76. _The ARABIAN CAMEL, or DROMEDARY_ (Camelus dromedarius, Fig. 7), _is
distinguishable from every other specics of camel, by having a single
bunch upon the middle of its back._
_This animal, which is a native of many of the deserts of Asia and
Africa, is of a tawny grey colour, and has soft hair, which is longer on
the neck, under the throat, and on the haunch, than elsewhere._
_The Arabian, like all other species of camel, has its upper lip cleft,
and its feet with two long hoofs on which it treads, and two others
shorter, which do not touch the ground._
These animals constitute the principal source of riches, and the whole
force and security, of the Arabians. They are the only beasts by which the
inhabitants of the sandy deserts of many parts of Asia could travel or
convey their burdens. Their tough and spongy feet, which are peculiarly
adapted both to the climate and the country, and their abstemious
temperament, but particularly their capability of travelling without water,
for many successive days, enable them to perform such journeys as would
destroy, probably, any other species of quadruped. The caravans, or troops
of merchants, that traverse, in all directions, the deserts of Egypt and
Arabia, are always accompanied by camels, which are often more in number
than the men. These commercial travels are sometimes to the distance of 700
or 800 leagues, and are usually performed at the rate of ten or twelve
leagues a day, the camels being, every night, unloaded to rest and feed.
For the latter purpose, if better provender cannot be had, they are
contented with a small quantity of dates or a few beans, together with the
scattered and oftentimes bitter herbage which the desert affords. The
burden of each camel usually weighs about half a ton; and, at the command
of his conductor, he kneels down for the greater convenience of being
loaded. It is from this practice that we account for those horny parts that
are observable on the bellies, knees, and limbs, even of the animals that
are exhibited in England. Camels are trained, from the earliest part of
their life, to the labours which they are afterwards to perform: and, with
this view, when but a few days old, their limbs are folded under their
body, and they are compelled to remain on the ground whilst they are loaded
with a weight, which is gradually increased as they increase in strength.
As soon as they have acquired sufficient strength they are trained to the
course, and their emulation is excited by the example of horses or of other
camels.
The pace of the camel is a high and swinging trot, which, to persons
unaccustomed to it, is at first disagreeable and apparently dangerous, but
is afterwards sufficiently pleasant and secure. The Arabians, in general,
ride on a saddle that is hollowed in the middle, and has, at each bow, a
piece of wood placed upright, or sometimes horizontally, by which the rider
keeps himself in the seat. A ring is inserted into the nostrils of the
camel, to which a cord is affixed; and this serves as a bridle to guide and
stop him, or to make him kneel when the rider wishes to dismount. Mr. Bruce
informs us that, in the caravans of one of the Abyssinian tribes, the
people sometimes ride two together on each camel, and sit back to back.
The camels of Sahara are probably more fleet than any that are known; and,
on these animals, the Arabs, with their loins, breast, and ears bound
round, to prevent the injurious effects of percussion from the quickness of
motion, can cross that great desert in a few days. With a goat's skin or a
porous earthen pitcher filled with water, a few dates, and some ground
barley, the Arab travels from Timbuctoo to Morocco, feeding his camel but
once upon the road. In one instance a camel was known to travel from Fort
St. Joseph, on the river Senegal, to the house of Messrs. Cabane and Depras
at Mogador, a distance of more than 1000 miles, in seven days.
It has been observed that the camel is the most completely and most
laboriously enslaved of all animals; the most completely, because, in the
other kinds of domestic animals, we find at least some individuals in their
natural state, and which have not yet been subdued by man: but the whole
species of the camel is enslaved; and not any of them are now to be found
in their primitive state of independence and liberty. He is the most
laboriously enslaved because he has never been trained, but as a beast of
burden whom man has not harnessed nor taught to draw, but whose body is
considered a living carriage which may be loaded and oppressed.
The above are not the only uses of the camel. The _hair_ or fleece of these
animals, which is renewed every year, and which regularly falls off in the
spring, is so soft that the finest parts of it may be manufactured into
stuffs of beautiful texture: and, in Europe, when mixed with the fur of the
beaver (69), it is sometimes made into hats. The inhabitants in some parts
of Sahara live in tents formed of woven camel's hair; this forms a thick
covering completely water-proof. After the hair has been stripped off, the
_skin_ is converted into leather.
In Arabia the _milk_ of the camel is a most important article of nutriment;
and the _flesh_, though dry and hard, is not unpalatable, particularly when
young. By the inhabitants of Egypt camels' flesh is so much esteemed, that,
at Cairo and Alexandria, it was formerly forbidden to be sold to
Christians. In many parts of Africa the _tongues_ are salted and dried,
both for use and exportation; and, with the ancient Romans, the _heels_ of
camels were eaten as a great delicacy.
77. _The BACTRIAN, or TWO-BUNCHED CAMEL_ (Camelus bactrianus), _is known
by having two bunches on its back; and by being somewhat larger, and
having shorter legs than the Arabian species._
_This animal is found in Usbec Tartary, the ancient Bactria: it is
likewise a native of Siberia, Thibet, and some parts of China._
The purposes to which the Bactrian camel are applied are the same as those
already described respecting the Arabian species (76). These animals,
however, are sufficiently hardy to sustain the climate of the temperate
parts of Siberia, and to be able, without injury, to traverse even humid
and marshy countries, which would soon prove fatal to the Arabian camel.
78. _The LLAMA, or GLAMA_ (Camelus glama), _is a South American species
of camel, of small size, which has a protuberance on the breast, and no
bunch on the back._
_The colour of the llama is white, grey, and russet, variously disposed.
Its height, to the top of the back, is somewhat more than four feet, and
to the head nearly six feet._
Without the aid of these animals, the Spaniards who inhabit the mining
districts of South America would labour under great inconveniences for the
transport of their merchandise and treasures: since mountains that are
altogether inaccessible to the horse, are with facility traversed by the
llama. This beast, though not so patient, is nearly as abstemious as the
camel. He proceeds, when loaded, with a slow but sure pace, and performs
journeys, in these mountainous regions, more than 200 leagues in extent.
Sometimes he will travel four or five days successively without appearing
desirous of repose, and then he rests spontaneously, for twenty or thirty
hours, before he resumes his toil. Like the camel, these animals kneel to
be loaded; and they are directed in this, and in most other of their
motions, by their conductor's whistle. The value of the best llamas is
about eighteen ducats, and of the common ones twelve or thirteen ducats
each. The burdens they are able to carry are from 150 to 200 pounds'
weight: and the number of llamas that are kept in actual employ is supposed
to exceed 300,000.
Of the _skin_ of the llama a hard kind of leather is made, which is
converted into harness, the soles of shoes, and to many other useful
purposes. But, as it is only tanned, and not curried, it is soon injured by
exposure to wet. The _hair_, or fleece, particularly of the wild llamas,
which is longer than that of the animals in a domesticated state, is much
in request for the manufacture of camlets and other stuffs, some of which
are of very beautiful texture, and also for the making of hats. On this
account the animals are frequently hunted in the plains with dogs, or
killed with guns; but such is their activity amongst rocks, that, if they
can once reach these, the hunters are generally obliged to desist from any
further pursuit. The _flesh_ of the llama is a wholesome and excellent
food. Sometimes it is salted, and, in this state, like our salt beef, is
adopted as provision for ships proceeding on long voyages. That, however,
of the young llamas four or five months old is preferred, and is considered
as good as veal. Many parts of these animals are adopted by the inhabitants
of South America as medicines.
79. _The VICUNA_ (Camelus vicugna) _is a small South American species of
camel, with woolly fleece, a flat and blunt nose, an erect tail; and
without any bunches._
_This animal inhabits, in a wild state, and in extensive flocks, the
highest peaks of the Andes._
Unable to sustain burthens exceeding sixty or seventy pounds in weight, the
vicuna is seldom employed in the transport of merchandise. It is chiefly in
esteem on account of its _fleece_, which is of a dead rose colour, and as
soft and valuable as silk. This, in South America, is spun and woven into
gloves, stockings, quilts, carpets, and innumerable other articles, which
are sold at great prices, and constitute an important branch of commerce.
In most of their habits these animals have a close alliance with the llama,
and their general figure is nearly the same. They are gentle and
inoffensive, and, though not tamed with quite so much facility, are capable
of great attachment towards those who have the care of them. Amongst their
native mountains they are so light and agile, in all their motions, that it
is not easy to come within reach of them, except by stratagem; and,
consequently, though dogs are sometimes employed to hunt them, they are
much more frequently killed by snares or traps than in any other way.
In consequence of the great advantages which, in America, are derived from
the wool of the vicuna, the Spaniards were, some years ago, induced to
attempt the introduction of these animals into Europe. Some of them were
brought to Spain; but, from want of proper attention to their natural
habits, the experiment entirely failed.
80. _The MUSK_ (Moschus moschiferus, Fig. 27) _is a small quadruped,
somewhat shaped like a deer, but without horns; it has two projecting
tusks curved downward, a short tail; and, about the middle of the under
part of the male, there is an oval bag, about the size of a small egg._
_This animal is seldom more than about two feet in height at the
shoulder, and is clad with long, upright, and thickset hair. Each hair is
waved, and of three different colours; the tip ferruginous, the middle
black, and the bottom dusky._
_It inhabits the mountains of Thibet, Tonquin, and Siberia._
The drug called _musk_ is a brown fatty substance, which appears somewhat
like clotted blood. It is contained in the bag or receptacle under the
belly, which has two small external orifices; through these, when it is
overcharged, the animal squeezes it out upon trees or stones. The mode in
which musk is collected for sale is to kill the animals, cut off the bags,
and tie them closely up to prevent it from being spoiled by evaporation. In
those countries where the animals are most abundant they are pursued in the
autumn and winter, and generally with so much success that many thousands
of bags are annually collected. It is, however, presumed that, of those
which are sold, many are factitious, formed of other parts of the skin, and
filled with musk adulterated by mixture with other substances. Indeed, so
valuable is this drug, that it is seldom to be obtained in a pure state. To
increase its quantity blood is not unfrequently mixed with it; and, to
increase its weight, lead finely ground, and sometimes even little bits of
lead, are put into the bags. The natives of India are said to have various
methods of detecting this adulteration, by the taste and the weight; but,
principally, by a thread steeped in the juice of garlic, which they draw
through the bag with a needle; this, if it retain the smell of garlic, is
considered a decisive indication of the musk having improper ingredients
mixed with it. The purest musk is said to be that which is brought from
Patna, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, where it is collected from
various parts of the interior of the country. It is imported into Europe in
bags, each of which is about the size of a pigeon's egg, well filled, and
covered with short brown hair.
Musk was formerly much used as a perfume. It is now chiefly in repute as a
medicine in spasmodic, convulsive, and other complaints; and, when properly
given, is thought a remedy of great service. So powerful is the scent of
this drug, that the smallest particle of it will perfume a very
considerable space; and, when the bags are fresh, if one of them be opened
in a close apartment, every person present is obliged to cover his mouth
and nose with several folds of linen, to prevent suffocation.
In all the countries where these animals are found, their _skins_ are in
great request as a strong and valuable leather; and, when tanned and
properly prepared, the Russians have a method of rendering this nearly as
soft and shining as silk. These skins are also sometimes dressed as _furs_
for winter clothing. The flesh of the musk is frequently eaten; but that of
the young ones only is tender and of good flavour.
These animals, which are astonishingly light and active in all their
motions, and at the same time of inoffensive and timid habits and
disposition, are caught by snares placed near their feeding places; are
shot with arrows, and sometimes killed by cross-bows, so placed that they
discharge arrows, by the animals treading on a string connected with the
trigger.
81. _The ELK, or MOOSE DEER_ (Cervus alces, Fig. 8), _is the largest
species of deer that is known, and is distinguished from all others by
having broad and flattened horns with several points, no brow-antlers,
and a hairy protuberance on the throat._
_In size these animals are frequently larger than a horse. Their upper
lip is square, very broad, deeply furrowed, and hangs over the mouth. The
hair of the male is black at the points, dusky in the middle, and white
at the roots; that of the female is of sandy brown colour, except under
the throat, belly, and flank, which are whitish. The males only are
horned._
_The elk inhabits the forests of North America, of some parts of Europe,
and of Asia as far south as Japan._
Strong and powerful as these animals are, it has been found possible to
domesticate and train them to labour. Mr. Livingston, at a farm near New
York, made the experiment by breaking two elks to the harness. After having
been only twice bitted, though two years old, they appeared equally docile
with colts of the same age, applying their whole strength to the draught,
and proceeding in a steady pace. The motion of these animals is a shambling
kind of trot, but it is very rapid, and, in drawing carriages, they are
able to out-travel a horse. They are also less delicate in their food than
horses, are long-lived, and more productive than any known beast of burden,
having annually from one to three young ones at a birth. Elks were formerly
used in Sweden for the drawing of sledges; but as they were frequently
employed in the escape of criminals from justice, the use of them was
prohibited under severe penalties.
The inhabitants of all countries where the elk is found esteem its _flesh_
a sweet and nutritious food, though the grain is coarser than that of most
other kinds of venison. The American Indians assert that they can travel
further, after having eaten of it, than of any other animal food. After
having been properly salted and dried, the _tongues_ are better than those
of the ox; and the nose, when cooked, is stated to eat like marrow, and to
be one of the greatest delicacies which are produced in Canada. Of the
_skins_ an excellent buff leather is made, which is strong, light, and
soft. This leather is used by the Indians for tent-covers, snow-shoes, and
the coverings of canoes. The long _hair_ of the elk is well adapted for the
stuffing of mattresses and saddles.
In Canada the hunting of the wild elk is a frequent but in general a most
laborious, pursuit, which chiefly occupies the attention of the Indians
during winter, when the whole surrounding country is covered with snow.
In a wild state these animals browze the thick and lofty grasses of the
plains, and the leaves and tender branches of trees. During the summer they
frequent the banks of rivers and lakes; and in winter they often traverse
vast distances upon the frozen snow. Notwithstanding the natural strength
of their body, their disposition is so mild and inoffensive, that, even
when pursued and attacked, they seldom attempt any resistance.
82. _The REIN-DEER_ (Cervus tarandus, Fig. 28) _is known by its horns
being long, bent back, slender, branched, and generally broad at the
extremities._
_It is about four feet and half high at the shoulder, and is of brown or
greyish white colour above, and white on the under parts of the body.
Both the sexes are horned._
_These animals inhabit several of the alpine districts of America, and of
the northern countries of Europe and Asia._
Useful and even indispensable as many of the domestic animals of this
country are to us, the rein-deer is infinitely more so to the Laplander.
For travelling, and the conveyance of heavy burdens in sledges and
carriages, he supplies the place of the horse; and such is the speed with
which he traverses the frozen snows of that dreary region, that he is able,
with ease, to perform a journey of near a hundred miles in one day. To this
labour the animals are trained from the earliest period of their lives: and
neither darkness nor storms can essentially impede their progress. The
usual mode of travelling is in sledges, to which one or more of the animals
are yoked. The sledges are extremely light, somewhat shaped like a boat,
having at the back an upright board for the driver to lean against. Being
rounded and not flat underneath, much dexterity is requisite in the
balancing and management of them. The driver is tied in, and protected by a
cover which encloses all the lower parts of his body, and shelters him from
the inclemency of the weather. The rein-deer is yoked by a collar, from
which a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and fastened to
the fore part of the sledge; and the animal is guided by a cord or rein
fastened to its horns, and tied to a hoop held upon the driver's right
thumb. He directs the course of the deer by pulling the rein on the side he
would have him go, encouraging him at the same time with his voice. In
general, the Laplanders can travel with ease about thirty miles without
stopping.
To persons unaccustomed to the habits of the Laplanders and their animals,
it will appear wonderful that they should be able to travel during the
winter, by night as well as by day, the earth presenting one uniform
surface of snow, and not a single vestige of human industry and labour
being discernible to direct their course; the snow, at the same time,
flying about in all directions, and almost blinding them. Yet it is certain
that they are under no difficulty in finding the spot to which they are
bound; and dangerous as these journeys may seem, they rarely experience any
accident. When several persons are travelling in company, they fix bells to
the harness of the animals, that the whole may be kept together by hearing
when they cannot see each other, after the light of their short day has
failed them. To guide them in their course, the Laplanders observe, in the
day-time, the quarter whence the wind blows, and, at night, they are
directed by the position of the stars. The missionary Leems, who resided
ten years amongst the Laplanders, remarks that, during the whole of that
time, he did not remember more than one fatal accident to have occurred
from this mode of travelling.
As the rein-deer supplies, to the Laplanders, the place of a horse for
conveyance and carriage, so it is an invaluable substitute for the cow in
affording them food. The females supply them with _milk_, each yielding
about as much as a common she-goat. This, though not so thick as the milk
of the cow, is said to be sweeter and more nutritive: and produces them
both butter and cheese. The mountain Laplander subsists, through the whole
winter, upon these, or upon _flesh_ of the rein-deer, slaughtering two or
three every week, according to the number of his family. The animals are
killed by stabbing them in the neck, and the wound is so dexterously
inflicted that no _blood_ flows from it; but this is found in the inside,
whence it is carefully taken out, and prepared for use. The _fat_ of the
rein-deer serves also for food.
Of the _skin_, after it has been properly prepared, the Laplanders make
garments, gloves, shoes, and caps, which cover them from head to foot, and
protect them against the cold. These skins also serve as interior coverings
for tents, as linings and coverings for sledges, and as beds. They are more
or less valuable, according to the season in which the animals have been
killed. If slain in the spring, the hides are found to be perforated, in
various parts, by a species of insect which lays its eggs in them; but if
the deer be killed in winter the skin is free from these defects. The
Laplander, however, desirous of obtaining the same price for a defective
skin as for a perfect one, frequently attempts to defraud the purchaser by
artfully closing up the holes in such manner as to render them scarcely
visible.
The _horns_ are converted into handles for different kinds of instruments,
and an excellent glue is made of them. The _bones_ are likewise of use; and
the _sinews_ or tendons of the legs, after having been held before the fire
and beaten with wooden hammers, are divided into filaments as fine as hair,
which answer all the purposes of thread; and these filaments twisted
together, serve for bowstrings and cords of different kinds.
So numerous and important are the uses of the rein-deer in Lapland, that
there are few inhabitants of that country who do not possess them; and some
of the wealthiest Laplanders have herds consisting of more than 1000 head.
In the summer-time these feed on divers plants which flourish during that
season; but, in winter, they either browze on the rein-deer liverwort
(_Lichen rangiferinus_), which they dig up from beneath the snow with their
feet and horns; or on another kind of liverwort, which hangs on the
branches of fir-trees, and which affords them sustenance when the snows are
too deep or too hard frozen to allow them to reach that.
Wild rein-deer live in the mountains and woods, and the hunting of them is,
in general, attended with excessive fatigue; as they are endowed with
astonishing muscular powers, and also possess a nicety and acuteness of
precaution which can scarcely be equalled. Some idea may be formed of the
difficulty of this pursuit, when it is stated that a Laplander, in chase of
one of these animals, has been known to creep on his hands and knees
through shrubs and moss, for nearly five miles, before he could approach
within gun-shot of his prey. The various modes in which rein-deer are
pursued, are too numerous and too intricate to require a detail in this
place. It may be sufficient to say that they are assailed by dogs, traps,
pitfalls, snares, cross-bows, and fire-arms, in all the ways which the
inventive art of man can devise.
83. _The STAG, or RED DEER_ (Cervus elaphus, Fig. 9), _is a large species
of deer, generally of reddish brown colour on the upper parts of the
body, and white beneath; with large and much branched horns, rounded
through their whole length._
_The males only are horned. The males is called_ stag, _or_ hart, _the
female_ hind, _and the young one has the name of_ fawn.
_Red deer are found in the mountainous parts of Scotland; in the forest
of Martindale, Cumberland; in the New Forest, Hampshire; in the woods on
the river Tamar, in Devonshire; and amongst the mountains of Kerry in
Ireland. On the Continent of Europe and in several parts of Asia and
North America, they are very common._
The hunting of these animals was formerly considered one of the most
important occupations of the English nobility, and, during the Saxton
Heptarchy, it was the privileged pursuit of the sovereign and his court.
By the kings of the Norman line laws of the most sanguinary description
were enacted for the preservation of these the royal game, it being then
deemed less criminal to destroy an individual of the human species than a
beast of chase. Forests were enlarged for the shelter of wild animals, and
for the more ample enjoyment of the diversion of hunting, at the expense of
every principle of justice and humanity. Happily for us, the scenes of
devastation which this pursuit occasioned have long ceased to exist; and
those vast tracts of country which were once dedicated to hunting, are now,
for the most part, applied to the advantages and comfort of man.
As, therefore, the breed of red deer is now chiefly preserved in this
kingdom from motives of curiosity, rather than either an object of
amusement or utility, we are indebted almost wholly to foreign countries
for those parts of the stag which are important in a commercial,
economical, and medical view. The _skins_ are manufactured into an
excellently soft, and somewhat yellow-coloured leather, which is useful for
numerous purposes. Many very extraordinary medicinal virtues were formerly
attributed to the _horns_ of the stag, and indeed to nearly all parts of
its body: but the experience of late years gives no countenance to them.
The horns are of nearly the same nature as bones, and the preparations of
them, by heat, are similar to those of solid animal substances in general.
Consequently the articles denominated _spirit of hartshorn_, and _salt of
hartshorn_, though formerly obtained only from the horns of different
species of deer, are now chiefly prepared from bones. The former of these,
which is a volatile alkali of very penetrating nature, is an efficacious
remedy in nervous complaints and fainting fits; and salt of hartshorn has
been successfully prescribed in fevers. The scrapings or raspings of the
horns, under the name of _hartshorn shavings_, are variously employed in
medicine. Boiled in water, the horns of deer give out an emollient _jelly_
which is said to be remarkably nutritive. _Burnt hartshorn_ is employed in
medicine. The horns of the stag are used by cutlers and other mechanics for
the handles of knives and for cutting instruments of different kinds. The
_flesh_ of every species of deer has the name of _venison_; that of the
young red deer is very delicate eating, that of the female is by no means
bad, but that of the full-grown stag has a strong and disagreeable flavour.
These animals generally live in herds that consist of females, with their
offspring, headed by one male, and they inhabit the wildest and most
unfrequented parts of forests, browzing on grass, and on the leaves and
buds of trees. They have a penetrating sight, and an exquisite smell, and
are always on guard against the approach of danger. Their disposition, when
unprovoked, is mild and peaceable; but if attacked, they prove extremely
formidable opponents. The females produce their offspring (generally one
each) about the end of May, or the beginning of June.
84. _The FALLOW DEER_ (Cervus dama, Fig. 10) _is a considerably smaller
animal than the stag, generally of brownish bay colour on the upper parts
of the body and whitish beneath, with branched horns, bent backward,
compressed and broad at their extremity._
_The males only are horned. The male of the fallow deer is called_ buck,
_the female_ doe, _and the young one_ fawn.
_Common as these animals are in parks throughout every part of England,
they are not found wild in this country. They, however, inhabit various
forests of the Continent; even as far as the south of Persia._
There is no species of food in more general request by epicures and
_bon-vivans_ than the _venison_ of the fallow deer. This, when properly
dressed, is an excellent aliment, and easily assimilated to the human
fluids; but when half putrid, as is generally the case, it is considered
very detrimental to health. The best season for killing the _bucks_ for
venison is from about the first of July to somewhat later than the middle
of September; and that for the _does_ is from about the middle of November
to the middle of February.
The does produce one, sometimes two, and rarely three young ones each,
about the beginning of June; these, for the first year, are called by the
park-keepers _fawns_, if, during that time, they have no horns; the second
year, if the young one be a male, it is called a _pricket_; in the third
year, a _sorel_, and in the ensuing year, a _sore_; when he attains his
fifth year he has the name of _buck_, and is accounted fit to be killed;
but if he be suffered to live a year or two longer, he will improve both in
flesh and fatness. If the young one be a female it is called during the
first year, a _fawn_, during the second a _teg_, and, after that, it takes
its proper name of _doe_. Such does as are intended to be killed in their
season are either what have had no fawns in the preceding summer, or have
had these killed and taken away.
The _horns_ of fallow deer are used for all the same purposes as those of
the stag (83); and their hides, under the name of _buck-skin_ and
_doe-skin_, have long been celebrated for their softness and pliability;
and the manufacturing of them into breeches and gloves affords subsistence
to a very numerous and industrious class of people.
Extensive herds of fallow deer associate together in large parks. These
animals are less savage than red deer, yet when offended they often become
ferocious. They feed on several kinds of vegetables, and on the leaves,
bark, and young branches of trees; many of which, particularly hollies, are
cut down, by park-keepers, in the severe weather of winter, for their
subsistence.
85. _The ROE or ROE-BUCK_ (Cervus capreolus) _is a small species of deer,
not more than two feet and half high at the shoulder, of reddish brown
colour, which has short erect horns, divided towards their extremity into
two or three points._
_The males only have horns._
_Small flocks of these animals are found wild in several of the
mountainous districts of Scotland, and also in the mountainous woods of
Germany, Switzerland, and other parts of the continent of Europe, as well
as in those of North America._
In some countries the _venison_ of the roe is esteemed, during the proper
season, equal to that of any other species of deer. There is, however, a
great difference in it, according to the country in which the animals have
fed, and the different races or varieties of the animals themselves. The
flesh also of the bucks which have passed their second year is said to be
tough and not well flavoured, whilst that of the does, though of much
greater age, is tender. Those animals that are fed in parks, plains, and
valleys, are also greatly inferior to such as have resided among mountains.
In America the _skins_ of roes are an important object of commerce. They
are very light, and are capable, for some time, of resisting the effects of
moisture. Of these skins the American Indians make bags or bottles, in
which they are able to keep oil, honey, butter, and other similar
substances. They are also converted into clothing, and are sometimes
dressed as furs, but the hair soon falls off. The _hair_ itself is valuable
for the stuffing of horse-collars and saddles, and it has the advantage of
not becoming knotty like that of the ox. The _horns_ are used in making
handles for knives and for other purposes.
86. _The CHAMOIS_ (Antilope rupicapra, Fig. 11) _is a kind of antelope
about the size of a goat, with short, erect, round, and smooth horns,
which are hooked backward at the tips._
_Its colour is dusky yellowish brown on the upper parts of the body, with
the cheeks, chin, throat, and belly, yellowish white. The horns, which
are common to both the sexes, are generally about eight inches in length,
but shorter in the female than the male._
_These animals inhabit many of the mountainous parts of Europe,
particularly the Alps and Pyrenees._
There are few pursuits more arduous and difficult than the hunting of the
chamois. Being wholly confined to rocky and mountainous situations, dogs
are nearly useless in it; and such are the sagacity and acuteness of
perception of these animals, that they take alarm at the most distant
approach of danger, and the stratagems which are practised to come within
gun-shot of them are almost innumerable. They associate in flocks
consisting of from four or five to nearly a hundred in number; and, when
alarmed, they are able to spring, at a single leap, up rocks the
perpendicular height of which is more than twenty feet, and in this case,
by a few bounds, they throw themselves entirely out of the reach of their
pursuers. If hard pressed, they will sometimes turn upon the hunter and
attack him with fury; and instances have been related of men, thus
attacked, having been thrown down precipices and destroyed by them.
The chief objects of this pursuit are the _flesh_ and the _skin_. The
former is, in general, a nutritious and wholesome food, and the latter is
useful in numerous ways. When dressed, it forms a soft, warm, and pliable
leather, which has the name of _shammoy_, and is manufactured into
breeches, vests, and gloves, that are very durable and are much used by the
labouring classes of people on the Continent. Of late years, however, the
art of tanning has been brought to so much perfection, that excellent
shammoy leather is made from the skins of the goat, the sheep, and the
deer. The _horns_ of the chamois are often cut into heads for canes, and
the farriers of the Continent sometimes sharpen and use them for the
bleeding of cattle. The _blood_ of these animals is used medicinally, and,
in Switzerland, is a celebrated nostrum for the cure of pleurisy and some
other complaints.
87. _The COMMON ANTELOPE_ (Antilope cervicapra, Fig. 12) _is a quadruped
distinguished by having spiral, round, and expanded horns, each marked
with a great number of prominent rings; and the body of a brown colour,
clouded with whitish and dusky shades and marks_.
_It is found in several parts of Africa and India._
One mode of hunting these and some other species of antelope is by the
hunting leopard and the ounce, but the most frequent mode of killing them
is with guns.
Their _skins_ are sometimes dressed with the hair on, and sometimes as
leather; and the _flesh_ constitutes an excellent kind of venison. The
_horns_ are convertible to nearly all the same purposes as the horns of the
different kinds of deer; and they are also occasionally used as weapons.
88. _The COMMON GOAT_ (Capra ægagrus, Fig. 13) _is distinguished by
having hollow, compressed, and rough horns, which grow first upright, and
then bend backward._
_Both the male and female are horned._
_These animals are found wild in many of the mountainous countries of the
European continent, of Africa, Persia, and India._
In many parts of Europe the goat is an animal essentially serviceable to
the necessities and the comforts of mankind; affording even during its
life, though fed on the most barren and uncultivated grounds, an abundant
supply of milk and cheese.
Goats' _milk_ is not only considered to be thicker, but to have a richer
flavour than that of the cow; and, in some situations, especially on
ship-board, where the goat thrives better than any other animal, it is
peculiarly valuable. This creature eats readily every sort of refuse
vegetables, and is kept at little expense. In a medicinal view goat's milk
is an useful substitute for that of asses. It is of very peculiar nature,
as its oily and coagulate parts do not separate spontaneously; they throw
up no cream, and yield scarcely any butter. But this milk affords a very
large proportion of _cheese_. Hence, in Switzerland, and other mountainous
countries best adapted to the pasturage of goats, cheese is the chief
produce of the dairies.
The flesh of the _goat_, when full grown, is rank, hard, and indigestible;
yet, in some countries, it is eaten both in a fresh and salted state. That
of the kid is peculiarly rich, and, by many persons, is considered even
preferable to lamb.
When properly tanned, the _skin_ of the goat is manufactured into gloves
and other articles of dress. There is a way of preparing these skins by
maceration, so as to separate the surface or grain from the coarse under
parts, after which they are dyed of various colours for different uses.
_Morocco leather_ is chiefly made from the skins of goats, tanned and dyed
in a peculiar manner. The manufacture of this leather was originally
invented in the kingdom of Morocco, whence it has its name. The colours
that are chiefly communicated to it are red and yellow, the former of which
is produced by cochineal, and the latter by a yellow kind of berries.
Morocco leather is also dyed black, green, and blue. Until within the last
few years, the consumers of this kind of leather in England have depended
wholly on a foreign supply: there are now, however, several manufactories
of it in the neighbourhood of London, from which the most beautiful
moroccos may be had at prices that have superseded the necessity of
importing it from abroad. For leather of inferior quality, and particularly
for such as is to receive a yellow colour, sheeps' skins are often
substituted. The reason why goats' skins have been principally adopted for
the manufacture of morocco is, that they take the dye better, and that they
are susceptible of richer and more beautiful colours, than those of any
other animals.
Goat-skins, as well as the skins of sheep, are sometimes made into
parchment. The _skins of kids_ are thin and of beautiful texture; they are
consequently well adapted for ladies' gloves and shoes. On the Continent
they are made into stockings, bed-ticks, and sometimes into hangings for
beds, into sheets, and even into shirts.
Although the _fleece_ of the goat is by no means so valuable as that of the
sheep, yet it has been found extremely useful. The long and shaggy coated
goat, which is bred in many parts of this country, has, at the roots of the
long hair, a fine and beautiful soft wool. The latter, though scarcely
known to our manufacturers, has long been used in Russia for gloves,
stockings, and other articles of dress, which are highly valuable. About a
pound of this wool, in an unsorted state, was, some years ago, sent from
Russia to be made into shawls. As the quantity was too small to admit of
being manufactured into a web by itself, the chain was formed of silk, and
the woof of yarn made from the goat's wool. The fabric, when completed, was
compared with the finest Indian shawls; and, notwithstanding the hardness
of the silken part, it was decidedly more soft and beautiful than any of
these. Of the above-mentioned small quantity of wool three full-sized
shawls and one waistcoat were made. Their colour was a dull white, with a
delicate and scarcely perceptible glance of red through it; and their
texture was so much admired, that Dr. Anderson, to whose care they were
consigned, states, that if a hundred of them had been offered for sale,
they would have produced at least twenty guineas each.
The _long hair_ of goats, particularly that of the males, is used by
peruke-makers, for lawyers and judges' wigs. Previously to its being used,
it goes through several processes of preparation. The fine hair of kids is
sometimes employed in the manufacture of hats. Goat's hair is occasionally
made into a strong and coarse kind of cloth.
Of the _horns_ of these animals the country people make handles for tucks,
and knives of different kinds. The _fat_ or suet, which, in general, is
very abundant, may be made into candles, which, in whiteness and quality,
are greatly superior to those of the best tallow of the sheep and ox.
Goats are active and mischievous animals, of hardy nature, which delight in
rocky and mountainous situations. They are sometimes very injurious to
young plantations, from their propensity to peel and destroy the trees. The
females usually have two, sometimes three, and rarely four young ones at a
birth; and, in our climates, the duration of their life is said not often
to exceed eleven or twelve years.
89. The hair of the ANGORA GOAT is long, soft, and silky, and is one of the
most beautiful substances with which we are acquainted, for the manufacture
of shawls, and other fine stuffs; and these, which in England have the name
of _camblets_, are sometimes sold at very high prices. It is supposed that,
with attention, Angora goats might be successfully and advantageously bred
in Great Britain; particularly in those parts where the country is
mountainous, and where the climate and food might not be far different from
those of their native country of Asia Minor.
90. _The COMMON SHEEP_ (Ovis aries, Fig. 14) _has, in general, hollow,
compressed, transversely wrinkled, and somewhat crescent-shaped horns;
but some of the varieties are entirely destitute of these weapons._
_The male is called_ ram, _the female_ ewe, _and the young one has the
name of_ lamb.
_Sheep are found in nearly every country of the world._
The bodies of these animals, in temperate and cold climates, are clad with
a curled and closely matted kind of hair, which has the peculiar
appellation of _wool_. The distinguishing characteristic of wool is that,
when even the coarsest sort is manufactured into cloth, it thickens in the
milling, and forms a close texture, owing to the peculiar roughness of its
surface, and to its curly form; whereas the finest possible hair, under the
same operation, will neither thicken nor form any texture whatever. It is
by the manufacture of wool into various kinds of clothing that many
thousands of people, in different countries of Europe, are entirely
supported and fed. In temperate countries the fleeces of sheep are shorn or
cut off once, and in others, where the climate is warmer, twice in the
year, the animals being previously well washed to cleanse the wool. The
Shetland sheep, and some others, have the fleece pulled, and not cut off.
When wool is intended to be manufactured into cloth of mixed colours, it is
dyed in the fleece before it is spun. When intended for tapestry, it is
dyed after it is spun; and when to be wrought into cloth of uniform colour,
it is not dyed until the cloth is made.
Much wool is used in the manufacture of hats. For this purpose it goes
through a process called _felting_, to unite or mat it into a firm
substance. Felt is either made of wool alone, or of a mixture of wool with
camel's or other hair.
The _skins_ of sheep, after the processes called tanning and currying, are
manufactured into a thin and coarse but useful kind of leather, which is
much in request by saddlers, book-binders, and others. These skins, by a
different process, are converted into _parchment_, which is used for
writing deeds upon. Lambs' skins are made into gloves.
Every part of the sheep is advantageous to mankind. The flesh, under the
denomination of _mutton_, supplies us with a wholesome and palatable food,
which is in greatest estimation when the animals are at least three, and
not more than six years old. That of lambs, in the spring of the year, is
also in considerable demand. _House lamb_ is so denominated from the
animals being fattened within doors; but this kind of food is neither so
wholesome nor so nutritive as the meat in a natural state. _Suet_ is a
solid kind of fat which is found in various parts of the bodies
(particularly about the kidneys and intestines) of sheep, oxen, and other
ruminating animals. It differs materially from fat or grease, as the latter
remains soft, and this hardens in cooling. Suet is used for culinary and
other purposes, and very extensively in the making of candles. The _milk_
of sheep is rich and nourishing, and in great esteem among the peasantry of
all countries where these animals are bred. It produces an abundance of
butter, but this is so unpalatable as seldom to be eaten. Ewes' milk yields
a large proportion of strong and tough cheese. Of the entrails of sheep are
made the strings generally called _cat-gut_, which are used for different
kinds of musical instruments, and for the coverings of whips. Handles of
knives, and several other useful articles, are made of the _bones_ of
sheep; the refuse parts of which are coarsely ground to serve as manure. A
very important advantage is in another respect derived from these animals,
by folding them upon land on which corn is afterwards to be grown.
There are, in Great Britain, many different breeds of sheep, some of which
are very valuable.
91. Those called LEICESTER SHEEP are chiefly bred in that and the adjacent
counties, and are much esteemed for their property of readily fattening.
Their _mutton_, when in perfection, has a fineness of grain and a
superiority of flavour beyond that of almost every other kind of sheep.
These animals are capable of being rendered so fat, that, in some instances
they have measured more than six inches deep in solid fat on the ribs. But,
in this case, the mutton is scarcely eatable.
92. A coarse _wool_, but so long as to measure from ten to more than
eighteen inches, is obtained from the breed called LINCOLNSHIRE SHEEP.
93. For united excellence of _wool_ and _mutton_ the SOUTH DOWN SHEEP are
in great demand. This breed, which particularly abounds on the dry and
chalky downs of Sussex and other southern parts of England, has of late
been dispersed over nearly the whole kingdom. The animals are
distinguishable by their grey or speckled face and legs, and being
destitute of horns.
94. From the RYELAND and or HEREFORDSHIRE SHEEP is obtained a peculiarly
short, soft, and fine _wool_, which, if the filaments were of equal
thickness and quality throughout, would be as valuable as the best wool
that we import from Spain. The _mutton_ of these sheep is also fine-grained
and of excellent flavour.
95. A breed of sheep, which is well known in Northumberland by the name of
CHEVIOT SHEEP, produces very admirable _mutton_ and _wool_ of fine texture.
Of the _milk_ of these sheep great quantities of cheese are made, which is
sold at a low price. This, when three or four days old, becomes very
pungent, and is in considerable esteem for the table.
96. The SHETLAND islands produce a kind of sheep so small as seldom to
exceed the weight of thirty or forty pounds. Their _wool_ is sufficiently
soft to be adapted even to clothing of the most delicate texture. A pair of
stockings that were made of it were so fine as to be sold for six guineas.
The _skins_ of these sheep with the fleece on are capable of being
converted into a fur of great value; and, when the wool is stripped from
them, they are, as leather, peculiarly estimable for aprons, and are
purchased by mechanics for this purpose at double the price of other skins
of the same size.
97. It is to the breed called DORSETSHIRE SHEEP that the London markets are
principally indebted for the _house-lamb_, which, at an early part of the
season, bears so high a price. After the lambs are produced they are
confined in small dark places, and never see the light, except when brought
out to be fed by the ewes; and, at the times when thus brought out, their
cabins are cleansed, and littered with fresh straw, as a great part of
their value depends upon the cleanliness in which they are kept.
98. The _mutton_ of the HEATH SHEEP, a breed which is found in most of the
north-western parts of England, and even as far as the western Highlands of
Scotland, is accounted peculiarly excellent; and immense numbers of these
sheep are annually sold at the north country fairs. The animals themselves
are hardy and active, and well adapted to subsist in healthy and
mountainous districts.
99. _MERINO SHEEP are a celebrated Spanish breed of sheep, with small
horns, white face and legs, small bones, a loose skin hanging from the
neck, the wool fine, the external part of the fleece dark brown in
consequence of the dust adhering to it, the interior delicate white, and
the skin of rosy hue._
The celebrity of this breed, for the production of a remarkably fine
_wool_, has been such, that all the highest priced cloths manufactured in
this country, until of late years, were made of Spanish wool. In the year
1787 some of these sheep were first introduced into England. And, although
it was formerly a prevailing opinion that the excellence of their fleece
depended, in a great degree, upon the temperature of the Spanish climate,
it has been satisfactorily ascertained that the fineness of Spanish wool is
not in the slightest degree impaired by breeding the sheep in this country.
Even in Hungary sheep of this kind have, for many years, been so
successfully reared, that much of the fine wool used in our clothing
countries has been imported from thence. The average weight of the Merino
fleece is about three pounds and half. It has lately been a great object of
attention in England to improve our own breeds, particularly the Ryeland,
by a mixture with merinos, and this cross breed is stated to retain all the
principal characteristics of the Spanish race. The _mutton_ of these sheep,
for size and flavour, is much in demand, and sells in the market at a
higher price than that of most other kinds of sheep.
100. _The BROAD-TAILED SHEEP are a very remarkable kind of sheep,
distinguished by their tails being extremely large, and so long as
sometimes to drag upon the ground._
_They are found in several parts of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and other
eastern countries._
The _tails_ of these animals are almost wholly composed of a substance
resembling marrow, and sometimes they are equal in weight to one-third of
the whole carcase. To prevent them from chafing against the ground, the
shepherds not unfrequently put boards, with small wheels, under them,
attached to the hinder parts of the animal. The substance of these tails is
in great demand, instead of butter, for culinary purposes; and it forms an
ingredient in several kinds of dishes. The _fleece_ of the broad-tailed
sheep is peculiarly long and fine, and, in Thibet, is manufactured into
shawls and other articles of peculiarly delicate texture, which form a
considerable source of wealth to the inhabitants.
Of these, and of another kind of sheep called _Tartarian_ or _fat-rumped
sheep_, the hinder parts of which are so excessively fat as entirely to
enclose the tail, there are great numbers bred in Tartary. It is even
stated that, on an average, 150,000 of them are annually sold at the fairs
of Orenburgh, and a much greater number in some other places.
101. _The COMMON OX_ (Bos taurus domesticus, Fig. 29) _is characterised
by having rounded horns which curve outward, and a loose skin or dewlap
beneath the throat._
_The male is called_ bull, _the female_ cow, _and the young one_ calf.
_This animal, in a wild state, is the_ bison (Fig. 15) _which is found in
the marshy forests of Poland and Lithuania._
It is almost impossible to enumerate all the benefits that mankind derive
from these admirable animals. In many countries nearly the whole labour of
agriculture is performed by oxen, and, after this service is over, they are
fatted and slaughtered for food. It is well known in what estimation they
were formerly held in Egypt; they furnished even deities to the
superstitious inhabitants of that country. From their supplying the Gentoos
with milk, butter, and cheese, their favourite food, those people bear for
them a veneration so great that nothing on earth would induce them to slay
one of them.
In nearly all eastern countries oxen are employed in treading out corn. By
the Caffres of the Cape of Good Hope they are used as beasts of draught and
burden. When Mr. Barrow and his suite went into the country of the Caffres,
the king, who was at a distance from his usual residence, was sent to; and
he is stated to have arrived riding upon an ox full gallop, attended by
five or six of his people.
To the _milk_ of the cow we are indebted for several important articles of
human subsistence. It is adapted to every state and age of the body, but
particularly to the feeding of infants after they have been weaned. Skimmed
milk, or that which remains after the cream has been taken off, is
employed, in considerable quantity, by wine and spirit merchants, for
clarifying or fining down turbid white wine, arrack, and weak spirits.
Nearly all the _cheese_ that is consumed in the British islands is made of
cow's milk. For this purpose the milk is curdled by mixture with a
substance called rennet, which is prepared from the inner membrane of a
calf's stomach; and the curd, thus formed, after being cleared of the whey
or watery part contained in the milk, is collected together, pressed, and
dried for use.
The richest of all the English kinds of cheese is that called _Stilton
cheese_. This, however, is not, as its name would import, made in the town
of Stilton, but in various parts of Huntingdonshire, and in Leicestershire,
Rutland, and Northamptonshire. Stilton cheese is indebted, for its
excellence, both to the rich pastures on which the cows are fed, and to the
peculiar process by which it is made. It is not sufficiently mellowed for
use until two years old, and is not in a state to be eaten till it is
decayed, blue, and moist. To hasten the ripening of Stilton cheeses, it is
not unusual to place them in buckets, and to cover these with horse-dung.
_Cheshire_ is famous for its cheese, which is generally much salter and
more smart upon the palate than any other English kind. In _Wiltshire_ and
_Gloucestershire_ much cheese of rich and excellent quality is made.
The neighbourhood of _Chedder_, in the county of Somerset, produces a very
admirable kind, which is little inferior in taste to Parmesan, and is
supposed to owe its peculiar quality to the cows feeding in rich pastures,
and particularly on the flote fescue grass (_Festuca fluitans_), with which
many of those pastures abound. _Cottenham cheese_ is a soft white cheese,
for which we are chiefly indebted to a small village of that name situated
a few miles from Cambridge. In the neighbourhood of _Bath_ and _York_, and
also in _Lincolnshire_, a rich and excellent kind of cream cheese is made.
In Scotland a species of cheese is produced which has long been known and
celebrated under the name of _Dunlop cheese_, from a parish of that name in
Ayrshire, in the neighbourhood of which it is principally made.
Of foreign kinds of cheese the most celebrated is _Parmesan_. This is made
of ewes' milk, or of a mixture of ewes' or goats' milk with that of the
cow. We receive it from various parts of Italy, and also from other
countries, although the name would import it to be made exclusively in the
neighbourhood of Parma. In the district of _Gruyere_, a small town in the
canton of Friburg in Switzerland, a well-known kind of cheese of large size
is made, which goes by that name. _Gouda_ cheese is famous in Holland. The
common _Dutch cheeses_ are of globular shape, and each three or four pounds
in weight. They are prepared in the same manner as Cheshire cheese, with
the exception that, instead of rennet, the Dutch use spirit of vitriol
(sulphuric acid). Hence this kind of cheese has a sharp and saline taste,
which is said to exempt it from the depredations of mites. _Green Swiss
cheese_ has a strong and peculiar flavour derived from the fragrant powder
of melliot (_Trifolium melilotus officinalis_). This cheese is, however, to
many persons, very disagreeable.
When milk has been suffered to stand a few hours, a substance called
_cream_ rises to the surface. This is skimmed off for several uses, but
principally for the purpose of being made into _butter_, which is done by
beating it in a vessel called a churn. In Cheshire it is customary to churn
the butter from the whole milk, without its being skimmed, but this is
contrary to the practice in most other parts of England. The consumption of
butter is so great that not less than 50,000 tons' weight of it are stated
to be annually used in London only. That, which is principally in esteem
there is produced in Essex, and known by the name of _Epping butter_.
To make butter keep for a greater length of time than it would otherwise
do, it is salted and packed in small tubs or barrels; and, in this state,
it is a very considerable article of commerce. In the salting and packing
of butter many abuses are practised, to increase its bulk and weight,
against which there is an express act of parliament. Lumps of good butter
are sometimes laid, for a little depth, at the top of a barrel, with butter
of inferior quality beneath it. Sometimes the butter is packed hollow; and
sometimes the exterior part of the butter is good whilst the whole interior
is bad.
After the butter has been separated there remains in the churn a kind of
whey which is called _butter-milk_, and the quality of which greatly
depends on the manner of churning. Before it turns sour, butter-milk is a
favourite beverage in the families of some farmers. It is also occasionally
used as a wash for the face, being considered a remedy against freckles;
but it is principally applied for the feeding of pigs.
The flesh of oxen constitutes the kind of food which we call _beef_. This
is usually eaten in a recent state, but is sometimes, particularly in the
northern parts of England, in Ireland, and Holland, salted in the manner of
bacon, and in this state, it is a considerable article of trade. It affords
a strong and invigorating nutriment, superior to any that we are acquainted
with. _Beef-tea_ is a preparation commonly made for invalids and
convalescents, and consists of an infusion of the lean parts of beef in
boiling water. _Veal_, or the flesh of calves, is an highly esteemed and
delicate food.
The _skins_ of cattle, after they have undergone the processes of tanning
and currying, are employed for making harness, saddles, bridles, the soles
of shoes, and for various other purposes. _Calves' skins_ are used for the
upper leathers of shoes, and by saddlers, book-binders, &c. The skins of
sucking calves are manufactured into _vellum_, a thin substance which is
employed by book-binders; also for writing and drawing upon, and for other
uses. From the parings and other offals of the hides of oxen, and the
parings and scraps of the legs, by boiling them in water to the consistence
of a jelly, straining them through a wicket basket, suffering the
impurities to subside, and then boiling them a second time, is made _glue_.
This, in a state of jelly, is poured into flat frames or moulds; when
congealed, it is cut into square pieces, and afterwards dried, by being
suspended in a coarse kind of netting.
The leg-_bones_ of oxen, after having been whitened by boiling them with
quick-lime, are used in the manufacture of the handles of knives and forks,
and for innumerable other purposes. This substance, when good, is nearly
allied to ivory: but is easily distinguished by its porous nature, its
coarse grain, and its wanting the beautiful white veins which are so
conspicuous in ivory. Bones, after having been burnt or calcined, are used
by the refiners of gold and silver.
The _horns_ of oxen are used for many of the same purposes as bone. After
having been softened by heat they are capable of being moulded into almost
any shape. They are sometimes stained in such manner as to imitate
tortoise-shell, and they are then used for the making of combs. By a
peculiar process they are rendered semi-transparent, and, when formed into
thin plates, are employed instead of glass for lanthorns. Horn was the
first transparent substance that was ever used for lanthorns and windows.
_Tallow_ is the fat of sheep and oxen, cleared of its fibrous parts by
straining and other management. It is further improved and clarified by the
addition of alum, and, in this state, is used for the making of candles.
Tallow is also a chief ingredient in soap. From the feet of oxen is
procured a kind of oil, called _Neats'-foot oil_, which is of great use in
the preparing and softening of leather. The _blood_ is employed in the
clarifying of sugar, and great quantities of it, during the late war, were
exported from London to Sweden for this purpose. The skins of the
intestines are used for beating gold leaf betwixt; and these, under the
name of _gold-beaters' skin_, are afterwards considered efficacious as an
adhesive plaster for healing small wounds. Of gold-beaters' skin the French
manufacturers of toys sometimes construct little balloons for the amusement
of children. A few years ago there was, in London, an exhibition of animals
formed of this substance and inflated with air.
102. British cattle are considered preferable to the cattle of any other
country in the world. Those called DEVONSHIRE CATTLE, which are
distinguished by their mahogany colour and light yellow horns, are adjudged
to be the best of any. They are much used in agricultural labours, being
peculiarly fitted for draught both by their hardiness and activity. The
_beef_ of this breed is peculiarly excellent. Their _skins_ are thin, but
improve much in tanning; and the _tallow_ is of peculiarly good quality.
103. In the northern parts of England there is a very useful kind, called
HOLDERNESS or DUTCH CATTLE. These, in size and weight exceed all the
British cattle. The cows have great celebrity for yielding a very
extraordinary quantity of _milk_; instances have been mentioned of their
yielding thirty-six quarts in a day. This stock is well known in the
neighbourhood of the metropolis, being that which is generally kept by the
London cow-keepers. The animal exhibited in London in the beginning of
1802, under the name of the "wonderful ox," was a variety produced from
this breed, and weighed more than 200 stone.
104. The LANCASHIRE or LONG-HORNED CATTLE, are much esteemed for the dairy.
The cows yield from sixteen to twenty-four quarts of _milk_ per day; and,
on an average, about 300 weight of cheese per annum. They are hardy
animals, readily become fat, and produce remarkably well-flavoured _beef_.
But they are chiefly celebrated for the thickness and substance of their
hides, which are very valuable, and sell at high prices. In many instances
the _hides_ have been known to produce a greater price per pound than the
beef.
105. ALDERNEY CATTLE are a favourite breed, that have long been known and
esteemed, in the southern counties of England, for their _milk_, which is
richer than that of any other breed. These animals are of small size, the
cows seldom exceeding the height of four feet; yet they are known to
produce so much milk as to yield from 200 to more than 300 pounds' weight
of butter per annum. In the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney,
where these cattle are chiefly bred, they are sometimes employed in
ploughing; but their greatest use is in carting, and, in this respect, they
are found to answer peculiarly well in bad roads and hilly countries. Their
_beef_ is generally yellow or very high coloured; but it is peculiarly fine
in the grain, and of excellent flavour.
106. Scotland is famous for a small kind of black cattle, with fine white
upright horns tipped with black, called HIGHLAND STOTS, or KYLOE CATTLE.
Having great celebrity for the fineness and sweetness of their _beef_, as
well as the facility with which they are fattened, these cattle are in such
esteem as to be driven into the southern counties of England, and
occasionally to supply even the London markets. The cows, in proportion to
their size, yield a great quantity of rich milk.
107. _The YAK, or GRUNTING OX_ (Bos grunniens), _is an animal of large
size, with round, upright, and slender horns, a lump on the shoulders,
long and pendant hair, white on the back and tail; and the tail somewhat
resembling that of a horse._
_In a wild state this animal is an inhabitant of the mountains of
Thibet._
With the oriental princes the white _tails_ of the yak are of great value
for military standards; and the use of them is very ancient. These tails
are also employed, in many parts of the East, to ornament the trappings
both of elephants and horses; and, when mounted on a silver handle, they
are used by the principal men of India as a brush to chase away flies. The
Chinese dye the hair of a red colour, and form tufts for their caps of it.
Many beautiful kinds of stuffs are woven of a fine wool which these animals
have next to their skin.
108. _The MUSK OX_ (Bos moschatus) _is a North American animal of small
size, with horns broad, and approaching each other at the base, bent
downward, and the tips upward and pointed; a protuberance on the
shoulder, and the body covered with long silky hair of a dusky red
tinge._
To the North American Indians the musk ox is an animal of considerable
importance. Its _flesh_ furnishes them with an useful food, which, though
it has a musky flavour, is not on that account the less esteemed. This
flesh, in a frozen state, is also an article of traffic, with the British
and American forts, during winter.
At the roots of the long hair of the musk ox there is a peculiarly
beautiful ash-coloured _fleece_, which is finer and softer than silk, and
may be wrought into very elegant articles of dress. It is of the long hair
of these animals that the Esquimaux Indians make those caps which give them
their very extraordinary appearance, by the ends being contrived so to fall
down over their face, as to protect them from the bites of musquetoes. The
_skins_ are convertible into leather, and are also frequently used, by
Indians, with the hair on, as coverings of various kinds.
109. _The AMERICAN BISON_ (Bos Americanus) _is a large species of ox,
with round and distant horns which point outward, a long and woolly mane,
and a large fleshy protuberance on the shoulders._
_These animals inhabit, in immense herds, the savannahs and marshes of
the interior of North America._
As they are capable of being domesticated, and, in this state, are
sufficiently tractable for the purpose, they are sometimes rendered useful
for agricultural labours. The hunting of the wild bison is a common and
very arduous employment of the natives of the interior of America,
particularly those living adjacent to the rivers Mississippi and Ohio. The
_flesh_ of these animals is used as food, and the fatty protuberance on the
shoulders is esteemed a great delicacy. The _tongues_, which are reckoned
superior to those of oxen, are frequently transported to New Orleans, where
they always have a ready sale. When the animals are quite fat they are said
to yield sometimes as much as 150 pounds weight of _tallow_ each. The
latter is so important an article of commerce, that, in many instances, the
hunters cut out only the tongue and tallow, leaving the remainder of the
carcase to be devoured by wild beasts. Powder-flasks are made of the
_horns_. The _skins_ are capable of being converted into an excellent buff
leather; and, when dressed with the hair on, the lighter skins serve the
Indians as beds, and for clothes, gloves, and shoes. Some persons use them
as blankets, and find them a very warm and pleasant covering. The _hair_ is
spun and woven into various articles of clothing, which are both durable
and useful, and are peculiarly soft and pleasant to the wearer.
110. _The BUFFALO_ (Bos bubalus) _is a species of ox, which has large
horns of compressed form, with the outer edge sharp, growing straight for
a considerable length from their base, and then bent slightly upward: on
the shoulders there is a bony protuberance; and the general colour of the
hair is black or dusky._
_In a wild state these animals are natives of Asia and Africa; and they
are domesticated in India, and in some of the warmer parts of Europe._
Although the buffalo is naturally a savage and ferocious beast, yet, when
properly trained, it is very serviceable to mankind. These animals are used
both for draught and burthen, and are sometimes even trained for the
saddle. They are guided by a cord attached to a ring, which is made to pass
through the cartilage of their nose. Two buffaloes, harnessed to a
carriage, are considered able to draw as much as four horses.
The _milk_ of the buffalo, though not so good as that of the cow, is in
greater quantity, and in much esteem. _Ghee_ is a kind of butter made from
the milk of these animals, and clarified. This is an article of commerce in
various parts of India, and is generally conveyed in bags or bottles made
of the hide, each of which holds from ten to forty gallons. The _flesh_ is
said somewhat to resemble beef, but to be of a darker colour: that of the
calves is considered peculiarly delicate. Of the skin is made a strong and
durable leather, which, under the name of _buff_ leather, is applicable to
a great variety of uses. The _horns_ have a fine grain, are strong, and
bear a good polish; and are, therefore, much used by cutlers and other
artificers. They are occasionally imported into this country from Bengal.
These animals usually associate in large herds, in marshy and woody plains.
So great is their ferocity that the hunters are at all times fearful of
attempting to kill them, unless they are perfectly sure of their aim. They
swim over even the widest rivers with a facility which can be equalled by
few quadrupeds.
111. _The CAPE BUFFALO_ (Bos cafer) _is an excessively strong and
ferocious beast of the ox tribe, which has thick horns that are rugged at
the base, and lie so flat as to cover almost all the top of the head._
_These animals are found in herds of a hundred and fifty or two hundred
together, in the plains of Caffraria, and other parts of the south of
Africa._
There are no animals of the ox tribe so savage, so much dreaded, nor so
wantonly mischievous as these: they attack and destroy mankind without
being themselves previously assailed, and commit devastations of the most
alarming kind in the neighbourhood of the places where they are found. They
are killed on account of their _flesh_, which is lean, but juicy and of
high flavour; and also on account of their _hides_, which are so thick and
tough that even musket-proof targets are formed of them. Of these hides
also the strongest and best thongs for harness are made. The Hottentots,
who are never inclined to take much trouble in dressing their victuals, cut
the _flesh_ off into slices, and then smoke, and at the same time half
broil, it over a few coals. They also frequently eat it in a state of
absolute putrefaction.