564

Ragweed 362, 579

Raindrops 86, 88, 89, 90

Rainfall 119, 123

Raspberry 305, 375

Robin 238, 261, 499, 500

Rock flour 110

Roots, growing point of 293, 294

Rose (Fig.) 371

Rust, on asters 381, 382

Salamanders 188, 197, 501, 539-544

Sand 117, 120

Sapsucker, see "Woodpeckers."

Sassafras 301, (Fig.) 302, 309

Scale insects 68

Scallop-shell moth, see "Moths."

School grounds, improvement of 35, 38-41, 437-447, 566-568, 571, 572

Schoolroom, The 9

Scion, see "Cion."

Seed, dispersal of 72

dormant 409, 410

uses of stored food 409-414

See, also, "Germination."

Shiner 162, 165

Shower, A Summer 81-91

Silage 403

Siphon 144

Skipper, silver spotted 61

Sleep, of flowers 72

Slug 149

Smartweed 362, 380

Snakes 197, 198, 501

Snails 143, 148, 149

Snow 84, 85, 93-97, 453, 454

Snowball bush 305

Snowdrops 582, 583, 588

Snowflakes 588

Soil 99-114

value of various kinds 115-124

in school gardens 560, 570, 571, 574, 579, 581

Sparrows, fox 264, 265

song 261, 265

tree 265

white-crowned 265

white-throated 261, 265

vesper 265

Spiders 65, 66, 68, 69, 171-183, 211, 249, 288

Spraying 68, 69

Springs 126

Spruce, black 341-343, 346

Norway 339-341, (Fig.) 342, 346

red 342, 343, 347

Squash 291-295, 407

Squill 588

Squirrel, red 435, 436

black 435

how to study 69

Starch 331, 386, 387, 398, 405, 410, 483

Stems, growing point of 295

Stickleback 163

Stink-bugs, see "Bugs."

Stock, for grafting 374

Stone-flies 138, 140

Storms, snow 93-97, 453, 454

thunder 86, 87, 90

Stratification 133

Stream-cutting 127-129, 133

Stream deposition 104, 130, 133

Struggle for existence 74, 75, 361, 410, 418

Sumac 431, 433, 466

Sunfish 161

Sweet clover, see "Melilots."

Sweet-peas 379-383, 564

Swallow, tree 254

Tadpoles 135, 189-193

Tape-grass 147, 148

Terrarium 207-212, 537-544

Thistle 364, 579

Thunder 89

Thorn-apple 301, (Fig.) 303, 309

Tillage 570, 571

Tomato 374

Trees, winter aspect of 297-305

how to draw 307-316

how to plant 444-446

see special kinds.

Tree-toads 188, 189, 210

Tussock moth, see "Moths."

Underwing moth, see "Moths."

Virginia creeper 444

Vireo 515

Verbena 372

Vegetables 71

Viceroy butterfly, see "Butterflies."

Walking-sticks 63

Warm-blooded 199

Wasps 62, 63, (Fig.) 224

mud 136

Water 120, 126

Water boatmen, see "Bugs."

Watercress 148

Waterfalls 129, 133

Water-milfoil (Fig.) 148, 149

Water-purslane (Fig.) 148, 149

Water-scavenger beetle, see "Beetle."

Water-scorpion, see "Bugs."

Water-strider, see "Bugs."

Water-tiger 152

Weeds 74

Wheat 411

Whirligig beetle, see "Beetles."

Willows 305, 373, 443, 446

pussy 330

Wire-grass 362

Wire-worms 400

Woodpeckers 269-277, 505-513

downy 269, 270, 271, 284, 507-510

flicker 274-277, 512, 513

golden-winged, see flicker.

hairy 269, 270, 271, 284

red-head 272, 505-507

sapsucker 270, 271, 272, 510-512

Wrens 254

Yarup, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers."

Yellow-hammer, see "flicker" under "Woodpeckers."

Zinnias 383

[Transcriber's Note:

Alternative spelling retained.

Punctuation normalized without comment.

Spelling change

Page 108, "moivng" was changed to read "moving"

Page 155, "caddice-warm" was changed to read "caddice-worm."

Page 178, "entangeled" was changed to read "entangled."

Page 190, "grow a a great" was changed to read "grow a great."

Page 223, "Snappping beetle" was changed to read "Snapping beetle."

Page 274, "Ornothology" was changed to read "Ornithology."

Page 284, "I pounded on the widow" was changed to read "I pounded on the

window."

Page 285, "Audobon" was changed to read "Audubon."

Page 288, "omniverous" was changed to read "omnivorous."

Page 321, "histery" was changed to read "history."

Page 363, "open ones eyes" was changed to read "open one's eyes."

Page 383, "motherworth and Virginia creeper" was changed to read

"motherwort and Virginia creeper."

Page 396, "Is is pleasant" was changed to read "Is it pleasant."

Page 530, "thousand liliputian" was changed to read "thousand

lilliputian."

Page 510, "once that it it is" was changed to read "once that it is."

Page 592, "Is you should" was changed to read "If you should."]

End of Project Gutenberg's Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, by Various