THE
FIRST 60,000,000 YEARS
_By JOE N. LONG_
1
The Beginning
How old are the Caverns? When did they begin to form? Are they growing
larger today? What changes, if any, are now going on?
These are questions which everyone who becomes interested in the great
Carlsbad Caverns wants to have answered sooner or later.
To some of these and many similar questions the answers are difficult
to obtain, for when the Caverns were being created no man was around
to watch the process and to report his observations first hand. As a
result, we have only the word of geologists and other scientists who
have specialized in the study of the earth, its formation, and the
changes that have come about through the countless ages since our world
began.
No one knows how old the Caverns are. All man can do is to estimate,
and he bases these estimates on a study of conditions he finds within
the cave itself, in the surrounding countryside, and from a general
knowledge of the earth and how it has evolved.
Probably the area itself began to form about 200 million years ago,
during the Permian period of geologic time.
The area at that time is supposed to have been either an inland sea
or a shallow extension of the ocean. During this Permian period the
earth's surface was changing. Mountains were rising and the waters were
receding, thus greatly enlarging the land areas. Amphibian life was on
the wane, and reptiles began to appear.
Great thicknesses of limestone deposits were made during these
countless centuries, some in the form of a reef now known as the
Capitan limestone. Contemporaneous rock behind the reef is called the
Tansill formation. It is in these rocks that the Carlsbad Caverns are
located.
Since Permian time geologists think the seas may have risen again
and covered what is now New Mexico, leaving sediments that have been
largely removed. About 60,000,000 years ago, during the Cretaceous
period when coal was being formed elsewhere in the world and dinosaurs
roamed the earth, the land was uplifted, perhaps producing cracks and
crevices in the limestone.
Geologists at one time believed the Caverns were caused by the action
of water as it flowed down through the limestone, dissolving as it
did so minute particles of the stone. Today, however, that theory has
been discarded, since a more careful and detailed study indicates the
Caverns to have been formed by phreatic solution, their development
resulting from a two-cycle method of creation.
The Caverns can be said to be a natural cavity in the earth formed by
the solution of rock by subsurface waters. Actually, there are two
great geological processes involved in the formation of the Caverns.
The first came about as the water hollowed out the underground
chambers, and the second took place when the formations of stone were
created in these underground openings.
To be explicit, we can only say that the Caverns are large crevices
or cracks in the limestone which have been enormously enlarged by the
constant solution of the rock into the underground water which filled
these indentations.
In order to understand just what the two-cycle method means and how
it can exist, we must first understand the two conditions under which
these operations of nature can take place.
Water, as it seeps downward into the earth, tends to seek what we shall
call its own level. This would be a point where everything below is
saturated with water, the water table of the region. Above the table
water works downward due to its gravitational pull. Below the table
there is only rather slow movement of water.
The area above this point is known as the vadose zone, and below this
point the area is the ground-water or phreatic zone.
Any farmer who has ever sunk a well knows how important it is that his
well reach below the water table if he is to be assured a continuous
supply of water. Well owners also know that the water table can rise
or fall due to any of several natural causes, such as an abundance
of rainfall for a few seasons, or any great lack of rainfall for an
extended length of time. When the water table goes below the lowest
reaches of the well, no more water can be pumped, and it is necessary
to extend the well further into the earth until it again goes below the
water table and reaches into the saturated area where water is abundant.
The water table is not constant around the world, even though water
seeks its own level. The water table might be high in one section of
the country, low in another. It might be kept high by an abundance
of rain, or remain low due to outlets such as springs or underground
seepages.
The vadose-water area also varies, and the effects created by the rise
and fall of the water table in one section of the country, for example,
might be vastly different than the effects in an adjacent territory.
This explains why any action of underground water in one area is not
necessarily duplicated in an apparently identical area close by.
With an understanding of the two water zones, and the demarcation line
between, we can more readily comprehend just how the Caverns were
formed.
Geologists are now pretty well in agreement that the enclosing rocks
of the Caverns were located in the ground-water zone under saturated
conditions. As we already know, large cracks existed in the otherwise
solid limestone.
Then, for many, many years the ground water dissolved the limestone,
enlarging the cracks bit by bit, until the huge Caverns were formed.
At this point the water table was lowered, and, in time, the Caverns
ceased to exist in the ground-water zone. Following the lowering of
the water table, the Caverns were nothing more than empty holes in the
earth. Now the second phase of their "growth" was to begin.
When the ground water could no longer continue its constant gnawing
action on the limestone, the Caverns had reached their maximum size.
From now on they would begin to fill up again.
The second of the two cycles consisted of mineral deposit brought about
by water seeping downward from the surface, carrying lime for the
secondary formations which are today one of the great features of the
Caverns.
Water in the vadose zone, seeking the ground-water level, would seep
into the top of the many rooms and galleries. Each drop contained a
minute portion of limestone.
Some drops would remain on the ceiling, where the moisture would
evaporate, leaving a tiny ring of limestone deposit behind. As these
limestone deposits accumulated they formed a pendant mass resembling an
icicle which is called a stalactite. Drops falling to the floor would
produce deposits known as stalagmites.
Sometimes the stalactites and stalagmites would join and a solid pillar
would be formed.
In the rocks enclosing the Caverns are various deposits of other
minerals such as iron oxide which are often carried in minute
quantities within the seeping water and deposited on the stalagmites
and stalactites. These minerals are responsible for the many different
colors that may be seen in many places within the rooms of the Caverns.
Some of the formations have a very live and transparent appearance,
looking somewhat as though they might have just been given a thorough
coat of wax. Actually, these formations are still active. That is, they
are still covered with water and the age-old process of depositing the
small particles of carbonate of lime contained in the water is still
going on. In cave parlance they are "alive", that is, they are still
growing.
In the Carlsbad Caverns today about 10 per cent of the formations are
"alive". Water is seeping in around them and working its wonders. It is
this presence of water that gives them the polished, radiant look.
When the water no longer reaches the formations, they "die", i.e., they
no longer continue to grow. They lose their sheen and lustre and take
on a powdery appearance.
Geologists differentiate the two primary effects of seeping water
in the creation of the formations in caves. Those that are created
by water dripping from above, as in the case with stalactites and
stalagmites, are referred to as dripstone formations. Those created by
the flowing of water over a surface are called flowstone formations.
In some rooms of the cave, formations made of flowstone are quite
abundant. This is to be found mostly on the floors of the rooms, or on
walls where a large volume of water is present. These formations have
been referred to as masses which resemble ice that forms on a cold
winter's day near a stream of water. Others have described them as
"cascades frozen in stone."
An additional phase of the cave's development has been described by
geologists as the period of collapse. During the centuries when the
entire area was saturated with water, limestone blocks on walls and
ceilings were weakened by solution, later to crash to the floor,
leaving the room larger than ever. This collapsing continued after
the cave became "dry" but ended once stability was achieved. Park
naturalists tell us no rock has fallen within the cave for thousands of
years.
So ends the first stage of the history of the great Carlsbad Caverns,
their gradual growth and formation over periods of millions of years.
Man was still centuries away when their beauties were being created.
But were other forms of life inhabiting them?
2
Life Enters the Caverns
At the time the limestone beds were beginning to crack, which we noted
was some 60,000,000 million years ago, the huge reptiles and other
prehistoric animals were playing hide and seek on the surface above the
site of the developing Caverns. At that time the cave hadn't yet been
formed--the underground seepage of water was just beginning to find the
crevices below the gypsum and rock salt and begin its erosion which was
to continue slowly for so many centuries.
Recent forms of life seem to have a more or less direct bearing on the
bat, and scientists remain quiet on what forms of life, if any, used
the cave for their domicile between the earliest times and the arrival
of the bat.
At least, the nocturnal creature is a sure resident, for he still makes
his home there, and in numbers running into the millions.
But when did the bat first inhabit the cave? That is difficult to
answer, except to say that it was several thousands of years ago.
How can scientists be so sure the years are so many? There are several
ways in which they have been able to establish that the centuries have
been numerous since the bats first discovered this haven.
One of the best is by the guano deposits found on the floor of the
cave. Observations have shown that the excrement from the bats
accumulates at the rate of approximately one-half inch per year. Thus
25 years is required for a foot of the substance to materialize. This
would indicate it would require about 1,000 years for 40 feet to
accumulate.
Unfortunately, the exact thickness or depth of the guano deposits was
not carefully measured when my father first discovered them, but I have
heard him describe them many times as being at least 100 feet deep in
places. That would be almost conclusive proof that the bats had been
living in the cave for at least 2,000 years!
It should also be remembered that as guano ages and dehydrates, it sort
of packs down, so that although a half inch of guano might be deposited
in a year's time, several years later this guano will have decayed and
packed down to half that thickness.
This would extend the time to far more than the estimated 2,000 years,
but just how much is extremely difficult to estimate.
Also, the amount of guano growth varies with the years, for when
insects are plentiful, bats gorge themselves and the guano deposits
are much greater than in lean years when their food supply is low,
sometimes to the extent that the bats will go elsewhere for one or two
seasons, at which times there is no guano accumulation at all.
At one time, during an exploration of the cave some years ago, a
scientist discovered the remains of a bat sticking out of the side of a
stalagmite where it had undoubtedly fallen from its perch above, having
perchance died of old age.
With no disturbance to blow its remains away, it rotted there and the
stalagmite grew over it, so to speak. Scientists, estimating the rate
of growth of stalagmites, were able to calculate approximately how long
ago the bat had fallen. The head and wing bones were barely discernable.
It is also known that the bats have moved around in the cave, for their
tiny skeletons have been found in remote sections at points where the
bats are no longer found clinging to the ceiling for their daytime
sleep. Such findings indicate one of two possibilities; one, that some
bats might have gotten lost in the cave and died there, away from their
normal resting place, and, second, that previous openings have since
been closed, due to various earth movements, forcing the bats to use
new openings and thus change their location within the cave.
Scientists place little credence on the former possibility because bats
seldom get lost. They can find their way in any dark cave or passageway
and know how to get out the same way they went in.
The second possibility is the most likely, that centuries ago there
were other openings to the cave through which the bats entered and
spent the daylight hours. As old age overtook them they would die and
fall to the floor. Then, as subsequent earth movements closed the
openings, the bats would find new doorways to their daytime abode.
This also accounts for large quantities of guano which were found in
portions of the cave where no bats were to be seen sleeping on the
ceiling above.
There are eighteen species of bats to be found in New Mexico, and
thirteen are known in the Carlsbad region. In the United States as a
whole, scientists have classified over 251 varieties of these winged
mammals.
Of the thirteen found near the Caverns, eight are known to have made
use of the cave at one time or another. Old skeletons have been
found in remote sections of the cave which have been identified as
those of the Large Pale Bat (_Antrozous pallidus_), wing bones
of which were found in one of the innermost rooms; the Big Brown
Bat (_Eptesicus fuscus_), a skull and wing bones having been
discovered in an inner room; House Bat (_Myotis incautus_),
several skull fragments of which were found in one of the lower rooms
of the cave; Red Bat (_Nycteris borealis_), two old skulls of
which were found on the floor of one of the deepest rooms; Cave Bat
(_Myotis velifer_), evidenced by imperfect skull fragments found
deep in the cave; Great Hoary Bat (_Nycteris cinerea_), largest of
the northern bats, possessing silvery grey fur and not normally a cave
dweller, but wing bones were found in the cave, indicating they may
have lived there at one time, and the Little California Bat (_Myotis
californicus pallidus_), whose presence was indicated by a skull
picked up amid the dust and debris of a low, inner room.
The chief resident of the caves for centuries has been the Mexican
Free-tailed Bat (_Tadarida mexicana_), also sometimes called
the guano bat because its species is especially noted for the huge
quantities of commercially excellent guano it produces.
The Free-tailed Bat is distinguishable from the northern bats by its
extended tail which reaches about an inch beyond the interleg membrane,
by its short fur, and by a strong odor not found with other species.
They also possess short, stubby ears, will weigh between 10 and 12
grams, and prefer caves more than most any other species.
The life of the bat is somewhat of a mystery to the average person,
partly because they seclude themselves during the day in places
relatively safe from discovery, and venture out at night when humans
are not around and couldn't very well see them if they were.
Bats resemble the ordinary field mouse in appearance, except for their
large, expansive wings. They are mostly insectivorous, living almost
exclusively on insects they catch while in flight, chewing their prey
into the finest bits with their sharp teeth. A bat will eat enormous
quantities of food between sunset and sunrise, and on the basis of
only two full meals a night will consume an amount almost half its own
weight.
Their diet consists of beetles, flies, and other flying insects, most
of which are enemies of civilization; thus the bat is economically a
valuable animal.
They leave the mouth of the cave at dusk, heading first for a drink of
water at the nearest available spot, then spend the night in search of
their food. As the sun's rays begin to appear in the east they fly back
to the cave where they dig their tiny claws into the ceiling and remain
there sleeping until the sun sets in the west and the cycle starts all
over again.
Due to their habits they have few enemies, the great horned owl being
one. Very wide awake at night, he often catches an unsuspecting bat,
chews the flesh, letting the bones drop to the ground where they remain
as evidence of the owl's dinner.
The mating season is normally in March. Along about June the young are
born, with this species only one to a female, although in some species
a litter of four is born.
The single baby will weigh a fourth as much as its mother. Upon birth
it clings to its mother's body night and day until it is strong enough
to fly by itself, remaining tight even while the mother flies into the
night in search of food.
[Illustration: © BY ROBERT NYMEYER
The famous bat flight--a nightly occurrence at the Caverns.]
The habits of bats vary in respect to their living quarters. When
insects are abundant, the size of the bat population increases, having
been estimated at times to be as high as 7 million in the Carlsbad
Caverns alone. As the supply of insects decreases, so does the number
of bats. Where they go, and whether or not the same specific bats
return in times of insect plenty is not definitely known.
One of the first surveys of the bats in the Caverns discovered that the
number seems to grow in the fall, indicating that the cave was used
primarily as a home principally for hibernation during the winter.
More recent observations indicate that, at the present time at least,
the bats winter somewhere else and live in the cave only during the
summer months, going elsewhere to spend the winter. Recently several
thousand bats were banded by naturalists and of those which have been
returned, one came from Jalisco, Mexico, some 800 miles south of the
Caverns.
If both observations were correct, and it may be assumed that they
were, for both were made by naturalists, then the habits of the bats do
change, but what prompts these changes is still a matter of speculation.
Other matters of speculation are just how the bat flies so accurately
in the dark, darting swiftly past innumerable objects yet never hitting
one of them. Scientists call this phenomenon "echolocation," a sort of
sonar principle by which the little mammals let out a high frequency
squeak and judge the distance of objects by the time required for the
echo to bounce back to their sensitive ears.
Another mystery is how they find their way unerringly back to the cave,
in the early morning as well as after a sojourn to some other area of
the world, and how they know when the supply of food has increased to
the point that it is sufficient for them to return.
Visitors to the cave often wonder how the numbers can be estimated.
7,000,000 is a lot of bats. This has been reduced to a relatively
simple calculation. Cavern authorities counted the number sleeping in
one square foot of space, found between 250 and 300 could squeeze into
the area. The number of square feet of ceiling space occupied by the
sleeping creatures was then multiplied by the bats per square foot, and
the estimate was reached.
Life in the cave, it seems, has been governed by the bat, and even this
little fellow can hardly be said to live there. Actually, he only
sleeps there winters and during the day. He can't live in the cave all
the time since there is no food there for him.
Are there any living creatures that dwell in the cave all the time?
Only those that can find food in the cave, and since the eternal
darkness prohibits photosynthesis which is vital to all growing plants,
other animals or insects would find a food supply almost practically
nonexistent, at least any form of plant food.
Yet there are cave crickets. One species was found which was entirely
new to science, and they named it after the Caverns, calling the
species _Ceutophilus carlsbadensis_. Their eyes do not seem to
function, apparently depending upon their long antennæ to guide them.
But what do they eat? The contents of their stomachs have revealed bits
of insect remains which they have scavenged from the piles of guano.
Thus the cave crickets depend upon the bat for their existence.
The cave worm, actually an insect's larva, and a small spider also make
their homes in the cave. How long these insects have lived in the cave
is anybody's guess. Naturalists think the first few crickets may have
fallen into the cave and remained there due to the abundance of the
food supply, living peacefully and multiplying at leisure.
But this cricket's Shang-ri-la lost its comparative safety one day,
maybe centuries ago, when a cave mouse is thought to have fallen in.
He found the crickets abundant and tasty and, since he couldn't climb
out, stayed in his new subterranean home. Maybe later Mrs. Cave Mouse
met the same fate and together they became parents and grandparents of
litters who have lived in the cave ever since.
The cliff mouse also lives his complete life cycle in the black depths
of the Caverns, and together with the cave mouse they have a carefree
existence, for none of their natural enemies live in the cave.
Any herbivorous animals which might have fallen into the cave would
soon die, for the only vegetation to be found in the cave, aside from
a certain amount of mold, exists in scant proportions near the cave
entrances where there is some light and a little moisture. Thus only
carnivorous or insectivorous animals or insects could exist in the
vegetation-free depths.
Of the animals which occasionally frequent the cave, the cacomixle,
commonly known as a ring-tailed cave cat or even just "ring-tail," is
perhaps the best known. This slender raccoon-like animal doesn't spend
all his time in the cave, for he is able to crawl in and out, but he
does raise his family in the cracks and crevices of the walls, and eats
an occasional cave mouse or guano bat. Outside he eats fruit and other
small animals and insects. Apparently they have never been too numerous
in the Caverns.
The only other animal to have made the cave its home is the great
horned owl. His nests have been found in considerable numbers near the
entrances where he has been living for countless years in comparative
safety. But, like the bats, he ventures outside in search of food, and
spends his nights away from the cave, so at best he, like the ringtail,
is only a part-time resident.
So the cricket depends on the bats, the mice on the cricket, and the
ringtail on the mice. Thus is the life cycle within the great cave.
But when did man first visit the Caverns? That question is indeed
problematic and may never be definitely answered. The early Folsom
people have been traced to an encampment site some fifteen miles south
of Clovis, New Mexico, which they occupied some time between 10,000
and 15,000 years ago. Chipped stone dart points associated with a
post-glacial species of bison have been found imbedded in the earth in
rock strata going back that many years.
These wandering hunters were known as "Bison Nomads" and it is not at
all improbable that they knew of the cave and frequented it. They could
have been the first humans to have entered it.
Then, approximately 2,000 years ago, or at about the beginning of the
Christian era, the Basket Maker Indians began to roam this southwest
area of the continent. They may have been the physical descendants of
the early hunters, but from a standpoint of culture they are credited
with having brought agriculture from some focal point in Mexico much
further south.
The Basket Maker Indians lived in this area for some eight centuries,
and archæologists mark three distinct periods of their civilization.
The Basket Maker I people did much hunting and probably roamed the
hills and valleys while the maize was growing, moving on to new areas
after each harvest. The Basket Maker II group built simple dwellings,
lived in caves, and grew numerous vegetables, including squash and
beans. The Basket Maker III group established permanent villages, fired
pottery, and elaborated on weavings established by both of the earlier
groups.
The Basket Maker Indians are definitely known to have visited the cave,
for their pictographs have been found on the entrance walls. What is
more, skeletons have been found in the cave, some buried in baskets!
These were found on shelves in the walls. Other skeletons were found
buried beneath piles of guano far back in the cave, together with bits
of pottery and broken arrow points.
As to how much the Indians used the cave remains speculative. Some
archæologists believe the cave was used mostly as a tomb, while others
think the Indians may have lived in the cave for a certain length,
basing this observation on the bits of pottery and other remains found
along ledges within the walls. These, they point out, definitely were
not buried with a body.
Most likely the cave was used for both purposes, for it served the
Indian well as a place of refuge and defense, and it appears that the
living quarters were located within a close radius of the entrance.
Any more extensive use of the rest of the cave would have left more
evidence, archæologists say.
But that was well over a thousand years ago. How about recent times?
Several authorities mention the fact that the existence of some form of
bat cave or hibernation den was known to ranchers in the Carlsbad area
as early as 1880-90. Great swarms of bats would rise out of a mound in
the earth at dusk and go winging their way into the horizon. At sunrise
they would return.
Was this the present Big Cave? Southern New Mexico contains numerous
bat caves and many were known at this time. The existence of a new one
didn't seem to overly excite the ranch hands, for exhaustive research
has failed to reveal any positive knowledge of the existence of this
particular cave as such prior to the time my father noticed the bats.
Millions of pounds of guano had been taken out of the various bat
caves in this area by late 1900, and if anyone had stumbled onto
this particular cave prior to my father's discovery, they would most
certainly have immediately taken out a claim and proceeded to mine
the guano, for there was so much of it that it assumed gold mine
proportions.
The fact that my father was the first to take out a claim seems proof
enough that he was the first to actually find the cave and, realizing
its economic potential, did what any other person would have done,
simply, take out a claim. It was the first ever recorded for this
particular 20 acres and his claim may be seen today on pages 149 and
152 of Book I in the Eddy County Courthouse at Carlsbad.
3
The First Fifty Years
The discovery of the Carlsbad Caverns was not an earth-shaking event at
the time. Its true value as a spectacle was to wait almost 20 years.
Had it not been for the huge quantities of guano, my father and his
friends might not have been especially interested in the cave, that is,
sufficiently so to explore it further, since there were so many similar
caves in this particular area of the State, and the discovery of one
more didn't unduly excite anyone.
But because the guano looked like a worth while business proposition,
the cave got more than casual consideration.
My father knew it was larger than some of the others in the area, and
he gave it the title "The Big Cave." It was also referred to as "The
Bat Cave" because of the millions of bats which would fly out of its
mouth each evening, only to return in equal numbers the following dawn.
In those days it was primarily a guano producing cave and, except for
occasional explorations by the guano miners and their friends, there
were no extensive trips into the underground chambers by scientists.
Only the commercial aspects of the fertilizer producing activities were
recognized.
The guano was shipped to California distributors and was largely used
in the fruit orchards there. The operation was not too profitable, as
my father found out, and after he sold his equipment to Mr. Patterson
the property changed hands many times. In 1906, for example, there
were three different owners, and there was some splitting of ownership
whereby an owner would sell a part or half his interest.
Also, there were other sections which were owned by independent
operators. Prior to 1906 the Santa Fe Railroad owned 40 acres over the
east portion of the cave.
By around 1912 the bulk of the guano had been removed and activity
around the cave ceased. There were little spurts of renewed interest
from time to time, but there was actually little news about the cave
for several years.
In later years people have often speculated as to whether or not the
great Carlsbad Caverns would ever have been discovered had it not been
for the attention caused by either my father's discovery quite by
chance, or from the dark clouds of bats which emanated from the cave
each evening.
We know now that even if those two events had never occurred--even if
there were no opening on the surface of the earth, if there were no
habitation of bats, the great cave would have indeed been discovered.
And historians now like to think that the cave was actually discovered
twice. The first, as we know, was when my father stumbled upon it quite
by accident back in 1903. This was the discovery of the guano beds, the
beauty and grandeur of the Caverns being secondary at that time.
Then came what historians have since called "the rediscovery!"
And it, like the first discovery almost 20 years before, came about
quite by accident!
At the end of, and immediately following, the first World War, around
1919 and 1920, the United States Government Commission of Reclamation
was constructing several dams along the Pecos River some 20 miles east
of the site of the big Bat Cave. The purpose of the dams was to impound
river water for irrigation of the surrounding agricultural lands.
But for some strange reason the dams didn't seem to be doing any good.
The water seemed to disappear underground. The Commission felt it was
useless to consider the construction of any more dams in the area until
the mystery could be cleared up.
They took the matter up with the U. S. Geological Survey, and again the
question was unanswered. It seemed strange that the water could not be
held and used to irrigate the surrounding farm lands.
The U. S. Geological Survey said they felt the problem was of
sufficient value to merit a complete investigation. They would, they
said, send a party to the site to see if they could unravel the riddle
of the river's strange behavior. They advised that no more dams be
constructed until the source of the trouble could be determined.
The assignment was given to Dr. Willis T. Lee.
He pondered the situation and knew from experience that there were
several possible solutions, yet he couldn't do much more than hazard a
guess as to what the trouble might be. He also knew that when nature is
concerned he might stumble onto an entirely new reason.
Before he left Washington, Dr. Lee had reviewed all the available
information on the geological formation of the earth in the area and
was quite well informed on its composition.
Now, on the land itself, he began to study the situation from every
angle. He found the limestone strata throughout the entire area were a
bit different from that which he had previously seen in other parts of
the world.
Gypsum and salt are soluble in water, and when the dams were built
they obviously raised the water level several feet above its natural
contours or limitations. The water would then find its way into these
alternate layers and would seek lower levels, dissolving the rock salt
and gypsum as it did so. With nothing to hold it behind the dams, the
water would disappear into the earth and reappear again many miles
below the spots where the dams had been built.
While Dr. Lee was in the vicinity, he decided to have a look at the
famous Caverns of which he had been hearing so much, and was promptly
invited to see these underground wonders since he was so close to them.
He knew of the existence of the many bat caves or guano caves in the
southeastern part of New Mexico, but had not suspected they contained
any real beauty. Now, for the first time, he was to learn otherwise.
Prior to this the United States Land Office had sent Mr. Robert Holley
to survey the Caverns, and by the time Lee visited these underground
chambers, Holly had surveyed some three and a half miles of their
interior. It was Holly's report which brought about the designation of
the area as the Carlsbad Caverns National Monument.
Dr. Lee was enthusiastic in his description of the great Caverns as a
thing of immense size and beauty. Here was something that had been kept
a secret long enough, he felt, and the government should do something
about them.
His report was the spark that set off a chain reaction. Now, for
the first time, national magazines began to publish reports of this
huge, fabulous cave in southeast New Mexico. In the latter part of
1923 several articles appeared based on Dr. Lee's descriptions of
the underground wonders. Now, at last, the world was learning of
the existence of this fairyland of unmatched scope anywhere in this
country, perhaps in the world.
But prior to this time the National Geographic Society had become
interested in Willis Lee's findings. Certainly this was worthy of the
Society's attention. Accordingly, they set up a grant of $16,000 to
finance the first full scale exploration of the Caverns. They selected
Dr. Lee to head the party.
Dr. Lee's mission this time was much different. He wasn't concerned
where the underground waters were going. Rather he was set upon finding
and reporting the scenery about which he knew the world would want to
hear.
His subsequent report in the National Geographic Magazine (January,
1924) marked the first full scale description of the Caverns, and for
the first time the public saw a series of pictures of the beauty of
this underground wonderland and read something about the various rooms,
their gigantic size, and the extent of the formation.
Dr. Lee's party didn't find a smooth paved road from the town of
Carlsbad to the site of the Caverns. By contrast, the 28 miles of
hilly, bumpy, dusty road were covered by automobile in about two
hours. The road had been used primarily by the fertilizer companies in
transporting the sacks of guano to Carlsbad for shipment to California.
At this time there were several dwellings at the entrance to the cave,
an engine house and two hoisting shafts.
The exploring party engaged Jim White as a guide to accompany them
below. At this time Jim White probably knew the Caverns better than
anyone else, for he had lived in the vicinity of the caves for more
than a dozen years and had served as a guide for many persons who had
made trips below to behold the beauties to be found there.
Jim had talked of the cave and its marvels to anyone who would listen,
and for years had tried to stir up some enthusiasm for the wonders
that lay beneath. He had explored much of the cave and could talk
intelligently about it. Obviously, he was the best guide that Dr. Lee
could have found.
The descent at that time was not a very glamorous undertaking. Dr.
Lee's party entered, two at a time, by standing in an old iron guano
bucket and letting the "elevator" engine slowly lower them more than
150 feet below the surface. The wire rope fastened to the bucket ran
over a pulley at the top of the derrick and was manipulated by the
engine. Dr. Lee was apprehensive of the contraption, but it never
failed his party.
In that early and historical excursion into the great Caverns, Dr. Lee
noted the weird, eerie effect the shadowy forms, high ceilings, and
irregular floor and walls had on his group. They found it difficult to
believe what they were seeing. Below, the opening above them became but
a speck of light.
They noted the great distance from wall to wall, the many alcoves, the
roughness of some walls, the polished smoothness of others.
Some distance from the foot of the shaft they came upon a large pit
some 150 feet deep which they called Yeitso's Den. The name was later
changed to the Devil's Den.
This part of the cave was much as the surging waters of the past
several million years had left it. Travel was slow and dangerous. Steep
walls had to be climbed and it was necessary to cut steps in the stone.
The forward progress was indeed tedious in those early days.
Dr. Lee's report to the National Geographic Society was filled with
descriptions of the colorful stalagmites and stalactites, the beautiful
formations of flowstone and dripstone, and the subject matter to be
seen in the formations all around them. He was equally impressed by
the "chambers of unbelievable dimensions," some of which were "several
hundred feet wide" and ceilings "so high our lights won't touch them."
He measured the smallest of three rooms which he entered after his
journey down the main corridor, which he describes as "slow and
laborious." The room measured 160 by 140 feet. "The middle room was
three times this size, and the first room was even larger," he said.
He noted the "curtains" formed of onyx created by the deposit of lime
carbonate dripping from above. The ceilings were found to be covered
with curtains of these stalactites which had grown together during
the ages. At times they met with stalagmites to form solid pillars of
seemingly carved formations.
At times the floor was rough and covered with fallen blocks of stone.
In other places it was quite smooth and flat, obviously the result of
years of solutive action by water. Stalagmites do not grow in areas
covered for any length of time by water, such as an underground pool.
In one place the stalactites were so slender and numerous that Dr. Lee
referred to them as resembling "a porcupine in posture of defense."
Dr. Lee's group gave names to many of the rooms and formations, many
of which have since been changed. But one which has stuck with all
explorers, both before and since Dr. Lee's excursion, is the Big Room.
This underground colossus impresses everyone who sees it, and Dr. Lee
hesitated to estimate its dimension. "Over half a mile long," he said
at that time, "with a ceiling some 200 feet high."
Big as the room was, he felt it was equally remarkable for its numerous
dripstone decorations, their variety and size. Some, he noted, rose to
50 feet in height.
He found some stalagmites were still "growing," for they were darker in
color than those no longer alive, indicating the presence of water and
continued growth. As the supply of water ceases they become lighter in
color, almost powdery.
One of the largest he described were the Twin Domes, which he said were
more than 100 feet high and some 200 feet across at the base. They
are, today, much the same as he first observed them and are one of the
favorite formations of all cave visitors.
In the light of Dr. Lee's primitive torchlight, the base showed up
a dark green, with the grooved pillars light cream in color, both
glittering and sparkling as the light struck them.
Other interesting observations by the party included the location
of extinct seeps on the floor of the big room, the basins of which
were up to about 50 feet in diameter, pedestals of onyx resembling
toadstools and so called by the party, and an underground series of
chambers through one of which flows a stream of clear water.
Dr. Lee's party was unprepared for the vastness and extent of the
Caverns. Although his group had come prepared for a sizeable task, the
job overwhelmed them. Although they mapped much of the underground
passageways and rooms, they could see much was left undone.
But what they had done was enough to prompt the United States
Government in declaring the site a National Monument. On October 30,
1923, Secretary Work announced that President Coolidge had proclaimed
the area a National Monument.
Now it was official. If the government proclaimed it as a National
Monument, it must be worth a visit. So thought many people throughout
the land as they read about it in the many national magazines that ran
descriptions of the Caverns based on Dr. Lee's findings.
My father's original holdings consisted of 20 acres. Now that the
government had taken over, the size was increased to 700 acres.
Spurred by Dr. Lee's first exhaustive article in the National
Geographic in January, 1924, people began to travel to this underground
land of wonders. Diplomats, governors, people of all walks of life
wanted a first-hand glimpse of what had been found.
There were no adequate facilities with which to accommodate them. Silk
hats in guano buckets didn't look exactly right. Improvements were in
order.
Dr. Lee reported how preliminary his work had been. More exploration
was needed, and as a result he returned to the Caverns in the spring of
1924 in order to further extend the work he had started when he first
saw them.
Exploration began the middle of March and lasted for six months, during
the heat of the summer when it was as high as 115 in the shade--and, as
Dr. Lee says, there was no shade. Yet inside the cave it remained about
56 degrees, which is constant the year around. During this time the
party played host to the Governor of New Mexico, the Governor of Texas,
the Director of National Parks, and many other high ranking dignitaries.
Dr. Lee and his party set up their camp at the mouth of the Big Cave,
using tents and the rough board shacks left by the fertilizer company
years before. Their closest source of water was a spring about a mile
away and their supply had to be carted by horse or burro.
While working in the cave the members of the party used kerosene
torches, but upon discovering that these gave off more smoke than light
they abandoned them in favor of gasoline lanterns.
In order to safeguard themselves, they would unravel balls of twine as
they explored remote sections and passageways. In this way they could
always find their way back to safety. Some of the members of the party
were hesitant to wander far from the well-worn trails, apparently
afraid of the unknown and admitting their weakness. Others allowed
their curiosity to dominate their fears and were continually searching
for new finds.
The party obtained its supplies from Carlsbad, about 28 miles away,
and during the summer months the fruits and vegetables were kept in a
special "refrigerator" in the cave where the cool, even temperature was
put to constructive use.
The party's first task was to improve the various trails. Large rocks
were pushed aside and, where this was not possible, safe ladders were
constructed when the obstructions could not be circumvented.
On Dr. Lee's previous trip he did not explore the many small chambers
and rooms leading off of the main halls and central areas. This time he
made these deviations his specialty. Numerous nooks and corners were
explored and mapped. Only those that for reason defied access were left
alone and kept their secrets sealed within.
The entire party was amazed at the ornate beauty they found all around
them. Many of the rooms were being seen by scientists for the first
time, who would subsequently describe these colorful wonders so that
all the world would know.
Of the Dome Room he later wrote "from the arched vault hang pendants of
ornate character and on the wall are sheets of delicately colored onyx
resembling portieres looped back in graceful folds. One is impelled
to touch these folds before he is convinced that they are cold, hard
stone."
In another chamber Dr. Lee noted how some of the stalactites would ring
when struck lightly with a stone or metal instrument. One that was
broken revealed a small trickle of water within. It was, said Dr. Lee,
excellent drinking water.
Further on the party found a large hole which was 100 yards across and
almost one third that deep. Onyx marble was to be seen all around, on
the walls and the ceiling which was some 200 feet above the floor of
this indentation.
Climbing down a wire ladder, Dr. Lee and his associates found several
"fountain basins" many of which had a crust of onyx which resembled
somewhat the ice that forms over a small body of water in the winter
time, after which the water recedes leaving the thin sheet of ice
suspended in air.
Other unusual formations were the many pisolites, small, spherical
bodies of hard stone which jewelers call "cave pearls." Some were
immovable while others were loose, probably never having been able to
fasten themselves due to the continuous agitation caused either by a
flow of water underneath them or from water above dripping down around
them. These "cave pearls" grow from a tiny beginning through hundreds
of years by the constant deposition of minute quantities of calcium
carbonate left by the dripping or flowing water. Those still active
are moist and glistening. The dead ones are pale, with a powdery, dull
look. Because of the fact that these "pearls" resembled eggs in nests
of stone, the room was called the Rookery, a name which has remained
ever since.
In places where water drips at just the right frequency, the water will
splash to the surrounding walls, leaving as it dries there its small
particle of calcium carbonate. In places it hardens to form funnel
shaped vases. In other places it dries too rapidly, leaving a soft
powdery accumulation.
Still another formation was the "helictites" which are certain types
of stalactites which didn't know which way to go. They appear to defy
the laws of gravity, for they may start in one direction and then dart
off in another direction. Such formations were caused by certain types
of crystallization. Some chemicals will "grow" upward as they dry and
expand, and this is probably one explanation, although it may not apply
in every case.
By the early fall in 1924, when Dr. Lee and his party had completed
this second thorough study of the Caverns, he was most enthusiastic
about what he had seen. His observation at that time describes the
underground wonders exceptionally well. Telling about the exploration
in September, 1925, issue of the National Geographic, he said:
"The Carlsbad Cavern, New Mexico, is the most spectacular of
underground wonders in America! For spacious chambers, for variety and
beauty of multitudinous natural decorations, and for general scenic
quality, it is king of its kind."
The party had covered a total of some 23 miles, which they had
patiently mapped and surveyed, photographed, and described. The
"rediscovery" had now been completed--and in grand style. The next
descent into the great cave was to be by the public itself, and in
ever-increasing numbers.
In order to meet this onrush of sightseers, improvement of the
interior of the Caverns and the approach from above ground was deemed
necessary. Now that the area was a National Monument, the Government
gave its attention to the area. Because of his great interest in, and
knowledge of the Caverns, Dr. Lee was appointed the first custodian. He
served without pay. Jim White became an unofficial guide, later being
appointed a park ranger by the National Park Service, finally becoming
chief ranger.
Now, with some system of procedure mapped out, improvements began in
earnest. All of the major trails were greatly enlarged and smoothed
over so that their passage by the public would be safe. Lighting of the
halls and chambers was also begun, although most of the illumination
was furnished by the lanterns carried by the guides and members of
touring parties.
In 1927 the Government could see the Caverns were beginning to take
hold as a show place, a vacation mecca, and additional help would be
required. They sought a man who could take complete charge for the
Government. Someone suggested a man who was at that time in charge of
the volcanoes on the Hawaiian Islands, Colonel Thomas Boles. Here, they
felt, was a man who could do what was necessary at the great Caverns,
and as a result Colonel Boles was appointed the first Superintendent in
that year.
During the cave trips at this time everyone carried a box lunch, for
a full scale trip below required the best part of a day. With the
increasing attendance the government decided an underground lunchroom
would be an added convenience for the visitors.
[Illustration:
CARLSBAD CAVERNS
WITH SURFACE SUPERIMPOSED
]
Accordingly, in 1927, a suitable room over 700 feet below was selected
for this purpose, one of the guiding factors being that it was located
approximately at the point where the visitors passed at noon-day.
Picnic tables were set up and box lunches provided cafeteria style
to the hungry travelers whose appetites were heightened by the brisk
journey in the ever-cool atmosphere.
As interest in the Caverns continued to increase, the Government
realized the site was worthy of more than simply a monument rating. The
matter was taken up before Congress two years later, and on May 14,
1930, Congress voted to make the area a National Park.
It is also significant that it was at this time that the official name
became the Carlsbad Caverns National Park, the big caves being named
for the town of the same name some 28 miles northeast and which has
always served as the chief supply point for the vicinity.
The surface area was also enlarged at this time and was extended to
include several more acres. On February 21, 1933, it was enlarged to
include more than 10,000 acres.
It was at this time that the greatest improvement yet to be made at
the Caverns was undertaken. This was the installation of the elevator,
which was completed in 1932. The lift is 754 feet and shortens the
walk-in trip by about one and three-quarter hours. The elevator
lets its passengers out at a point adjacent to the Big Room and the
lunchroom. Installation of the elevator made it possible for elderly
people and those who were not physically capable of walking in through
the natural tunnel corridor to view the magic wonders of the great
subterranean fairyland. As soon as it was completed, a great many more
people came to see the great Caverns.
Walking into the Caverns is a thrill within itself and, since the trail
is downhill, few people find it much of a chore. Going out is something
else again, and the great majority of people who walk in are glad for
the opportunity of taking the elevator up to the surface 754 feet above
them.
In 1939 the Park was extended to include some 49,000 acres, and
within this area are 30 other caverns, some of which have been quite
extensively explored while others are relatively unknown. In the main,
most of them are similar, though none begin to compare with the
Carlsbad Caverns in size, and the details and formations often differ
as well.
Three years later the Government purchased the east wing from T. A.
Blakely. This was the section lying for the most part over the guano
beds which in previous years had been worked so extensively. The
purchase of this last segment put the entire known area of the great
cave in the hands of the government.
In 1946, Colonel Boles, the park's first superintendent, who had served
through 19 pioneering years, was transferred to Hot Springs National
Park. By that time he had spoken to well over 2 million visitors, many
of whom were world famous. He says he has made over 5,000 complete
trips through the Caverns and on each "I saw something I missed
before." Much of the early progress was due directly to Colonel Boles'
leadership and foresight. Today, having retired from the National Park
Service, he makes his home in Carlsbad, where he serves as public
relations counsel for the Potash Company of America.
Donald S. Libbey followed Colonel Boles as Superintendent of the
Caverns and he in turn was succeeded by R. Taylor Hoskins. During the
first eight years of his office, Supt. Hoskins says almost 3,000,000
people paid to see the limestone creations which many have tabbed "The
Eighth Wonder of the World." Those who make the underground tour come
away feeling that appellation can't be far from right.
Though the government spent some money years ago in improving the
Caverns and preparing them for visitors to see in safety, the returns
on that investment are now counted. Although the park receives somewhat
over a quarter of a million dollars appropriation from the federal
government each year, it returns almost twice that amount, the sum
being obtained from tourist fees and similar income.
Yes, these first fifty years have indeed seen many changes within the
Caverns. Nature's work has been protected and left intact, but the
lights, the lunchroom, the elevator, the improved trails, and the many
other improvements have been made by man for man's enjoyment of what
the ages have bestowed--what the centuries have given him to see and
enjoy.
Already people from the four corners of the globe have beaten a track
to the Caverns' door, to behold in amazement and wonder and awe. Many
millions more will come in the years ahead, and their children in the
years after that. Here, some 700 and 1000 feet below the surface of the
earth they will marvel at the work of the centuries--that began some
60,000,000 years ago.