_Minnows._ Every boy knows where to find these spry little fellows. They

can be collected with a dipper or net and will thrive in an aquarium if

fed with earth worms or flies or other insects. If kept in small

quarters where food is scarce, they will soon dispatch the other

occupants of the jar. They will, however, eat bits of fresh meat. If the

aquarium is large enough, it would hardly be complete without minnows.

[Illustration: _Fig. 64. Snail with conical shell._]

_Cat fish._--It will not be practicable to keep a cat fish in the

permanent aquarium. If one is to be studied it can be obtained at any

fish market or by angling, the latter a slow method, but one which will

appeal to every boy in the class. The cat fish should be kept in a tub,

tank, or large pan of water, and if not wanted for laboratory work, they

might be fried for lunch, as cat fish are very good eating.

_Gold fish_ are a special delight if kept in large aquaria. These may

often be obtained from dealers in the larger cities. Those who wish

other fish for study should be able to get information from the New York

State Fish Culturist, concerning the species that are suited to life in

still water, and how to get and take care of them.

[Illustration: _Fig. 65. "Frog spawn."_]

_The clam._--If empty clam shells are plenty on the bank of some stream

after a freshet, a supply of clams may be obtained by raking the mud or

sand at the bottom of the stream. They can be kept in a shallow pan, and

if the water is warmish and they are left undisturbed for a time, they

will move about. If kept in a jar of damp sand they will probably bury

themselves. They feed on microscopic plants and might not thrive in the

permanent aquarium.

_Crawfish or crayfish._--These can be collected with nets from under

stones in creeks or ponds. They can live very comfortably out of the

water part of the time. There is small chance for the unsuspecting snail

or water insect which comes within reach of the hungry jaws of the

crawfish, and the temporary aquarium is the safest place for him. Many

who live near the ocean can obtain and keep in sea water the lobster, a

cousin of the crawfish, and will find that the habits of either will

afford much amusement as well as instruction. The school boy generally

knows the crawfish as a "crab."

[Illustration: _Fig. 66. A useful net for general collecting._]

_The frog._--The study of the development of the common frog is

accompanied with little or no difficulty. To be sure there are some

species which require two or three years to complete their growth and

changes, from the egg to the adult, yet most of the changes can be seen

in one year. Frogs are not at all shy in the spring, proclaiming their

whereabouts in no uncertain tones from every pond in the neighborhood.

The "frog spawn" can be found clinging to plants or rubbish in masses

varying in size from a cluster of two or three eggs to great lumps as

large as the two fists. The "spawn" is a transparent jelly in which the

eggs are imbedded. Each egg is dark colored, spherical in shape, and

about as large as a small pea. The eggs of the small spotted salamander

are found in similar masses of jelly and look very much like the frog's

eggs. If a small quantity of this jelly-like mass be secured by means of

a collecting net or by wading in for it, it may be kept in a flat white

dish with just enough clean, cool water to cover it, until the young

tadpoles have hatched. As they grow larger a few may be transferred to a

permanent aquarium prepared especially for them in a dish with sloping

sides, and their changes watched from week to week through the season.

The growing polliwog feeds on vegetable diet; what does the full grown

frog eat?

[Illustration: _Fig. 67. The predaceous diving-beetle._]

_Insects that can be kept in aquaria._--Insects are to many the most

satisfactory creatures that can be keep in aquaria. They are plentiful,

easy to get, each one of the many kinds seems to have habits peculiar to

itself, and each more curious and interesting than the last.

Some insects spend their entire life in the water; others are aquatic

during one stage of their existence only. Those described here are a few

of the common ones in ponds and sluggish streams, of the central part of

the state of New York. If these cannot be found, others just as

interesting may be kept instead. One can hardly make a single dip with a

net without bringing out of their hiding places many of these "little

people."

The predaceous diving-beetle (Fig. 67) is well named. He is a diver by

profession and is a skilled one. The young of this beetle are known as

"water-tigers" (Fig. 68), and their habits justify the name. Their food

consists of the young of other insects; in fact it is better to keep

them by themselves unless we wish to have the aquarium depopulated. When

the tiger has reached his full size, his form changes and he rests for a

time as a pupa; then comes forth as a hard, shiny beetle like Fig. 67.

[Illustration: _Fig. 68. A water-tiger._]

The water-scavenger beetle (Fig. 69), so called because of its appetite

for decayed matter, is common in many ponds. It has, like the diving

beetle, a hard, shiny back, with a straight line down the middle, but

the two can be distinguished when seen together. The young of this

beetle look and act something like the water-tigers, but have not such

great ugly jaws.

[Illustration: _Fig. 69. A water-scavenger beetle._]

There are three other swimmers even more delightful to watch than those

already mentioned. The water-boatmen (Fig. 70), with their sturdy

oar-like legs and business-like way of using them, are droll little

fellows. They are not so large as the back-swimmers. Fig. 71 shows a

back-swimmer just in the act of pulling a stroke. These creatures swim

with their boat-shaped backs down and their six legs up. We must be

careful how we handle the back-swimmers, for each one of them carries a

sharp bill and may give us a thrust with it which would be painful,

perhaps poisonous.

[Illustration: _Fig. 70. Water-boatman._]

The water-scorpion (Fig. 72) is a queer creature living in a neighborly

way with the boatmen and back-swimmers, though not so easy to find. Do

not throw away any dirty little twig which you find in the net after a

dip among water plants near the bottom of a stream or pond. It may begin

to squirm and reveal the fact that it is no twig but a slender-legged

insect with a spindle-shaped body. We may handle it without danger, as

it is harmless. This is a water-scorpion, and his way of catching his

prey and getting his air supply will be interesting to watch. He is not

shy and will answer questions about himself promptly and cheerfully.

Fig. 72 will give an idea of the size and appearance of this insect.

[Illustration: _Fig. 71. A back-swimmer._]

No water insect except the big scavenger beetle can begin to compare in

size with the giant water-bug (Fig. 73). We may think at first that he

is a beetle, yet the way he crosses his wings on his back proves him a

true bug. In quiet ponds these giants are common enough, but the boy or

girl who "bags" a full-grown one at the first dip of the net may be

considered lucky.

The boatmen, back-swimmers and giants all have oars, yet are not

entirely dependent on them. They have strong wings, too, and if their

old home gets too thickly settled, and the other insects on which they

feed are scarce, they fly away to other places. The giant water-bug

often migrates at night, and is attracted to any bright light he sees in

his journey. This habit has given him the popular name of

"electric-light bug."

[Illustration: _Fig. 72. Water-scorpion._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 73. Giant water-bug._]

Among the insects which spend but part of their life in the water, we

shall find many surprises. It made us feel queer when we learned that

the restless but innocent-looking wiggler of the rain-water barrel was

really the young of the too familiar mosquito. The adult mosquito

leaves its eggs in tiny boat-shaped masses on the surface of stagnant

water, where food will be abundant for the young which soon appear. Some

time is spent by the wigglers in eating and growing before they curl up

into pupæ. Insects are rarely active in the pupa stage. The mosquito is

one of the very few exceptions. From these lively pupæ the full-grown

mosquitoes emerge. Fig. 74 shows a small glass tumbler in which are seen

the three aquatic stages of the mosquito's life and an adult just

leaving the pupa skin. Nothing is easier than to watch the entire

development of the mosquito, and the changes must be seen to be fully

enjoyed and appreciated. It would be interesting to note the differences

between the mosquitoes that come out of the small aquaria. A supply of

wigglers may be kept in the permanent aquarium where they serve as food

for the other insects.

[Illustration: _Fig. 74. Temporary aquarium, containing eggs, larvæ and

pupæ of mosquito._]

Every child knows the dragon-fly or darning-needle, and none but the

bravest of them dare venture near one without covering ears or eyes or

mouth, for fear of being sewed. Many and wide-spread are the

superstitions concerning this insect, and it is often difficult to bring

children to believe that this creature, besides being a thing of beauty,

is not only harmless but actually beneficial. If they knew how many

mosquitos the darning-needle eats in a day they would welcome instead of

fearing the gay creature.

The young of the dragon-fly live a groveling existence, as different as

can be from that of their sun-loving parents. Their food consists of

mosquito larvæ, water-fleas and the like, and their method of catching

their prey is as novel as it is effective. Pupils and teacher can get

plenty of good healthy entertainment out of the behavior of these

awkward and voracious little mask-wearers. The first dip of the net

usually brings up a supply of dragon-fly nymphs and of their more

slender cousins, the damsel-fly nymphs. The latter have expanded

plate-like appendages at the hind end of the body which distinguish them

from the dragon-fly nymphs.

[Illustration: _Fig. 75. The life history of a dragon-fly as seen in an

aquarium._]

The transformation of one of these young insects into an adult is one of

the most interesting observation lessons that can be imagined for a warm

spring morning. If a dragon-fly nymph should signify its intention of

changing its form in my school-room, I should certainly suspend all

ordinary work and attend to him alone. Each child should see if possible

this wonderful transfiguration.

Floating in the water of a pond or stream one may find a little bundle

of grass or weed stems, with perhaps a tiny pebble clinging to the mass.

Close examination will prove this to be the "house-boat" of one of our

insect neighbors, the caddice-worm. Contrasting strangely with the

untidy exterior is the neat interior, with its lining of delicate silk,

so smooth that the soft-bodied creature which lives inside is safe from

injury. The commonest of the many forms of houses found here are those

illustrated in Figs. 76 and 77. These will find all they wish to eat in

a well-stocked aquarium. When full grown they will leave the water as

winged creatures, like Fig. 78, and return to its depths no more.

[Illustration: _Fig. 76. Case of caddice-worm._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 77. Another caddice-worm case._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 78. Caddice-fly._]

There is surely no lack of material furnished by Mother Nature

for the study of aquatic life. Every one who really believes in its

usefulness can have an aquarium, and will feel well repaid for the

time and effort required when the renewed interest in nature is

witnessed which this close contact with living beings brings

to every student. Let us take hold with a will, overcome the

difficulties in the way, and teacher and pupils become students

together.

LEAFLET XIII.

A STUDY OF FISHES.[17]

BY H. D. REED.

[17] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21. January, 1901.

[Illustration]

The first forms of animal life which attract the young naturalist's

attention are doubtless the birds. These are most interesting to him

because of their beautiful colors, their sweet songs, and the grace with

which they fly. But who has watched the fishes in a brook or an aquarium

and is not able to grant them a place, in beauty, grace and delicate

coloration, equal to the birds? To be sure, fishes cannot sing, yet

there are so many other interesting facts in connection with their

habits and life-histories that it fully makes up for their lack of

voice.

THE PARTS OF A FISH.

While observing a living fish and admiring its beauty, it will probably

occur to some of us that a fish consists only of a head and tail. Yet

this is not all. Between the head and tail is a part that we may call

the trunk. It contains the digestive and other organs. There is no

indication of a neck in a fish. Any such constriction would destroy the

regular outline of the animal's body and thus retard the speed with

which it moves through the water. But head, trunk and tail are not all.

There are attached to the outer side of the fish's body certain

appendages that are called fins.

Before discussing some of the different kinds of fishes and their

habits, it will be necessary to learn something about fins, for the fins

of all fishes are not alike. When a fish moves through the water, it

bends its tail first to one side and then to the other. This undulatory

movement, as it is called, pushes the fish's body ahead. One can observe

the movements easily upon a specimen kept alive in an aquarium jar. At

the extreme end of the tail there is a broad, notched fin which aids

the tail in propelling and steering the body. We will call this the

_tail_ or _caudal_ fin (Fig. 79 B). In most of our common fishes there

are seven fins--six without the caudal. The first of these six is a

large fin situated near the middle of the back. This is the _back_ or

_dorsal_ fin (Fig. 79 A). Sometimes we may find a fish that has two

dorsal fins. In this case the one nearest the head is called first

dorsal and the next one behind it the second dorsal. Near the head, in a

position corresponding to our arms, is a pair of fins which are called

the _arm_ or _pectoral_ fins (Fig. 79 E). Farther back towards the tail,

on the under side of the fish, is another pair, corresponding in

position to the hind legs of a quadruped. This pair is called the _leg_

or _pelvic_ fins (Fig. 79 D). Just behind the pelvic fins is a single

fin, situated on the middle line of the body. This is the _anal_ fin

(Fig. 79 C). The pectoral and pelvic fins are called paired fins because

they are in pairs. The others which are not in pairs are called median

fins, because they are situated on the middle line of the body. The

paired fins serve as delicate balancers to keep the body right side up

and to regulate speed. They are also used to propel the body backwards.

After naming the different fins of the fish in the schoolroom aquarium,

it will be interesting to observe the uses of each.

[Illustration: _Fig. 79. Diagram of a fish to show: A, dorsal fin; B,

caudal fin; C, anal fin; D, pelvic fins; E, pectoral fins; L, lateral

line._]

On the side of the body, extending from the head to the caudal fin, is,

in most fishes, a line made up of a series of small tubes which open

upon the surface. This is called the _lateral line_, and acts in the

capacity of a sense organ (Fig. 79 L). Is the lateral line straight or

curved? Does it curve upwards or downwards? Does the curvature differ in

different kinds of fishes? Do all the fishes you find possess a lateral

line? Is the lateral line complete in all fishes, _i. e._, does it

extend from the head to the caudal fin without a single break?

WHERE FISHES SPEND THE WINTER.

[Illustration: _Fig. 80. 1, Shiner; 2, Barred Killifish; 3, Black-nosed

Dace; 4, Creek Chub; 5, Young of Large-mouthed Black Bass; 6,

Varying-toothed Minnow._]

As winter approaches and the leaves fall and the ground becomes frozen,

the birds leave us and go farther south into warmer climates where food

is more abundant. We are all familiar with this habit of the birds, but

how many of us know or have even wondered what the fishes have been

doing through the cold winter months while the streams and ponds have

been covered with ice? Before the warmth of spring comes to raise the

temperature of the streams, let us go to some familiar place in a brook

where, during the summer, are to be found scores of minnows. None are to

be found now. The brook shows no signs of ever having contained any

living creatures. Suppose we go farther up or down the stream until we

find a protected pool the bottom of which is covered with sediment and

water-soaked leaves. With our net we will dip up some of the leaves and

sediment, being sure that we dip from the very bottom. On looking over

this mass of muddy material we may find a fish two or three inches long,

with very fine scales, a black back, a silvery belly and a blackish or

brown band on the side of the body extending from the tip of the nose to

the tail. This is the _Black-nosed Dace_ (Fig. 80). If specimens of this

fish are caught very early in the spring, one will be able to watch

some interesting color changes. As the spawning time approaches, the

dark band on the sides and the fins change to a bright crimson.

Sometimes the whole body may be of this gaudy color. During the summer

the lateral band becomes orange. As the season goes, the bright colors

gradually fade until finally, in the fall and winter, the little

black-nose is again clothed in his more modest attire. A great many of

the fishes, and especially the larger ones, seek some deep pond or pool

in the stream at the approach of winter, and remain near the bottom. If

the pond or stream is so deep that they do not become chilled they will

remain active, swimming about and taking food all winter. But when the

stream is very shallow and the fishes feel the cold, they settle down to

the bottom, moving about very little and taking little or no food. The

carp collect in small numbers and pass the winter in excavations that

they make in the muddy bottom. If the débris thrown up by the water

across the marshy end of a lake be raked over during the winter, one

will probably find some of the smaller catfishes spending the season in

a semi-dormant state.

[Illustration: _Fig. 81. The Common Catfish or Bullhead._]

Some interesting experiments may be tried with the fishes in the

aquarium jar. Keep them for a few days where it is cold and then bring

them into a warmer room and note the difference in their activity.

THE COMMON CATFISH OR BULLHEAD.

This sleepy old fellow differs in many respects from most of our common

fishes. He has no scales. About the mouth are eight long whisker-like

appendages, called barbels (Fig. 81). Perhaps he is called catfish

because he has whiskers about his mouth like a cat. Any one who has ever

taken a catfish from the hook probably knows that care is needed in

order not to receive a painful prick from the sharp spines in his

pectoral and dorsal fins.

There is nothing aristocratic about the catfish. In warm pools and

streams where the water is sluggish and the muddy bottom is covered with

weeds, he may be found moving lazily about in search of food. His taste

is not delicate. Animal substance, whether living or dead, satisfies

him. When in search of food he makes good use of his barbels, especially

those at the corners of his mouth, which he uses as feelers. The catfish

will live longer out of water than most of our other food fishes. They

will live and thrive in water which is far too impure for "pumpkin

seeds" or bass. They spawn late in the spring. The mother fish cares for

her young much as a hen cares for her chickens. When they are old enough

to take care of themselves, she weans them.

THE COMMON SUNFISH OR PUMPKIN SEED.

[Illustration: _Fig. 82. The common Sunfish or Pumpkin Seed._]

Some evening just at sunset visit a quiet pool in a nearby stream. Drop

in your hook baited with an "angle worm" and presently the dancing cork

shows that you have a "bite." On "pulling up" you find that you really

have a fish. It is a beautiful creature, too--thin flat body shaped

something like the seed of a pumpkin. His back is an olive green

delicately shaded with blue. His sides are spotted with orange, while

his belly is a bright yellow. His cheeks are orange-color streaked with

wavy lines of blue. Just behind his eye on his "ear-flap" is a bright

scarlet spot. This is the common _Sunfish_ or _Pumpkin Seed_ (Fig. 82).

He is a very beautiful, aristocratic little fellow, "looking like a

brilliant coin fresh from the mint."

Keep him alive in an aquarium jar with a shiner. Compare the two fishes,

as to the size and shape of their bodies and fins. Feed them different

kinds of food, such as worms, insects and crackers, and try to discover

which they like best and how they eat.

The sunfishes prefer quiet waters. They lay their eggs in the spring of

the year. The male selects a spot near the banks of the stream or pond

where the water is very shallow. Here he clears a circular area about a

foot in diameter. After making a slight excavation in the gravel or

sand, the nest is completed. The eggs are then deposited by the female

in the basin-like excavation. He watches his nest and eggs with great

diligence, driving away other fishes that chance to come near.

THE BLACK BASSES.

[Illustration: _Fig. 83. Adult Small-mouthed Black Bass._]

The black basses are not usually found in small streams where it is most

pleasant for teachers and pupils to fish. They are fishes that seek the

rivers and lakes. There are two kinds of black bass, the _Large-mouthed_

and the _Small-mouthed_. As the name indicates, the two may be

distinguished by the size of the mouth. In the large-mouthed black bass

the upper jaw extends to a point behind the eye, while in the

small-mouthed species it extends to a point just below the middle of the

eye (Fig. 83).

Both kinds of black bass may be found in the same body of water. The

character of the bottoms over which they are found, however, differs.

The small-mouthed prefers the stony bars or shoals. The large-mouthed,

on the contrary, selects a muddy bottom grown over with reeds. They feed

upon crayfish ("crabs"), minnows, frogs, worms, tadpoles and insects.

Our black basses are very queer parents. They prepare a nest in which

the eggs are deposited. Both male and female are very courageous in the

defense of their eggs and young. As soon as the young fishes are able to

take care of themselves the parent fishes leave them, and after that

time may even feed upon their own children.

THE STICKLEBACK.

[Illustration: _Fig. 84. A Stickleback._]

The sticklebacks are queer little fellows indeed (Fig. 84). The slender

body, extremely narrow tail, and the sharp, free spines in front of the

dorsal fin, give them at once the appearance of being both active and

pugnacious little creatures. The sticklebacks are detrimental to the

increase of other fishes since they greedily destroy the spawn and young

of all fishes that come within their reach. They build nests about two

inches in diameter, with a hole in the top. After the eggs are laid the

male defends the nest with great bravery. The little five-spined brook

stickleback in the Cayuga Lake basin, N. Y., is most commonly found in

stagnant pools, shaded by trees, where the water is filled with decaying

vegetable matter,--the so-called "green frog-spawn" (spirogyra), and

duck weed. If you supply the sticklebacks with plenty of fine vegetable

material, you may induce them to built a nest in the aquarium jar, but

they must be caught and placed in the jar early in the season before

they spawn.

THE JOHNNY DARTERS.

In New York State, every swift stream which has a bed of gravel and flat

stones ought to contain some one of the Johnny darters, for there are a

great many different kinds (Fig. 85). They are little creatures,

delighting in clear water and swift currents where they dart about,

hiding under stones and leaves, or resting on the bottom with their

heads up-stream. The body of a darter is compact and spindle-shaped,

gradually tapering from the short head to a narrow tail. The eyes are

situated nearly on top of the head. The color of the darters varies

greatly with the different kinds. Some are very plain, the light ground

color being broken only by a few brown markings. Others are gorgeous in

their colorings, it seeming as if they had attempted to reproduce the

rainbow on their sides. Such kinds are indeed very attractive and are

ranked with the most beautifully colored of all our common fishes. When

a darter swims, he appears bird-like, for he flies through the water

much as a bird flies through the air. He does not use his tail alone in

swimming, as the catfish, the sunfish, the stickleback, and most of the

other fishes do, but flies with his pectoral fins.

[Illustration: _Fig. 85. A Johnny Darter._]

You surely must have a Johnny darter in your aquarium jar. The Johnnies

are true American fishes. Though small, they face the strong currents

and eke out a living where their larger cousin, the yellow perch, would

perish. There are many interesting facts which may be learned from the

Johnny darters when kept alive in an aquarium. When not actually moving

in the water, do the Johnnies rest on the bottom of the jar or remain

suspended in the middle apparently resting on nothing, as the other

aquarium fishes do? When a fish remains still in the middle of the jar

he does so because he has a well-developed air-bladder to help buoy him

up, and when a fish dies it is the air-bladder which causes him to turn

over and rise to the top. Now if the Johnnies always rest on the bottom

of the jar when not swimming and if one happens to die and does not rise

to the top we may know that, if he has an air-bladder at all, it is only

a vestigial one. It would be interesting also to find out for ourselves

whether a Johnny darter can really "climb trees" (I mean by trees, of

course, the water plants in the aquarium jar), or if he can perch upon

the branches like a bird.

THE MINNOWS.

[Illustration: _Fig. 86. A convenient form of aquarium jar supplied with

water plants. The bottom is covered with clean sand and flat stones._]

All the small fishes of the brooks are called minnows, or more often

"minnies," by the boy fisherman. The boy believes that they grow into

larger fishes. This is not true. The minnows are a distinct group of

fishes and, for the most part, small ones. They do not grow to be bass

or pike or sunfishes or anything else but minnows. Some of the minnows,

however, are comparatively large. Two of these are the _Creek Chub_

(Fig. 80), and the _Shiner_ (Fig. 80). The chub is the king of the small

brooks, being often the largest and most voracious fish found in such

streams. His common diet probably consists of insects and worms, but if

very hungry he does not object to eating a smaller fish. During the

spawning season, which is springtime, the male chub has sharp, horny

tubercles or spines developed upon the snout. We are able to recognize

the creek chub by means of a black spot at the front of the base of the

dorsal fin.

The shiner or red-fin has much larger scales than the chub. The back is

elevated in front of the dorsal fin, giving him the appearance of a

hump-back. His sides are a steel-blue with silvery reflections. While

the shiner is not the largest, it is almost everywhere one of the most

abundant brook fishes. In spring the lower fins of the male become

reddish. Like the chub, he has small horny tubercles developed on the

snout.

RANDOM NOTES.

Did you ever see a fish yawn? Watch a shiner in your aquarium. Sometimes

you may see him open his mouth widely as though he was very sleepy.

Again you may find him resting on the bottom of the jar taking a nap.

Fishes cannot close their eyes when they sleep for they have no eyelids.

A convenient way to collect fishes for the schoolroom aquarium is to use

a dip net. The ordinary insect net will do, but it is better to replace

the cheese-cloth bag by a double thickness of mosquito-bar, thus

enabling one to move the net through the water more rapidly. By dipping

in the deep pools, among grasses and under the banks with such a net one

can soon obtain fishes enough to stock an aquarium (Fig. 86). The

aquarium jar should never be placed in the sun. It is better to have

only three or four fishes in an aquarium at one time. Some flat stones

on the bottom of the jar will afford them convenient hiding places.

For further notes on aquaria, consult Leaflet No. XII.

[Illustration]

LEAFLET XIV.

THE OPENING OF A COCOON.[18]

BY MARY ROGERS MILLER.

[18] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 4: Leaflet 17. March, 1900.

[Illustration]

Among the commonest treasures brought into the schools by children in

the fall or winter are the cocoons of our giant silk-worms. If one has a

place to put them where the air is not too warm or dry, no special care

will be necessary to keep them through the winter. Out-door conditions

must be imitated as nearly as possible. If early in the fall one is

fortunate enough to meet one of these giants out for a walk, it is the

simplest thing in the world to capture him and watch him spin his

marvelous winter blanket. Two members of this family of giant insects

are quite common in this state, the largest the Cecropia, called

sometimes the Emperor, and the Promethea.

[Illustration: _Fig. 87. Cocoon of the Cecropia moth. It sometimes hangs

from a twig of a fruit tree._]

The Cecropia moth often measures five or six inches across--a veritable

giant. Its main color is dusty brown, with spots and bands of cinnamon

brown and white. On each wing is a white crescent bordered with red and

outlined with a black line. The body is heavy and covered with thick,

reddish-brown hairs, crossed near the end with black and white lines. On

its small head are two large feathery feelers or antennæ. The Cecropia

moth emerges from the cocoon, full grown, in early summer, when out of

doors. Those kept in the house often come out as early as March. The

eggs are deposited by the adults upon apple, pear, cherry, maple and

other shade and fruit trees. Professor Comstock says that the spiny

caterpillars which hatch from the eggs in about two weeks, are known to

feed upon the leaves of some fifty species of plants. One could

therefore hardly make a mistake in offering refreshment to these

creatures, since they are anything but epicures. The full-grown

caterpillar, having spent the summer eating and growing, with now and

then a change of clothes, is often three inches long and an inch in

diameter. It is a dull bluish green in color. On its back are two rows

of wart-like protuberances (tubercles), some yellow, some red, some

blue. As there is nothing else in nature which is just like it, one need

have no difficulty in recognizing the Cecropia in its different phases.

[Illustration: _Fig. 88. End of cocoon of Cecropia, inside view, showing

where the moth gets out._]

The cocoon which this giant silk-worm weaves is shown in Fig. 87. It may

be found on a twig of some tree in the dooryard, but sometimes on a

fence-post or equally unexpected place. Inside the cocoon the brown

pupa, alive but helpless, waits for spring.

After the moth comes out it is interesting to examine the structure of

the cocoon, and to discover how the moth managed to free itself without

destroying the silken blanket (Fig. 88).

Swinging loosely from last summer's twigs in lilac bushes, and on such

trees as wild cherry and ash, one often finds the slender cocoons of the

Promethea moth (Fig. 89). We cannot help admiring the skill and care

displayed by the spinner of this tidy winter overcoat. The giant

silk-worm which spun it chose a leaf as a foundation. He took care to

secure himself against the danger of falling by fastening the leaf to

the twig which bore it by means of shining strands of silk. It is easy

to test the strength of this fastening by attempting to pull it loose

from the twig.

[Illustration: _Fig. 89. Cocoon of Promethea moth fastened to a twig

with silk._]

The moths which come from these cocoons do not always look alike, yet

they are all brothers and sisters. The brothers are almost black, while

the wings of the sisters are light reddish brown, with a light gray wavy

line crossing the middle of both wings. The margins of the wings are

clay-colored. On each wing is a dark velvety spot. The adults emerge in

spring and are most often seen in the late afternoon. Their flight is

more spirited than that of the Cecropia, which moves very sedately, as

becomes a giant.

[Illustration: _Fig. 90. Cocoon of Promethea, cut open lengthwise to

show the valve-like device at upper end through which the adult moth

pushes its way out._]

The caterpillars of this species, the young Prometheas, feed during the

summer on leaves of wild cherry, ash and other trees. They grow to be

about two inches long, and are distinguished from others by their pale

bluish green color and yellow legs. They also have rows of wart-like

elevations on their backs, some black and shining, four of a bright red

and one large and yellow near the hindmost end.

* * * * *

The life of these giant insects is divided into four distinct stages:

the egg, deposited by the adult moth usually on or near the food plant;

the larva, or caterpillar stage, when most of the eating and all the

growing is done; the pupa, passed inside the cocoon woven by the larva;

and the adult, a winged moth.

The life-cycle or generation is one year, the winter being passed in the

pupa stage. The insect lives but a short time in the adult stage and the

egg stage is but two or three weeks. Most of the summer is devoted to

the caterpillar phase of its life.

These creatures are entirely harmless. They seldom appear in numbers

sufficient to make them of economic importance.

LEAFLET XV.

A TALK ABOUT SPIDERS.[19]

BY J. H. COMSTOCK.

[19] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 9: Leaflet 22. May, 1901.

[Illustration]

Of all our little neighbors of the fields there are none that are more

universally shunned and feared than spiders, and few that deserve it

less. There is a wide-spread belief that spiders are dangerous, that

they are liable to bite, and that their bites are very venomous. Now

this may be true of certain large species that live in hot countries;

but the spiders of the Northern United States are practically harmless.

It is true, spiders bite and inject venom sufficient to kill a fly into

the wound made by their jaws. But they are exceedingly shy creatures,

fearing man more than they are to be feared. If an observer will refrain

from picking up a spider there is not the slightest danger of being

bitten by one; and excepting a single uncommon species no spider is

known in this part of the country whose bite would seriously affect a

human being.

On the other hand, spiders do much to keep in check various insect

pests, and hence must be regarded as our friends. It is, however, from a

different point of view that we wish to look upon them at this time. It

is as illustrations of remarkable development of instinctive powers, and

of wonderful correlation of structure and habit, that we would have the

reader study these creatures. The teacher of nature-study can find no

more available or more fertile field from which to take subjects for

interesting children in the world about us. Let us then put aside our

fears and go into the fields and see whether we can learn something of

the ways of these spinners.

THE FUNNEL-WEB WEAVERS.

Often on summer mornings the grass of the roadsides and fields is seen

to be carpeted with little sheets of glistening silk, the webs of the

grass-spider. None were observed the day before; and we wonder at the

sudden appearance of this host of weavers. Later in the day the webs

have vanished! Have the weavers rolled them up and carried them off? We

remember that there was an especially fine one near the end of the

veranda steps; we examine the place carefully and find that it is still

there, but not so conspicuous as it was. The warm sun has dissipated the

dew which rendered visible to our dull eyes the tapestry of the fields.

Now that our eyes are opened we can find the webs everywhere and are

impressed with a suspicion that perhaps ordinarily we see very little of

what is around us.

We examine one of the webs carefully and find that it is a closely woven

sheet made of threads running in all directions; that it is attached to

spears of grass, and supported by numerous guy lines, and that from one

side a funnel-like tube extends downwards. If, while we are watching, an

insect alights on the sheet, there darts from the tunnel, where she was

concealed, the owner of the web, a dark-colored spider; and the insect

must be agile if it escapes.

If you attempt to catch the spider it retreats to its tunnel; and when

you examine the tunnel the spider is not there. You find that the tube

is open below, that there is a back door by which the spider can escape

when hard pressed.

We call those spiders that makes webs of this kind _The Funnel-web

Weavers_. They are long-legged, brown spiders, which run on the upper

surface of their webs; these are usually made on grass, but sometimes

they are found in the angles of buildings, and in quite high places.

THE COBWEB WEAVERS.

The webs that we most often find in the corners of rooms are of a

different kind and are made by the members of a family known as _The

Cobweb Weavers_. In these webs there is not such a definite sheet of

silk as in those of the funnel-web weavers, but instead a shapeless maze

of threads extending in all directions. Many of the cobweb weavers,

however, make their webs in the fields on bushes, and weave in them a

flat or curved sheet, under which the spider hangs back downward. The

funnel-web weavers run right side up; the cobweb weavers hang inverted.

Some of the cobweb weavers do not remain in their webs, but have a nest

in a neighboring crack or corner, from which they rush to seize their

prey, and sometimes there is a funnel-shaped tube leading to their nest.

But these spiders differ from the true funnel-web weavers in running

back downwards on the lower side of their webs.

THE ORB WEAVERS.

The spider webs that most often excite admiration are those in which the

supporting threads radiate from a center like the spokes of a wheel, and

bear a spiral thread. Such webs are known as orb-webs; and the family of

spiders that make them, _The Orb Weavers_.

[Illustration: _Fig. 91. Nearly completed orb-web._]

Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are more wonderful

than these webs; but they are so common that they are often considered

hardly worthy of notice. If they occurred only in some remote corner of

the earth, every one would read of them with interest.

The webs or nets of the different species of orb weavers differ in the

details of their structure; but the general plan is quite similar. There

is first a framework of supporting lines. The outer part of this

framework is irregular, depending upon the position of the objects to

which the net is attached; but the central part is very regular, and

consists of a number of lines radiating from the center of the net (Fig.

91). All of these supporting lines are dry and inelastic. Touch them

with your pencil and you find that they neither stretch nor adhere to

it. Upon these radiating lines there is fastened in a very regular

manner a thread which is sticky and elastic. This will adhere to your

pencil, and will stretch several times its normal length before

breaking. Usually this sticky thread is fastened to the radiating lines

so as to form a spiral; but a few species make nets in which it is

looped back and forth. And even in the nets where the greater part of

the thread is in a spiral there are in most cases a few loops near the

lower margin (Fig. 91). Examine the next orb-web you find and see

whether it is true in that case.

Many of the orb weavers strengthen their nets by spinning a zigzag

ribbon across the center. This ribbon is made by spreading apart the

spinnerets, the organs from which the silk is spun, and which will be

described later. Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are held close

together so that they form a single thread, but by spreading them apart

many threads can be spun at once, thus forming a ribbon.

Some orb weavers are not content with making a simple zigzag band across

the center of the net, but weave an elaborate bit of lace in this

position. Fig. 92 is from a photograph of the center of the net of one

of these spiders, which was found near Ithaca.

[Illustration: _Fig. 92. Lace-like hub of an orb-web._]

In studying the various kinds of orb-webs one should pay particular

attention to the center of the web; for this part differs greatly in the

webs of the different species. There is usually a _hub_ composed

entirely of dry and inelastic silk woven in an irregular manner; outside

of this there are several turns of a spiral thread which is also dry;

this constitutes the _notched zone_, a name suggested by the fact that

the spiral line is attached for a short space to each radius it crosses,

thus giving the line a notched course. In many cases it is here, on the

hub and the notched zone, that the spider waits for its prey; and it is

obvious that sticky silk in this place would be objectionable. Between

the notched zone and the _spiral zone_, the part furnished with the

sticky spiral thread, there is a clear space, the _free zone_, crossed

only by the radii. This gives the spider an opportunity to pass from one

side of the web to the other without going around the entire web.

Some orb weavers do not wait upon the hub but have a retreat near one

edge of the net, in which they hang back downwards. While resting in

these retreats they keep hold of some of the lines leading from the net,

so that they can instantly detect any jar caused by an entrapped insect.

When an insect in its flight touches one of the turns of the sticky line

the line adheres to it, but it stretches so as to allow the insect to

become entangled in other turns of the line. If it were not for this

elasticity of the sticky line, most insects could readily tear

themselves away before the spider had time to reach them.

In running over its net the spider steps upon the radii, carefully

avoiding the sticky line; otherwise it would destroy its own net. The

rapidity with which a spider can cross its net without touching the

sticky line is remarkable.

In making its web an orb weaver first spins a number of lines extending

irregularly in various directions about the place where its orb is to

be; this is the outer supporting framework. Often the first line spun is

a bridge between two quite distant points, as the branches of two

separate bushes. How did the spider cross the gulf? It has no wings.

[Illustration: _Fig. 93. Nearly completed orb-web._]

The bridge building can be easily seen on a warm summer evening, the

time at which the spiders are most active repairing their old nets and

building new ones. The spider lifts the hind end of its body and spins

forth a thread; this is carried off by the wind, until, finally striking

some object, it becomes fast to it. The spider then pulls in the slack

line, like a sailor, and when the line is taut fastens it to the object

on which it is standing, and the bridge is formed.

After making the outward framework, the radiating lines are formed. A

line is stretched across the space so as to pass through the point which

is to be the center of the orb. In doing this the spider may start on

one side, and be forced to walk in a very roundabout way on the outer

framework to the opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up

behind it as it goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with

the lines on which it walks; one or both hind feet serve as hands in

these spinning operations; for, as the spider has eight feet, it can

spare one or two for other purposes than locomotion. When the desired

point is reached the slack is pulled in and the line fastened. The

spider then goes to the point where the center of the orb is to be, and,

fastening another line, it walks back to the outer framework, and

attaches this line an inch or two from the first. In this way all of the

radiating lines are drawn. The next step is to stay these radii by a

spiral line, which is begun near the center, and attached to each radius

as it crosses it. The turns of this spiral are as far apart as the

spider can conveniently reach.

All of the threads spun up to this stage in the construction of the web

are dry and inelastic. The spider now proceeds to stretch upon this

framework a sticky and elastic line, which is the most important part of

the web, the other lines being merely a framework to support it. In

spinning the sticky line, the spider begins at the outer edge of the

orb, and passing around it, fastens this line to each radius as it goes.

Thus a second spiral is made. The turns of this spiral are placed quite

close together, and the first spiral, which is merely a temporary

support, is destroyed as the second spiral progresses. Fig. 93

represents a web in which the second spiral is made over the outer half

of the radii. In this figure, _aa_ represents the temporary stayline;

_bb_, the sticky spiral; and _cc_, the fragments of the first spiral

hanging from the radii.

[Illustration: _Fig. 94. Wasp, with head, thorax and abdomen

separated._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 95. Spider, showing division of the body into

cephalothorax and abdomen._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 96. Lower side of cephalothorax of a spider;_ md_,

mandible;_ mx_, maxilla;_ p_, palpus;_ l_, lower lip;_ s_, sternum._]

THE PARTS OF A SPIDER.

Spiders differ much in appearance from the true insects. In the insects

the body is composed of three regions: the head; the thorax, to which

the legs are attached; and the abdomen or hind part of the body (Fig.

94). In the spiders the head and thorax are grown together, forming a

region which is known as the _cephalothorax_; to this the _abdomen_ is

joined by a short, narrow stalk (Fig. 95). Spiders differ also from

insects in the number of their legs, spiders having eight legs and

insects only six.

Spiders have two pairs of jaws, which, except in the Tarantula family,

move sidewise like the jaws of insects. The first pair of jaws are

called the _mandibles_. Each mandible consists of two segments, a strong

basal one and a claw-shaped terminal one, at the tip of which the poison

gland opens (Fig. 96). The second pair of jaws is known as the

_maxillæ_. These jaws are situated just behind the mandibles, one on

each side of the mouth. Each maxilla bears a large feeler or _palpus_.

These palpi vary greatly in form; frequently, especially in females,

they resemble legs; hence many spiders appear to have five pairs of

legs. In the male spiders the last segment of the palpus is more or less

enlarged, ending in a complicated, knob-like structure (Fig. 97). It is

thus easy to determine the sex of a spider by merely examining the

palpi.

[Illustration: _Fig. 97. Maxilla and palpus of male house-spider._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 98. Head of spider, showing eyes and mandibles._]

The greater number of spiders have four pairs of eyes (Fig. 98), but

there may be only one, two, or three pairs; and certain cave spiders are

blind. The eyes appear like little gems set in the front of the

cephalothorax. They are most prominent in the jumping spiders, which

stalk their prey on plants, logs, fences, and the sides of buildings.

[Illustration: _Fig. 99. Spinnerets of a spider._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 100. A group of spinning tubes._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 101. Viscid silk from an orb-web._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 102. Spinnerets and cribellum of a curled-thread

weaver._]

The most characteristic feature of spiders is their spinning organs. The

silk is secreted in glands within the abdomen, and while in the body it

is a fluid. It passes out through the _spinnerets_, which are situated

near the hind end of the abdomen. There are two or three pairs of

spinnerets. These are more or less finger-like in form, and sometimes

jointed (Fig. 99). Upon the end of each spinneret there are many small

tubes, the _spinning tubes_ (Fig. 100), from which the silk is spun.

Some spiders have as many as one hundred and fifty or two hundred of

these spinning tubes on each spinneret.

Ordinarily the tips of the spinnerets are brought close together, so

that all of the minute threads that emerge from the numerous spinning

tubes unite to form a single thread. Hence this tiny thread, which is so

delicate that we can see it only when the light falls on it in a

favorable way, is composed of hundreds of threads. It is not like a

rope, composed of separate strands; for all the minute threads fuse

together into a single thread. The change in the silk from a fluid to a

solid cord, strong enough to support the weight of the spider, must take

place quickly after the silk comes in contact with the air on leaving

the spinning tubes; the minute size of the threads coming from the

spinning tubes doubtless facilitates this change.

Sometimes a spider will spread its spinnerets apart, and thus spin a

broad ribbon-like band. We have seen a spider seize a large grasshopper

which was entangled in its web, and rolling it over two or three times,

completely envelop it in a sheet of silk spun from its spread-apart

spinnerets. We have already described bands spun by orb weavers across

the hub of the net in this way.

It is supposed that the two kinds of silk spun by the orb weavers are

spun from different spinnerets, and that the viscid silk comes from the

front pair. When this silk is first spun, the viscid matter forms a

continuous layer of liquid on the outside of it. But very soon this

layer breaks up into bead-like masses--in a way similar to that in which

the moisture on a clothes line on a foggy day collects into drops (Fig.

101).

There are two families of spiders that have spinning organs differing

from those of all other spiders. They have in front of the usual

spinnerets an additional organ, which is named the _cribellum_ (Fig.

102, c). This bears spinning tubes like the other spinnerets,

but these tubes are much finer. These spiders have also on the

next-to-the-last segment of the hind legs one or two rows of curved

spines; this organ is the _calamistrum_ (Fig. 103). By means of the

calamistrum these spiders comb from the cribellum a band of loose

threads which form a part of their webs.

[Illustration: _Fig. 103. Last two segments of hind leg of spider,

showing calamistrum._]

THE CURLED-THREAD WEAVERS.

The spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum represent two

families, one of which makes irregular webs; the other, those which are

of definite form.

[Illustration: _Fig. 104. Web of a curled-thread weaver._]

An irregular web of a curled-thread weaver is shown in Fig. 104, from a

photograph. In this web the framework is of ordinary silk; and upon this

framework is placed a band of curled or tangled threads (Fig. 105). An

insect alighting on a net of this kind is likely to get its feet caught

in the tangled silk, and to be held fast till the spider can pounce upon

it. Nets of this kind are found on bushes and on the sides of buildings.

[Illustration: _Fig. 105. Fragment of a curled-thread weaver's web,

enlarged._]

There are two quite distinct types of regular webs made by spiders

possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum. One is a round web which

resembles at first sight those of the orb weavers; but it differs from

the ordinary orb-web in that the spiral thread is made of curled or

hackled silk. These webs are nearly horizontal, and are usually made

between stones or in low bushes; they are not common.

[Illustration: _Fig. 106. Web of the triangle spider._]

The other type is represented by the web of the triangle spider. This

web is most often found stretched between the twigs of a dead branch of

pine or hemlock. At first sight it appears like a fragment of an orb-web

(Fig. 106); but a little study will show that it is complete. The

accompanying figure, by Dr. B. G. Wilder, who first described the habits

of this spider ("Popular Science Monthly," 1875) illustrates the form of

the web. It consists of four plain lines corresponding to the radiating

lines of an orb-web, and a series of cross lines, which are spun by the

cribellum and calamistrum. Each cross line is composed of two lines,

about 1/500 of an inch apart. These double lines take the place of the

curled threads woven by other members of the family to which the

triangle spider belongs. From the point where the radiating lines meet,

a strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs. Near this twig the

spider rests, pulling the web tight so that there is some loose line

between its legs, as shown in the enlarged figure. When an insect

becomes entangled in one of the cross lines, the spider suddenly lets go

the loose line so that the whole web springs forward, and the insect is

entangled in other cross lines. The spider then draws the web tight and

snaps it again. This may be repeated several times before the spider

goes out upon the web after its prey.

The triangle spider is a tiny fellow, and so closely resembles the color

of the dead branch near which it rests that it is very difficult to

find; its web is more easily seen, though it usually requires careful

searching to discover it.

THE MOTHERHOOD OF SPIDERS.

[Illustration: _Fig. 107. Egg-sac of a spider._]

As a rule young spiders are forced to shift for themselves, and a very

hard time they have; but of this we have not space to write. With

spiders, the mother's care is devoted chiefly to furnishing protection

to her helpless eggs. These are placed in silken sacs, which are often

very elaborate in construction and protected with great care.

The most common egg-sacs are those found in the fields attached to

stones and pieces of wood (Fig. 107). They are disk-shaped objects,

silvery in color, and about the size of an old-fashioned three-cent

piece.

The egg-sacs of the cobweb weavers can be found suspended in their webs;

and those of the orb weavers, in various situations. Fig. 108 represents

the large egg-sac of one of the orb weavers. This is made in the autumn,

and contains at that season a large number of eggs--five hundred or

more. These eggs hatch early in the winter; but no spiders emerge from

the egg-sac until the following spring. If egg-sacs of this kind be

opened at different times during the winter, the spiders will be found

to increase in size but diminish in numbers as the season advances. In

fact, a strange tragedy goes on within these egg-sacs: the stronger

spiders calmly devour their weaker brothers, and in the spring those

that survive emerge sufficiently nourished to fight their battles in the

outside world.

[Illustration: _Fig. 108. Egg-sac of an orb weaver._]

The females of the _Running Spiders_ not only make a carefully

constructed egg-sac, but also care for the young spiders for a time. The

running spiders are the large dark-colored, hairy spiders, often found

under stones and rubbish; they are so-called because they capture their

prey by running. The females of most of the species (those of the genus

_Lycosa_) drag after them their egg-sac, which is attached to the

spinnerets (Fig. 109); and when the young hatch, they climb on their

mother's back, and are carried about for a time.

[Illustration: _Fig. 109. Lycosa and egg-sac._]

One of the running spiders (_Dolomedes_) carries her egg-sac with her

mandibles until the young are ready to emerge. At this time the mother

fastens the egg-sac in a bush, and spins irregular threads about it,

among which the young spiders remain for a time (Fig. 110). In the

specimen figured, the egg-sac was concealed in the upper part of the

web.

THE BALLOONING SPIDERS.

In warm autumn days, innumerable threads can be seen streaming from

fences, bushes, and the tips of stalks of grass, or floating through the

air. These are made by the _Ballooning Spiders_, which are able to

travel long distances, hundreds of miles, through the air by means of

these silken threads.

The ballooning spider climbs to some elevated point, and then, standing

on the tips of its feet, lifts its body as high as it can, and spins out

a thread of silk. This thread is carried up and away by a current of

air. When the thread is long enough the force of the air current on it

is sufficient to bear the spider up. It then lets go its hold with its

feet and sails away. That these spiders travel long distances in this

manner has been shown by the fact that they have been seen floating

through the air at sea far from land.

[Illustration: _Fig. 110. Nursery of Dolomedes. _]

LEAFLET XVI.

LIFE HISTORY OF THE TOAD.[20]

BY S. H. GAGE.[21]

[20] Teachers' Leaflet, No. 9, May, 1897.

[21] It was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet

in pictures as well as in words, and he wishes to express his

appreciation of the enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations

were executed by Mr. C. W. Furlong.

In this edition are added half-tone reproductions of photographs to

bring out more completely the life story.

On account of its economic importance, and because the marvelous changes

passed through in growing from an egg to a toad are so rapid that they

may all be seen during a single spring term of school, the common

or warty toad has been selected as the subject of a leaflet in

nature-study. Toads are found everywhere in New York, and nearly

everywhere in the world; it is easy, therefore, to get abundant material

for study. This animal is such a good friend to the farmer, the

gardener, the fruit-grower, the florist and the stock-raiser that every

man and woman, every boy and girl, ought to know something about it.

Furthermore, it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling of

repugnance and dislike, and the consequent cruelty to toads, will

disappear when teachers and children learn something about their

wonderful changes in form, structure and habits, and how harmless and

helpful they are. Then, who that knows of the chances, the dangers and

struggles in the life of the toad, can help a feeling of sympathy; for

after all, how like our human life it is. Where sympathy is, cruelty is

impossible, and one comes to feel the spirit of these beautiful lines

from Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner:"

"_He prayeth best who loveth best

All things both great and small;

For the dear God who loveth us

He made and loveth all._"

It was William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood,

who first clearly stated the fact that every animal comes from an egg.

This is as true of a toad as of a chicken.

The toad lives on the land and often a long way from any pond or stream,

but the first part of its life is spent in the water; and so it is in

the water that the eggs must be looked for. To find the eggs one should

visit the natural or artificial ponds so common along streams. Ponds

from springs or even artificial reservoirs or the basins around

fountains, also may contain the eggs. The time for finding the eggs

depends on the season. The toad observes the season, not the almanac. In

ordinary years, the best time is from the middle of April to the first

of May.

One is often guided to the right place by noticing the direction from

which the song or call of the toad comes. The call of the toad is more

or less like that of the tree toads. In general it sounds like

whistling, and at the same time pronouncing deep in the throat,

bu-rr-r-r-r-. If one watches a toad while it makes its call, one can

soon learn to distinguish the sound from others somewhat similar. It

will be found that different toads have slightly different voices, and

the same one can vary the tone considerably, so that it is not so easy

after all to distinguish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a

spring or summer evening. It will be noticed that the toad does not open

its mouth when it sings, but, instead, the resonator or vocal sac under

its mouth and throat is greatly expanded. One must be careful to

distinguish the expansion of the mouth in breathing from the expansion

of the vocal sac. See the left hand toad in the drawing (Fig. 111) for

the vocal sac, and the toad in hibernation (Fig. 121) for the expansion

of the mouth in breathing. It is only the males that possess the vocal

sac, so that the toad chorus is composed solely of male voices.

The eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly always

tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on the bottom of the

pond. If the pond is large and deep, the eggs are laid near the shore

where the water is shallow. If the eggs have been freshly laid in clear

water the egg ropes will look like glass tubes containing a string of

jet black beads. After a rain the eggs are obscured by the fine mud that

settles on the transparent jelly surrounding them, but the jelly is much

more evident than in the freshly laid egg strings.

Secure enough of the egg string to include 50 or 100 eggs and place it

in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the pond where

the eggs were found. Let the children look at the eggs very carefully

and note the color and the exact shape. Let them see whether the color

is the same on all sides. If the eggs are newly laid they will be nearly

perfect spheres.

[Illustration: _Fig. 111. The toad in various stages of development from

the egg to the adult_]

Frogs, salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same places and

at about the same time as the toad we are to study. Only the toad lays

its eggs in strings, so one can be sure he has the right kind. The

others lay their eggs in bunches or singly on the plants, so they never

need be mistaken for the ones sought.

[Illustration: _Fig. 112. Just hatched toad tadpoles climbing up where

the water is better aerated._]

The eggs which are taken to the school house for study should be kept

in a light place; an east, south or west window is best.

It requires only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm weather two

to four days are usually sufficient, but in the cool days of April it

may require ten days. As the changes are so very rapid, the eggs ought

to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all

the principal changes are seen. If a pocket lens or a reading glass is

to be had it will add to the interest, as more of the details can be

observed. But good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available.

_Hatching._--Watch and see how long it is before the developing embryos

commence to move. Note their change in form. As they elongate they move

more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the

jelly surrounding them. This is hatching, and they are now free in the

water and can swim about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up

on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish (Fig. 112). They do

this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads.

[Illustration: _Fig. 113. Older toad tadpoles with their heads up._]

How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, from

the grown up toad which laid the eggs! The difference is about as great

as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly.

_Tadpoles, polliwogs._--We call the young of the frog, the toad and the

tree toad, tadpoles or polliwogs. The toad tadpoles are black. As they

increase in size they may become greyish. Those raised in the house are

usually darker than those growing in nature.

The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with apparently

nothing to eat. This is because in each egg is some food, just as there

is a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a

good start in life. But when the food that the mother supplied in the

egg is used up, the little tadpoles would die if they could not find

some food for themselves. They must grow a great deal before they can

turn into toads; and just like children and other young animals, to grow

they must have plenty of food.

_Feeding the tadpoles._--To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate

nature as closely as possible. To do this, a visit to the pond where the

eggs were found will give the clue. Many plants are present, and the

bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore. The food of the

tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones, the surface of the mud,

or on the outside of the larger plants.

One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond

in the laboratory or school-room or there will not be enough food, and

all will be half starved, or some will get the food and the rest will

starve to death. While there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural

pond, it will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water

present, there are really rather few.

Probably many more were hatched in the school-house than can be raised

in the artificial pond. Return the ones not put in the artificial pond

to the natural pond. It would be too bad to throw them out on the ground

to die.

_Comparing the growth of the tadpoles._--Even when one does his best it

is hard to make an artificial pond so good as the natural one for the

tadpoles, and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating

to compare the growth and change in the tadpoles at the school-house

with those in the natural pond.

As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the

environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals

the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be worth while to take a

tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at

the school-house, so that the differences may be more strikingly shown.

There is some danger in making a mistake here, however, for there may be

three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. Those of the toad

are almost jet black when young, while the others are more or less

brownish. If one selects only the very black ones they will probably be

toad tadpoles.

Every week or oftener, some water plants, and perhaps a small stone

covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some water, should be

taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The water will supply the

place of that which has evaporated, and the water plants will carry a

new supply of food. If the water in the artificial pond in the

school-room does not remain clear, it should be carefully dipped out and

fresh clear water added. It is better to get the water from the pond

where the eggs were laid, although any clear water will answer; but do

not use distilled water.

The growth and changes in form should be looked for every day. Then it

is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do, how they eat, and any

signs of breathing.

All the changes from an egg to a little toad (Fig. 111), are passed

through in one or two months, so that by the first of June the tadpoles

will be found to have made great progress. The progress will be not only

in size, but in form and action.

One of these actions should be watched with especial care, for it means

a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under water all the

time, and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above

the water. But as they grow larger and larger, they rush up to the

surface once in awhile and then dive down again, as if their lives

depended on it. The older they grow the oftener do they come to the

surface. This is even more marked in the large tadpole of the bullfrog.

What is the meaning of this? Probably most of the pupils can guess

correctly; but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why

this was done. The real reason is that the tadpole is getting ready to

breathe the free air above the water when it turns into a toad and lives

on the land. At first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in

the water, just as a fish does. This makes it plain why an artificial

pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air. If one should use a

narrow and deep vessel, like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air

could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half

suffocated.

As the tadpoles grow older they go oftener to the surface to get the air

directly from the limitless supply above the water, as they will have to

do when they live wholly in the air.

_Disappearance of the tail._--From the first to the middle of June the

tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful things are

happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, if they have not

already. The head will change in form and so will the body; the color

will become much lighter, and, but for the tail, the tadpole will begin

to look something like its mother.

If you keep an especially sharp lookout, do you think you will see the

tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. The tail

will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every

day; it is not dropping off, but is being carried into the tadpole. The

tail is perfect at every stage; it simply disappears. How does this

happen? This is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to

find out.

It is now known that there are two great methods for removing parts of

the body no longer needed. In the first method the living particles in

the body which are able to wander all around, as if they were inspectors

to see that everything is in order, may go to the part to be removed and

take it up piece by piece. These living particles are known as white

blood corpuscles, wandering cells, phagocytes, leucocytes and several

other names. In the other method, the blood and the lymph going to the

part to be removed dissolve it particle by particle. Apparently the toad

tadpole's tail is dissolved by the blood and lymph rather than being

eaten up by the phagocytes, although the phagocytes do a part of the

work.

[Illustration: _Fig. 114. Transforming tadpole of the green tree toad to

show the rapidity of tail absorption._ (_Change in 24 hours. Natural

size._)

_HVLA--Natural size. Change in 24 hours; 28 mm. of tail absorbed in 24

hours; 1-1/6 mm. per hour. Common toad shortens the tail about 1/5 mm.

per hour._]

Now, when the tadpole is ready to dispense with its tail, the blood and

lymph and the phagocytes take it up particle by particle and carry it

back into the body where it can be used just as any other good food

would be. This taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin

epithelium or epidermis is never broken, but covers up the outside

perfectly all the time. Is not this a better way to get rid of a tail

than to cut it off?

If you look at the picture of the disappearance of the tail in the toad

tadpole (Fig. 115) and in the tree-toad tadpole (Fig. 114), you will get

an idea how rapidly this takes place. It is easier to see the actual

shortening if the tadpoles are put in a white dish of clear water

without any water plants. The tadpoles do not eat anything while they

are changing to toads, so they will not need to be fed.

_Beginning of the life on the land._--Now, when the legs are grown out,

and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes to put its

nose out of the water into the air; and sometimes it crawls half way

out. When the tail gets quite short, often a mere stub, it will crawl

out entirely and stay for some time in the air. It now looks really like

a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty, and is

only about as large as the end of a child's little finger (Fig. 115).

Finally, the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed into a toad,

must leave the water for the land.

What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, smooth

bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water that supported

it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, rough, dry land!

But the little toad must take the step. It is no longer a tadpole, or

half tadpole and half toad. It cannot again dive into the cool, soft

water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it. As countless

generations of little toads have done before, it pushes boldly out over

the land and away from the water.

If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of June,

first of July), he is likely to see many of the little fellows hopping

away from the water. And so vigorously do they hop along that in a few

days they may be as far as a mile from the pond where they were hatched.

After a warm shower they are particularly active, and are then most

commonly seen. Many think they rained down. "They were not seen before

the rain, so they must have rained down." Is that good reasoning?

The little toad is careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day

stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and

shady place. If it staid out in the sun too long it would be liable to

dry up.

[Illustration: _Fig. 115. Toad development in a single season_ (_1903_).

_1-18. Changes and growth, April to November. 1-13. Development in 25 to

60 days._

_15-18. Different sizes, October 21, 1903. 9, 14. Different sizes, July

30, 1903._

_10, 11. The same tadpole,--11, 47 hours older than 10._

_12, 13. The same tadpole,--13, 47 hours older than 12._]

FOOD ON THE LAND.

[Illustration: _Fig. 116. Toad catching a winged insect, and

illustrating how the tongue is extended and brought in contact with the

insect. Several other creatures that the toad might eat are shown in

various parts of the picture._]

In the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter; but when it becomes a

toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food, and

that must be so fresh that it is alive and moving. This food consists of

every creeping, crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be

swallowed. While it will not touch a piece of fresh meat lying on the

ground, woe to moving snail, insect or worm that comes within its reach!

It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad helps men so

greatly. The insects and worms eat the grain, the fruits and the

flowers. They bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble.

The toad is not partial, but takes any live thing that gets near it,

whether it is caterpillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand-legged

worm; and it does not stop even there, but will gobble up a hornet or a

yellow jacket without the least hesitation.

It is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these

flying or crawling things. The way the toad does this may be observed by

watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower; but it

is more satisfactory to have a nearer view. Put a large toad into a box,

or better, into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom. In a

little while, if one is gentle, the toad will become tame, and then if

flies and other insects are caught with a sweep net and put into the

dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process

of capture. It is very quickly accomplished, and one must look sharply.

As shown in the little picture (Fig. 116), the toad's tongue is

fastened at the front part of its mouth, not back in the throat as with

men, dogs, cats and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can

be extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and when,

quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it touches

the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, and is taken

into the mouth.

[Illustration: _Fig. 117. Toad making a meal of an angle worm._]

Think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single

summer. Practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce

of the garden and the farm, or takes away one cause of discomfort to men

and animals. One observer reports that a single toad disposed of

twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes, and another ate thirty-five

celery worms within three hours. He estimates that a good-sized toad

will destroy nearly 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer.

[Illustration: _Fig. 118. Two newts feasting on tadpoles._]

ENEMIES--THE SHADOW SIDE OF LIFE.

[Illustration: _Fig. 119. In danger from a crow._]

So far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the

toad's life. Fig. 111 is meant to show the main phases in the

life-history. If one looks at it perhaps he may wonder what becomes of

all the tadpoles that first hatch, as only two toads are shown at the

top. Is not this something like the other life-histories? How many

little robins or chickens die and never become full-grown birds! Well,

the dangers to the toad begin at once. Suppose the eggs are laid in a

pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the

land; in that case they all die. The mother toads sometimes do make the

mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while. You

will not let the artificial pond at the school-house dry up, will you?

Then sometimes there is an especially dry summer, and only those that

transform very early from tadpoles to toads are saved.

In the little picture (Fig. 118) is shown another source of danger and

cause for the diminution in numbers. The newts and salamanders find

young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them.

Some die from what are called natural causes, that is, diseases, or

possibly they eat something that does not agree with them. So that while

there were multitudes of eggs (1,000 or more from each toad), and of

just hatched tadpoles, the number has become sadly lessened by the time

the brood is ready to leave the water.

Then when they set foot on land, their dangers are not passed. They may

be parched by summer's heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle.

Birds and snakes like them for food. Figs. 119 and 120 show some of

these dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of

tadpoles so few grow up to be large toads?

We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, it is not

believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad's

life will join the crows, the snakes and the salamanders in worrying or

destroying their good friends.

MOULTING AND HIBERNATION.

There are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of

the lower animals; they happen to the toad also. These are moulting, or

change of skin, and hibernation, or winter sleep. Every boy and girl

ought to know about these, and then, if on the lookout, some or all of

the things will be seen.

_Moulting._--Probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a

snake's skin without any snake in it. It is often very perfect. When the

outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad gets old and dry or too

tight for it, a new covering grows underneath, and the old one is shed.

This is a very interesting performance, but the toad usually sheds it in

a retired place, so the process is not often seen. Those who have seen

it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front.

The toad keeps moving and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This

peels the cuticle off the sides. Now, to get it off the legs and feet,

the toad puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls

off the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs are

to be stripped the mouth is used as is sometimes done by people in

pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth for this

purpose? You might look in a toad's mouth sometime, and then you would

know.

[Illustration: _Fig. 120. Snakes frequently swallow toads hind legs

foremost, as shown in the picture. This is especially true of the garter

snake, which is a great enemy of the toad._]

It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swallows

it. This is true in some cases; at least it is worth while keeping watch

for. It is certain that the toad sometimes swallows the cast skin; it is

also certain that in some cases the cast skin is not swallowed. After a

toad has shed his old skin, he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner

than before, as if he had just got a new suit of clothes. If you see

one with a particularly bright skin, you will now know what it means.

_Hibernation._--The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means that the

temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the surrounding air.

Men, horses, cows, dogs, are said to be warm-blooded, for their blood is

warm and of about the some temperature whether the surrounding air is

cold or hot.

When the air is too cool, the toad becomes stupid and inactive. In

September or October a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings,

but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller; and finally, as the

cold November weather comes on, none are seen. Where are they? The toad

seems to know that winter is coming, that the insects and worms will

disappear, so that no food can be found. It must go into a kind of

death-like sleep, in which it hardly moves or breathes. This winter

sleep or hibernation must be passed in some safe and protected place. If

the toad were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it

would not wake up in the spring.

[Illustration: _Fig. 121. Toad in the winter sleep._ (_Natural size_).]

The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad select

some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury

itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it were dry the toad

would dry up before spring. It is not uncommon for farmers and gardeners

to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring. Also in

digging cellars at about these times they are found occasionally.

In burying itself the toad digs with its hind legs and body, and pushes

itself backward into the hole with the front legs. The earth caves in as

the animal backs into the ground, so that no sign is left on the

outside. Once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of

winter, the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly

larger than its body; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes,

puts its head down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps

for five months or more.

When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out of bed and

begins to take interest in life again. It looks around for insects and

worms, and acts as if it had had only a comfortable nap.

[Illustration: _Fig. 122. The same toad awake in the spring._ (_Natural

size_).]

The little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then

turn to a toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, and by that

time it would be quite a large toad. After it had grown up and had

awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it would have a strong

impulse to get back to the pond where it began life as an egg years

before. Once there it would lay a great number of eggs, perhaps as many

as a thousand or two, for a new generation of toads. And this would

complete its life cycle.

While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the water and

lays eggs for a new generation, it may live many years afterward and lay

eggs many times, perhaps every year.

Many insects, some fish and other animals, die after laying their eggs.

For such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history

also. But unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its

land home after laying the eggs, and may live in the same garden or

dooryard for many years, as many as eight years, and perhaps longer.

(See Bulletin No. 46, Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts

Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.)

ERRONEOUS NOTIONS ABOUT THE TOAD.

If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other

stories common everywhere, he will hear many wonderful things about the

toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue.

One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. Another

is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and still another,

that hidden away in the heads of some of the oldest ones are the

priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable value.

_Giving warts._--Probably every boy and girl living in the country has

heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a toad touches him

anywhere he will "catch the warts." This is not so at all, as has been

proved over and over again. If a toad is handled gently and petted a

little it soon learns not to be afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness

and attention. If a toad is hurt or roughly handled a whitish, acrid

substance is poured out of the largest warts. This might smart a little

if it got into the mouth, as dogs find out when they try biting a toad.

It cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and snakes

that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad is really one of

the most harmless creatures in the world, and has never been known to

hurt a man or a child.

A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad;

so might he after handling a jack-knife or looking at a steam engine;

but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the

engine.

_Cows giving bloody milk._--It is a common belief in the country that if

one kills a toad his cows will give bloody milk. Cows will give bloody

milk if the udder is injured in any way, whether a toad is killed or

not. There is no connection whatever between the bloody milk and a

killed toad.

_Living without air and food._--Occasionally one reads or hears a story

about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the rock is broken

open it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had

been asleep only half an hour. Just think for a moment what it would

mean to find a live toad within a cavity in a solid rock. It must have

been there for thousands, if not for millions of years, without food or

air. The toad does not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or

so without food if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It

regularly sleeps four or five months every winter, but never in a place

devoid of air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some

careful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the stories

told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly

disproved.

It is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might honestly

think that he had found a toad in a rock. Toads are not very uncommon in

quarries. If a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it, and then

a toad were seen hopping away, one might jump at the conclusion that the

toad came out of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the

belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are

most commonly seen after a shower?

SURVEYS AND MAPS.

In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought of the

hundreds of schools throughout the state and wondered whether there

might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay

their eggs, and in finding some of the things described in the other

leaflets.

The teachers and students in Cornell University found this difficulty in

1868 when the University opened. The great Louis Agassiz came to the

University at the beginning to give a course of lectures on natural

history. The inspiration of his presence and advice, and of those

lectures, lasts to this day.

Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them been his

pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must be full of

interesting things; but they did not know exactly where to find them.

Agassiz himself made some explorations, and the professors and students

took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm. They explored the

beautiful lake, the streams, hills, valleys, gorges, ponds and marshes.

Careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting

thing was found and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places

again. Finally, after several years, knowledge enough was gained to

construct an accurate map for the use of all. A part of this map,

showing only the most important features, is put into this leaflet to

serve as a guide (Fig. 123).

It will be seen that the University is made the starting point. With a

few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning

this year on a natural history survey of the region near its

school-house, and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey.

[Illustration: _Fig. 123. Simple map showing the position of Cornell

University, the city of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, and the roads and streams

and ponds near the University. From W. R. Dudley's map in "The Cayuga

Flora." Scale, 1 centimeter to the kilometer._

_U. Cornell University._

_U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek._

_R. Reservoir supplied from University Lake, and supplying the campus._

_E. P. East Pond where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and

salamanders are found._

_F. P. Forest Home Pond. A very favorable place for eggs, tadpoles,

etc._

_Inlet. The inlet of the lake. The lampreys are abundant near Fleming's

meadow._]

_Preparation of the map._--It is well to have the map of good size. A

half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole sheet is better.

About the first thing to decide is the scale to which the map is to be

drawn. It is better to have the scale large. Twelve inches to the mile

would be convenient. Divide the map into squares, making the lines quite

heavy. If so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for

locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches,

but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion

with the lines representing the miles.

_Locating objects on the map._--The corner of the school-house

containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. If

there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. Put the

school-house on the map anywhere you wish; probably the center of the

map would be the best place. In the sample map the University is not in

the center, as it was desired to show more of the country to the south

and west than to the north and east.

The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will be

necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before

locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has been placed facing

exactly north and south or east and west, that is, arranged with the

cardinal points of the compass; if so, it will be the best guide. If you

are not sure, determine with a compass. With it the points can be

determined very accurately. Having determined the points of compass,

commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows: Get

their direction from the starting point at the corner of the

school-house, then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle

on which is a cyclometer, straight between the starting point and the

object. The cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be

read off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is available, one can

use a long measuring stick, a tape measure or even a measured string;

but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate,

especially when the distances are considerable.

Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west. It

should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting

point. If the direction were south-west, then the two inches would be

measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly. Proceed

in this way for locating any pond or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when

the places are located on the map, you can see how easy it would be for

any one to find the places themselves. While the exact position should

be determined if possible and located, one does not often take a

bee-line in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance

around. In locating the objects on the map, every effort should be made

to get them accurately placed, and this can be done most easily by

knowing the distances in a straight line.

It is hoped that every school in the state will begin this year making a

natural history survey and a map of the region around its school-house.

The map will show but few locations, perhaps, but it can be added to

from year to year, just as the University map has been added to; and

finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the

toads lay their eggs, where fish and birds are; and where the newts and

salamanders, the different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be

found.

If the dates are kept accurately for the different years, one can also

see how much variation there is. Indeed, such nature-study will give a

sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions

in natural science, and it will make an almost perfect preparation for

taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of a state or a

country. It is believed that if accurate information were collected and

careful maps made by the different schools, the Empire State could soon

have a natural history survey and map better than any now in existence

in any state or country.

_To the Teacher:_

_It is the firm belief of those who advocate nature-study that it is not

only valuable in itself, but that it will help to give enjoyment in

other studies and meaning to them. Every pupil who follows out the work

of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the

school-house. This will help in the appreciation of map work generally._

_So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are

concerning some phase of nature, that nature-study must increase the

appreciation of the literature; and the noble thoughts in the literature

will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the finer things in

nature._

_It is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be

read in connection with the leaflet:_

_"The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz," by Longfellow._

_The "Prayer of Agassiz," by Whittier. Professor Wilder, who was

present, assures the author that this describes an actual occurrence._

_This "Silent Prayer" is also mentioned in an inspiring paragraph by

Henry Ward Beecher in the Christian Union, 1873._

_The first part of Bryant's "Thanatopsis," Coleridge's "Ancient_

_Mariner," Burns' "On Scaring Some Water Fowl in Loch-Turit," and "To a

Mouse."_

_Cowpers "The Task," a selection from book vi., beginning with line 560.

This gives a very just view of the rights of the lower animals._

_In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell's

"Festina Lente," in the Biglow Papers. For older pupils, Shakespeare's

picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be read. "As You

Like It," Act II, Scene II, near the end, commencing, "All the world's a

stage," etc._

_Kipling's Jungle Books, and the works of Ernest Thompson-Seton and

William J. Long will help one to see how the world might look from the

standpoint of the animals._

_One of the most satisfactory books to use in connection with

nature-study is Animal Life, by President David Starr Jordan and

Professor Kellogg. This gives the facts that every teacher ought to know

in connection with the processes of reproduction._

_Attention is also called to A. H. Kirkland's Bulletin No. 46 of the

Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and

to the Nature-Study Leaflet on the Toad, by Dr. C. F. Hodge, of Clark

University, Worcester, Mass._

[Illustration: _Fig. 124. From egg back to toad._]

LEAFLET XVII.

LIFE IN A TERRARIUM.[22]

BY ALICE I. KENT.

And Nature, the old nurse, took

The child upon her knee,

Saying: "Here is a story-book

Thy Father has written for thee."

--_Longfellow to Agassiz._

[22] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: _Fig. 125. Life in the terrarium._]

Fortunate are the children and the teachers who are so placed that

Nature's story book is close at hand. But city children and their

teachers need not despair, for Nature, the old nurse, is loving and

bountiful and will rewrite, in living characters, many a page from the

wondrous book, for those who care to read. One such a page may be a

terrarium--a confined plot of earth on which things may live and grow

(from _terra_, "earth," as aquarium is from _aqua_, "water"). Within its

narrow confines, the whole drama of the beautiful life of many a tiny

creature may be rewritten.

Here is a fragment of the drama, as written in one terrarium.

This terrarium was made from an old berry crate (Figs. 125, 126). When

the children saw it first, last fall, this is what it looked like: a

large rectangular box, grass-green in color, thirty-nine inches long,

eighteen inches wide, and fifteen inches high. The long sides were of

glass, the short sides and top of green wire netting. The top could be

removed like the lid of a box. It stood upon a pedestal-table provided

with castors. In the bottom of the terrarium were three inches of rich

soil, covered with the delicate green of sprouting grass-seed. In one

corner was a mossy nook, and in another a mass of thistles and clover.

At one end, a small cabbage was planted and at the other lay several

sprays of glossy pin-oak. Suspended from the top, was a large spray of

purple thistles.

[Illustration: _Fig. 126. Butterfly-time in the terrarium world._]

Among the thistles in the corner, ten pendants of vivid green, bright

with golden points, could be seen. They were the chrysalids of the

monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. Among the cabbage leaves, were many of

the pale green eggs and several of the caterpillars of the cabbage

butterfly. Among the sprays of oak in the corner, several oak

caterpillars were feeding.

Before many days had passed, the drama of life began. One by one, the

chrysalids of the milkweed butterfly paled in color and, becoming

transparent, showed through their whitened walls the orange-colored

wings of the developing butterflies within. They then burst, freeing

their gorgeous tenants. This happened until there were seven butterflies

in the terrarium. As two of these proved discontented with their new

home, they were set free. The five others spent the little round of

their aërial life seemingly happy and satisfied. They lived from three

to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits.

Sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place. On other

occasions they preferred the netting at the ends and top of the

terrarium. In fact, the netting at the ends of the terrarium was a

source of pleasure to these butterflies, as it served as a secure

resting place and an agreeable and convenient pathway to the top. One of

them spent nearly all its life on the thistles suspended from the top.

These thistles were kept fresh a long time by placing their stems in a

large sponge which was frequently drenched with water.

The butterflies showed some individuality in their eating also. Thistle,

clover, golden-rod, nasturtiums, and honey-suckle were offered to them.

The thistle and the golden-rod were most frequently visited, and next to

these the nasturtiums were most favored. Another fact noted was that

most of the butterflies continued to visit the flower first chosen.

When, however, a thick syrup of sugar and water was offered to them, the

flowers were much neglected, only one butterfly persisting in

flower-visiting. Golden-rod was its choice. If the syrup was fresh-made

every morning and was placed in a convenient spot, the butterflies never

failed to sip it. They generally slept clinging to the wire-netting at

the ends or top of the terrarium.

In the meantime, the cabbage began to attract the watchful eyes of the

wondering children. As it had industriously sent out many tiny roots, it

proved a safe and satisfactory home for its hidden occupants. Soon, one

by one, the caterpillars began to appear at the edges of the uppermost

leaves. They began small tours in the vicinage of the cabbage, and,

finally, as with the butterflies, the end wire nettings proved to be an

easy pathway to the top of the terrarium. Here several found good

resting places, and slowly changed to chrysalids.

One day a cabbage butterfly obligingly flew in at the open window. It

was caught and placed in the terrarium. It, too, proved to be very fond

of sugar syrup. One morning the syrup was accidentally spilled on the

wooden ridge at the bottom of the terrarium outside of the netting. The

butterfly was so hungry that it could not wait for food more

conveniently placed; so it stretched its tongue out, full length,

through the netting, and in that way obtained it. The children were

surprised to find its tongue somewhat longer than its body.

At this time, the cabbage was removed so that the eggs and the remaining

young caterpillars could be observed. The protecting coloring of the

eggs and caterpillars was first noticed. One little boy at first

announced that the caterpillars were green because they were not ripe, a

good example surely of the danger of reasoning from analogy!

Very soon the inhabitants of this terrarium world began to increase. A

father and two mother grasshoppers and a young one, with his "armor on,"

came to live there; also a "woolly bear," several other species of

caterpillars, several species of beetles, a big horse-fly, some

lady-bugs, and a cicada. About this time too, some very unwelcome

immigrants appeared. These were the ichneumon flies. So numerous did

they become in a very short time, that they threatened desolation to

this prosperous community. Nature's methods were then scrutinized and

the services of two tree-toads were sought. Their response was immediate

and cordial. Soon not an ichneumon fly could be found.

[Illustration: _Fig. 127. Hand over hand._]

The grasshoppers were partial to celery, over-ripe bananas, and

moisture. Three days after they became inhabitants of this miniature

world, the mother grasshopper dug a hole in the ground and laid eggs.

The observing children then had before them living illustrations of the

three stages of grasshopper life.

The tree-toads were both amusing and accommodating. They, too, liked the

wire netting at the ends of the terrarium, and delighted the children by

climbing up foot over foot, or hand over hand, like odd four-handed

sailor boys (Fig. 127.) This brought into plain view the tiny suckers on

their feet.

After the ichneumon flies had disappeared, a new difficulty arose. The

ground became mouldy, and the grass died down. The terrarium was then

placed by an open window and left there several hours for a number of

days until it was thoroughly dried out. Then bird-seed was planted and

the ground was watered thereafter with a small plant syringe. This gave

sufficient, but not excessive moisture, and it was one of the pleasures

of the children to imitate a rainy day in the terrarium world. And it

was a pleasing experience, for there were splashes of water on the glass

sides and many shining drops on the netting and verdure, which soon grew

several inches tall; there was the same delightful odor of rich fresh

earth that one enjoys during summer rains, and the sunshine touched with

brilliancy the gay fall flowers and the gorgeous outspread wings of the

butterflies.

At this time the terrarium had an annex in the shape of a wooden box, a

foot square, with a gauze top. Here lived two mother spiders with their

egg-balls carefully hung on the cobweb beams of their homes. One day a

beautiful yellow silk egg-ball was found out of doors, and when it was

carefully opened to show the eggs with which it was filled, the

gratifying discovery was made that these eggs were hatching. They were

very tiny and very numerous. They were inclosed in a silken pouch and

were the exact color of its lining. When resting the little spiders

seemed to hold their legs under the body, and they were so small and so

like the egg in general appearance that if they had not run about when

disturbed they would never have been discovered. As soon as the egg ball

was opened they exploited their one talent, for they ran out on the

fingers of the person who held the ball and then suspended themselves by

almost invisible threads from all parts of the fingers. When they were

to be returned to the egg-ball they were gently pushed up. They then

obligingly ran back into their silken home, which was carefully closed

as before. These little ones were kept a week or ten days and were then

allowed to escape and establish homes for themselves. The life history

of the spider was thus seen, although, unfortunately, our adult spiders

did not belong to the same species as the young ones.

To return to the terrarium: It was now early in November and each day

found one or more of the terrarium inhabitants missing. One of the

caterpillars disappeared and a cocoon made of its own hair was found in

its place; several chrysalids were found on the top of the terrarium;

the butterflies and the grasshoppers, one by one, went into that sleep

from which there is no awakening; and a number of the other creatures

disappeared. The children finally concluded that the latter had gone to

sleep in the ground. The grasshoppers and the tree-toads were the last

to take their rest, but just before they answered Mother Nature's call

to slumber, a large garden toad came to bear them company.

He was a very interesting toad for he bore signs of having lived through

what must have been almost a tragedy. He had lost the lower half of one

front leg and had the scar of a long gash on his throat. These

disfigurements seemed not to cause him the least unhappiness, for he had

a very bright wide-awake expression and was as plump and complacent as a

toad should be. The loss of his leg caused him a little inconvenience,

for he sometimes lost his balance when hopping and fell on his back. He

occasionally found it difficult to right himself at once, but a few

vigorous kicks and jumps generally placed him right side up. Three days

after he became a member of the terrarium community, he, too, heard

Mother Nature's call to bed, and partially buried himself. Each day he

covered himself more completely, until finally only the top of his head

and two sleepy eyes were to be seen. One day, about a week afterward, he

disappeared entirely. He proved to be a very restless sleeper, and

frequently showed himself during the sunniest parts of nearly every day

all winter, occasionally coming entirely out of his earthy covering. He

served as a sort of barometer all winter, appearing in bright and

disappearing in gloomy weather. He never, however, left the spot he had

chosen for his bed.

"Winter is the night of the year," and the little terrarium world

indoors exemplifies it as truly as the great fields of Nature's domain

out of doors. The soil is dry and hard in this miniature world and the

verdure has dried down to palest green and brown. In its earthy bed, the

caterpillars, beetles, and other creatures lie cosily asleep, and with

the masses of tiny eggs, await the vivifying touch of spring.

LEAFLET XVIII.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.[23]

BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK.

[23] Teachers' Leaflet No. 7, June, 1897.

[Illustration]

It is the purpose of this leaflet to give a few suggestions to aid those

pupils of the secondary schools who desire to make collections of

insects.

There are several good reasons why children should be encouraged to make

collections of flowers, birds and insects; and the least of these

reasons is the possession of such a collection on the part of the child.

Making a collection of natural history specimens should only be the

means to an end, _i. e._, training the child to observe. When eyes are

opened to the wonders of nature, every roadside, brook and woodland is

fraught with interest which is undreamed of by those who are

nature-blind. It is sad to think of the hosts of people who go through

this beautiful world having eyes but seeing not, having ears but hearing

not. The eyes must be unsealed in youth, when the mind is alert and

receptive if the man or woman is to find in later life that Nature is

not only a resource and recreation but an ever faithful friend holding

out comforting arms to those who are weary in soul and body.

Not only does the study of nature open the child's eyes, but it also

teaches him the value of accuracy. The young naturalist soon understands

that an observation is worth nothing unless it is truthful. On the other

hand, nature-study cultivates the imagination. The wonders in the lives

of insects, plants, and birds are so illimitable that almost anything

_seems_ possible. Few indeed are the studies wherein the fire kindled by

imaginative _seeming_ is guarded and checked by the facts of actual

_seeing_.

There are a few points in favor of beginning with insects when the child

first attempts making a collection of natural objects. Insects are to be

found everywhere and are easily caught; it requires no technical skill

to preserve them, as is the case with birds; they retain their natural

forms and colors better than do flowers. To secure the desired results

for the pupil when he is making his collection of insects, the teacher

should take care that he makes his observations incidentally, thus

subserving the true methods of nature-study, which is to teach the child

while he remains unconscious of the fact that he is being taught. The

teacher, therefore, should ask the young collector, "Where did you catch

this butterfly?" "Where did you find this beetle?" "Upon what plant or

flower did you find this bug?" "Did you hear this cricket chirp? If so,

how did he do it?" etc., etc.; thus making him tell orally or in a

written language lesson the things he has seen while collecting. The

differences in the appearance and structure of the insects caught should

also be brought out by questions. These questions may be adapted to

pupils of any age, and the success of this part of the work must ever

depend upon the interest and genius of the teacher.

The objection is sometimes raised that collecting and killing insects

and birds incite the child to cruelty and wanton destruction of life.

This seems good _a priori_ reasoning, but experience does not confirm

it. We have always found that those who collect and take an interest in

insect life are much more careful about killing or hurting insects than

are other people; the entomologist of all men takes the greatest pains

to avoid stepping upon the caterpillar or cricket in his path; also the

young ornithologists who have come under our observation show the

greatest devotion to the rights and interests of birds. Our experience

is that as soon as the child begins to take an interest in insects he

begins to see matters from their point of view, and this insures a

proper regard for their right to life. It will be well, however, for the

teacher to impress upon the pupil that he should kill no insect that is

not desired for his collection.

The articles necessary for collecting insects are few and inexpensive.

One net and one killing bottle may do service for a grade or an entire

country school, thus reducing the expense to a minimum.

INSECT NET. FIG. 128.

_Materials required._

1. A handle about three feet long; an old broom handle will do.

2. A piece of tin three inches wide, long enough to reach around the

handle.

3. A piece of No. 3 galvanized wire 3 feet 6 inches long.

4. One-sixth of a yard of heavy sheeting.

5. Three-quarters of a yard of cheese cloth.

[Illustration: _Fig. 128. Insect net._]

Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about 3

inches of each end of the wire so they may be inserted into a hole

drilled into the end of the handle. The piece of tin should be fastened

around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it

securely in place. If practicable, a tinsmith should be called upon to

help in bending the wire and fastening it to the handle. After this is

done, take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double, using only

enough to fit around the wire without gathering; the object of this

heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly. Make the

cheese cloth into a bag with rounded bottom and just wide enough to fit

the facing of sheeting, to which it should be sewed securely, and the

net is finished.

HOW TO USE THE NET.

To be successful, the net must be swung swiftly. Insects have many eyes

and are very wide awake and have no desire to be caught; therefore, the

collector must be very active if he gets anything. One method of using

the net is called "sweeping;" to do this take the handle about a foot

and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth

striking it against the grass in front of you as you walk through open

fields; the net must be turned at each stroke and kept in rapid motion

or the insects will escape. After a time the net should be examined and

the insects put in the killing bottle.

Another method of using the net is called "beating." This method is used

in collecting insects from bushes, and consists of lifting the net,

mouth upward, and striking it sharply against the branches or leaves,

thus jarring the insects into it.

To use the net in water, sweep the water plants as quickly as possible.

In running streams, overturn stones, holding the net just below them

with the mouth up stream. An old dipper made into a sieve by perforating

the bottom with an awl is a good utensil for collecting water insects.

THE KILLING BOTTLE. FIG. 129.

It is desirable to kill the insects in a humane way, so that they will

not suffer by the process; it is also desirable that they should not

revive after they are pinned, both for their own sakes as well as for

the sake of the feelings of the collector. The best way to secure

painless and sure death for the insects is by the means of a "cyanide

bottle."

[Illustration: _Fig. 129. Killing bottle._]

_Materials needed for a killing bottle._

1. A bottle with a wide mouth; a morphine bottle or a small olive or

pickle bottle will do. Even a glass fruit-can holding a pint will answer

very well, although taking off and putting on the cover consumes more

time than is desirable.

2. A cork that will fit the bottle tightly and is long enough to handle

easily.

3. Two cents' worth of cyanide of potassium.

4. One cent's worth of plaster of Paris.

These latter materials may be procured from any drug store.

Place the lump of cyanide of potassium in the bottle and pour in enough

water to cover it. Add immediately enough plaster of Paris to soak up

all the water; leave the bottle open in a shady place for an hour and

then wipe the dry plaster of Paris from its sides, put in the cork, and

it is ready for use. The plaster of Paris forms a porous cement, which,

while it holds the cyanide fast in the bottom, also allows the fumes of

the poison to escape and fill the bottle. It should be labelled

"poison," for cyanide of potassium is very poisonous. If kept corked

when not in use, a killing bottle made like this will last a whole

season.

The first rule in using the killing bottle is this: do not kill any more

insects than you need for your collection. The second rule is: do not

breathe the fumes of the bottle, for they smell badly and are not good

for you. When you uncork the bottle to put an insect in it, hold it away

from your face and cork it up again as quickly as possible.

Some insects may be caught from flowers, etc., directly into the bottle

by holding it uncorked beneath them for a moment; the fumes of the

poison soon overcome them and they drop into the bottle. In taking

insects from the net, hold the bottle in the right hand and the cork in

the left; insert the bottle into the net and place the mouth of it over

an insect crawling on the inside of the net, then put the cork on the

outside of the net into the mouth of the bottle, net and all, for a

moment until the insect falls into the bottom of the bottle; then remove

the cork and take the rest of the imprisoned insects in the same way.

Insects should be left in the bottle at least an hour, and may be left

in there over night without injury to the specimens.

INSECT PINS. FIG. 130.

[Illustration: _Fig. 130. Insect pins, 1, 3, 5, are German insect pins.

2 is a steel mourning pin._]

After the insects are caught they should be pinned so that they may be

arranged in the collection in an orderly manner. Common pins are not

good for pinning insects; they are too thick and they corrode very soon,

covering the specimens with verdigris. Regular insect pins are desirable

as they are very slender and do not corrode so quickly. These may be

obtained of any dealer in entomological supplies at a cost of fifteen

cents per hundred.

Ask for the German insect pins Nos. 1, 3 and 5. If these pins are too

expensive you can use the black steel mourning pins. These come in

shallow boxes one by two inches square and have round glass heads and

the boxes are labelled "Germany;" these may be procured from any dry

goods store. However, insects pinned with any beside regular insect pins

cannot be sold or exchanged.

All insects except beetles should be pinned through that part of the

body just back of the head, as shown in Figs. 137, 139, 140, 141.

Beetles should be pinned through the right wing-cover, as shown in Fig.

138. About one-fourth of the pin should project above the back of the

insect. Very small insects may be gummed to a narrow strip of card board

and the pin put through the card board.

LABELLING SPECIMENS.

Specimens should be labelled with the date of capture and the locality.

Thus the butterfly, Fig. 141, would be labelled thus:

Ithaca, N. Y.

Aug. 12, 1896.

The paper on which this label is written should be slipped upon the pin

with which the butterfly is pinned and placed just below the insect.

Labels should be as small as possible and be neatly cut.

INSECT BOXES.

For the beginner nothing is more convenient than an empty cigar box,

which may be obtained at any store where cigars are sold. (Fig. 131.)

The bottom of the box should be covered with some soft, firm material

into which pins may be pushed without bending them. There are many such

materials. Sheet cork or pressed peat may be obtained of dealers in

entomological supplies. Some ingenious boys use regular bottle corks,

cut into cross sections about 1/4 inch thick. Others take the pith of

dried corn-stalks divided in half lengthwise. The cheapest and most

easily procurable of the purchasable materials is cork linoleum. This is

for sale in most carpet stores. Get the quality that is about 1/4 inch

thick, which costs about $1 per yard; put it into the box cork-side up.

Any of these materials can be fastened to the bottom of the box with

glue or with tacks. In all cases they should be covered neatly with

white paper, for the insects appear better against a white background.

[Illustration: _Fig. 131. A convenient box for the use of the young

collector._]

For permanent collections, wooden boxes with glass tops are much safer;

and as the insects may be seen through the glass these boxes are more

practical for school collections. This kind of a box is shown in Fig.

132. Its sides are 18 by 16 inches and its height is three inches

outside measure. The upper edge of the sides of the bottom part of the

box is made with a tongue which fits into a groove made in the lower

edge of the sides of the cover. This is done so that the top and bottom

parts of the box shall fit very closely together in order that museum

pests cannot get in and destroy the specimens.

[Illustration: _Fig. 132. Insect box made of wood, with glass top._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 133. A cross-section of the side of insect box Fig.

132, showing method of construction and giving measurements._]

In Fig. 133 is a cross section through one side of the box, showing how

it should be made and giving measurements. In the drawing the glass is

fitted into a groove in the inner side of the cover. This glass might be

puttied in like a window pane if it is found difficult to make the

groove. The corners of the box may be mitred and dove-tailed, or mitred

and nailed; the latter is more easily done. Any carpenter or cabinet

maker can make this box. Great care must be taken to use only thoroughly

seasoned wood in its construction; otherwise the bottom will be sure to

warp and shrink and leave cracks through which the museum pests will

enter.

The cost of such a box will vary from $0.75 to $1. Basswood should be

used for its construction; pine is not at all suitable on account of the

resin in it. Screw eyes may be put into these boxes and they may be hung

on the walls of the schoolroom like pictures.

MUSEUM PESTS.

These are small beetles which find their way through the narrowest

crevice into the insect boxes and lay their eggs on the pinned insects.

The larvæ when they hatch work within the specimens at first but after a

time destroy the bodies entirely. The presence of these little rascals

may be detected by dust on the bottom of the box just below the

infested insect. As soon as this dust is observed, pour into one corner

of the box a tablespoonful of carbon bisulfide, or benzine, and close

the box quickly. The teacher or parent should put the substances into

the boxes, as the first is a poison and both are very inflammable. As a

method of preventing the beetles from attacking the collection it is

well to fasten a "moth ball" into one corner of the box. These may be

obtained at a drug store.

SPREADING-BOARD. FIG. 134.

Butterflies and moths look much better in a collection when their wings

are extended at right angles to the length of the body. To arrange them

thus we have to use what is termed a spreading-board.

[Illustration: _Fig. 134. A spreading-board._]

_Materials needed for a medium sized spreading-board._

1. Two strips of pine or other soft wood 18 inches long, 1-1/2 inches

wide and 1/2 inch thick.

2. One strip of wood 18 inches long, 3-1/4 inches wide and 1/2 inch

thick.

3. Two cleats 3-1/4 inches wide, 3/4 inch high and 1/2 inch thick; and

two cleats 1 inch wide and as high and thick as the others.

4. A strip of cork or linoleum 17 inches long and a little less than an

inch wide.

To construct the spreading-board, take the two narrow strips of wood,

place them one-fourth inch apart and on the under side fasten them

across the ends of the longer cleats. Then on the same side as the

cleats tack the piece of cork or linoleum over the space between the

strips of board, and as the cleats are one-half inch wide the linoleum

should cover all the space left. Then midway the boards fasten the two

smaller cleats. Fig. 135 shows a cross-section of the spreading-board

just in front of these two middle cleats. Now it is ready for the

bottom board which will fit exactly if directions are followed, and this

completes it. The space between the two upper boards is wide enough to

take in the body of the moth or butterfly. The cork or linoleum below

the space will hold firmly the pin on which the butterfly is impaled.

The cleats hold the top and bottom boards apart and so protect the

points of the pins. Spreading-boards may be made much smaller or much

larger to suit moths of different sizes; the space between the top

boards must always be large enough to admit the body of the insect.

[Illustration: _Fig. 135. A cross-section of spreading-board in front of

the cleat "d" in Fig. 134._]

To use the spreading-board: Insert the pin with the butterfly on it into

the linoleum just far enough so that the body of the insect will be in

the space between the boards up to the wings, Fig. 135. Place the wings

out flat on the board and fasten them there with narrow strips of paper

pinned across them, Fig. 134, _a_. While held down by these strips of

paper arrange them so that the hind margins of the front wings shall

cover the front margins of the hind wings and shall be in a line at

right angles to the body; then pin larger pieces of paper over the rest

of the wings, Fig. 134, _b_. Sometimes isinglass is used instead of

paper to hold the wings down, Fig. 134, _c_. The insects should be left

on the spreading-board at least three days; and when the board has

insects on it, it should be kept in a box where the museum pests and

mice cannot get at it.

Sometimes when the moths are not spread soon after being killed, they

become so stiff that the wings cannot be moved without breaking them. In

such cases the insects should be put on paper in a jar which has some

wet sand in the bottom and which can be covered tightly. The air in such

a can is so moist that in two or three days the insect will become

limber and may be spread with ease.

WHERE TO COLLECT INSECTS.