PYRITE AND SULPHUR
BY A. G. WHITE
USES OF PYRITE AND SULPHUR
Pyrite and sulphur are closely related in their most essential uses,
and one material can in many cases be substituted for the other. The
largest and most important use of these minerals is in the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, which is an essential material required for a very
wide variety of purposes, including the production of acid phosphate
for fertilizer, the manufacture of modern high-power explosives, the
refining of petroleum, pickling of iron and steel, and for a vast
number of chemical industries. The competition between pyrite and
sulphur for this purpose has gone through several stages. With the
large-scale development of Italian deposits sulphur was largely used
for acid manufacture. As the prices of sulphur were increased it became
cheaper to use pyrite, which in many localities then displaced sulphur,
for this purpose. With the rapid expansion of the American production,
and particularly with the tremendous increase in the capacity of
sulphuric acid plants for war purposes, sulphur has again been very
largely used for the manufacture of acid. The prospects since the close
of the war are that, due to the tremendous capacity of the sulphur
mines of the United States, sulphur may continue to compete with pyrite
in this use.
Probably the second most important use of these materials is in the
manufacture of sulphite wood pulp. In Europe pyrite is largely used
for this purpose, while in the United States and Canada sulphur is the
principal material used. For every ton of sulphite pulp manufactured,
under the best practice, about 250 pounds of sulphur is required. In
the United States and Canada about 175,000 tons of sulphur is used
annually for this purpose, representing about 50 per cent. of the total
sulphur consumption of these countries. There are also a number of
other important purposes where sulphur is used rather than pyrite, the
most important of which are in the manufacture of agricultural sprays
and insecticides, and in the hardening of rubber. Sulphur is a primary
ingredient of black powder, and considerable quantities are still used
for that purpose. While most of the explosives used in modern warfare
require the use of sulphuric acid in their manufacture, they do not
use sulphur in its elemental form. There are many other minor chemical
uses.
=Substitutes for Sulphur and Pyrite.=--Because of the large deposits
of sulphur now available, and of the extent and wide distribution of
pyrite deposits, and of the cheapness of both these materials, there
are no adequate commercial substitutes for them. The increase of
by-product acid, from the copper and zinc smelters and possibly the
nickel smelters of Sudbury, might be considered as the most important
factors in replacing pyrite and sulphur. As a general thing, the
factors of cost and transportation are the governing ones rather than
any present or probable scarcity of materials.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PYRITE
While pyrite is a very widely distributed mineral, there are relatively
few deposits which are of sufficient importance to enter into the
world’s commerce. This is generally due to the relatively small value
of its sulphur content per ton, usually from 40 to 45 per cent. of
recoverable sulphur; which means that it takes almost 2¹⁄₂ tons of
pyrite to be equivalent to the ton of sulphur which competes with it
for many uses. Consequently pyrite seldom moves far, unless it is so
situated as to take advantage of cheap ballast rates where little other
freight is available for ships, or unless it carries important copper
or gold values, which can be recovered after the sulphur content has
been utilized. Many known deposits, such as those in Mexico and the
Western United States, remain undeveloped because of their distance
from market. In countries such as Russia, France, Italy, Germany,
Sweden, Japan, and the Eastern United States production is absorbed
by the local market. Spain and Portugal, the most important source
of world supply, are favorably located to ship to near-by European
countries or to secure cheap ballast rates to the United States, and in
addition much of the ore carries several per cent. of copper.
Norway is second in export, with a high-grade pyrite carrying copper
values, which is shipped to Sweden or across the Baltic to near-by
countries. Canada ships considerable pyrite to the near-by markets of
the United States, the Quebec product having copper values, while the
product of Ontario takes advantage of boat shipments on the Great Lakes.
=Spain and Portugal.=--The deposits of Spain and Portugal are the
largest and most important in the world, furnishing approximately
two-thirds of the world supply. The district is essentially a unit,
and the principal deposits occur in a zone extending from Rio Tinto,
Spain, to San Domingo, Portugal. The combined annual production of iron
and copper pyrites for the two countries is normally almost 4 million
metric tons, 90 per cent. of which is furnished by Spain and 10 per
cent. by Portugal. About two-thirds of the total output carries copper
values, which may be recovered before the pyrite is roasted for its
sulphur value or after. When copper is to be recovered at the mine
the ore is leached by spreading it out in beds exposed to the weather
and frequently stirring it and wetting it down. The copper goes into
solution and is precipitated on scrap iron, forming cement copper. The
process takes about 3 years and the pyrite residue is shipped as washed
ore. The ore is compact and finely crystalline and carries from 48 to
51 per cent. sulphur. Conservative estimates of ore reserves for the
district give it from 300 to 400 million tons, or enough to last for
one hundred years at the present rate of production. Consequently this
district is destined to long remain the chief pyrite-producing center
of the world.
The Rio Tinto Co. is the principal producer, contributing about
one-third of the total output of the whole district (Spain-Portugal).
It is owned by British and French capital. Mining is largely by
open-pit methods, and the company employs 25,000 men. The ore carries
about 2 per cent. copper, making this company the largest European
producer of that metal. The reserves are estimated as 250 to 300
million tons, representing the major part of the whole district. The
Rio Tinto Co. furnishes about 60 per cent. of the 1,000,000 tons of
Spanish pyrite normally imported by the United States.
The second principal producer is the Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Mines
(British), with about one-eighth of the total production. British
capital is predominant in the district as a whole, with the balance
French and Spanish. Huelva, Spain, is the principal point of export,
located from 30 to 40 miles from the mines. Under normal conditions
the pyrite moves at cheap ballast rates, and has been sold at from $6
to $7 per long ton (12 to 16 cents per unit of sulphur), delivered in
United States ports. Normally this Spain-Portugal district exported
one-quarter of its output to the United States, one-eighth to England,
one-eighth to Holland, one-eighth to Germany, and most of the balance
to France and Belgium.
=Norway and Sweden.=--Norway produces from 400 to 500 thousand tons
of pyrite per year (about 8 per cent. of the world’s total), and her
output is steadily increasing. The ore usually carries from 1 to 3 per
cent. copper and from 42 to 49 per cent. sulphur; and is free from
arsenic. Seven-eighths of the output is exported to Sweden, Germany,
England and Russia. When Sweden’s import of sulphur (about 40,000 tons)
was cut off during the war, she changed the equipment of her cellulose
plants to burn pyrite instead of sulphur and took about one-half of
the Norwegian output, since her own production of pyrite (about 30,000
tons) was of minor importance.
The Norwegian deposits are widely distributed from south of Bergen to
the extreme northern end of the peninsula. The ore is generally massive
cupriferous pyrite, occurring in flat lenses in chlorite schists in
areas of regional metamorphism. About 250,000 tons comes from the
Trondhjem district, where the Lokken mines of the Orkla Mine Co. are
the largest producers.
The northern district is second in importance, with about 150,000 tons
annual production, chiefly from the Sulitjelma mine at the Swedish
frontier, near the Polar Circle. In the eastern district the Fodal
Copper & Sulphur Co. has a production of from 75,000 to 100,000 tons.
Norway has sufficient known reserves to last for thirty years at the
present rate of production and probably for much longer. The largest
reserves are in the Trondhjem district. Sweden is also reported to have
large reserves, although there has been little development so far.
The commercial control of the mines is principally English and
Norwegian. It was reported that mines with large reserves near Narvik
were owned by German interests, but were purchased by Swedish interests
during the war.
=France.=--For many years France has produced about 300,000 tons
of pyrite per annum, or about 5 per cent. of the world output. The
principal deposits are at Sain-Bel, near Lyons, in the Department
of Rhône. The product is high in sulphur. The known reserves are
probably from ten to twelve million tons. The output is used for home
consumption, and in the past was supplemented by the import of Spanish
pyrite, and Sicilian and United States sulphur.
=Italy.=--In addition to her large sulphur production Italy has
produced a considerable quantity of pyrite, which has been used locally
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Pyrite production was about
300,000 tons before the war and increased to 400,000 tons in 1916, so
that Italy produces about 6 per cent. of the world output. The pyrite
contains about 45 per cent. of sulphur and a small part of it carries
copper values. The principal production comes from a district near
Florence, although a number of smaller mines are widely scattered.
=Russia.=--Russia has large pyrite deposits located in a belt parallel
to the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains. The Kyshtim and Sissert
districts furnish the principal output. Reports indicate a good grade
of pyrite with high sulphur content. The production has been in the
neighborhood of 150,000 tons, or about 2 per cent. of the world total.
Production had been steadily increasing up to the time of Russia’s
economic collapse, but has been limited, due to the remote location
of the deposits from the chief centres of consumption at Petrograd,
Moscow, and Odessa. It is to be expected that Russia, after she regains
her balance, will continue to import pyrite to a considerable extent,
as she has done in the past.
=Germany, Austria and Hungary.=--The pre-war German production was from
200,000 to 250,000 tons of pyrite per annum, or about 4 per cent. of
the world output. About two-thirds of the output comes from deposits
near Meggen. The pyrite is estimated to run about 43 per cent. sulphur.
It is reported that the pyrite output was largely increased during
the war, as Germany had been importing from 800,000 to 1,000,000 tons
of pyrite. She continued to import some Norwegian pyrite, which is
especially desirable because of its recoverable copper content. Germany
secures a considerable amount of sulphuric acid as a by-product from
zinc smelters, which helped to make up the deficiency in her sulphur
resources.
Hungary normally produces about 100,000 tons of pyrite per annum,
chiefly from the deposits of Schemnitz.
=Cyprus.=--An important deposit of cupriferous pyrite is under
development in an old copper-mining region on the northwest coast of
Cyprus. Several million tons of ore are reported, containing a high
sulphur content and high copper values. It is being developed on a
large scale by the Cyprus Mines Corporation, representing United States
capital, and may be expected to become an important factor in pyrite
export.
=The United States.=--The pre-war production of the United States was
about 350,000 long tons, or 6 per cent. of the world’s production,
compared to an import of about 1,000,000 tons. About 40 per cent.
of the total was produced in Virginia and largely sold for use in
acid-phosphate plants from Maryland to Georgia; about 25 per cent.
was produced in California and used for local acid manufacture in the
vicinity of San Francisco; about 15 per cent. was produced in New York
State; and the balance was scattered, coming as a by-product from coal
mines in Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana, and from the zinc-mining region
of southern Wisconsin. During the war, production was increased by
about 50 per cent., but with no discoveries which promise to greatly
increase the permanent production of the country. On the whole the
deposits are not of very high quality, averaging about 40 per cent.
sulphur content. Very large reserves of pyrrhotite are located in
western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, but have not been very
extensively utilized. Large reserves of pyrite exist in Colorado,
Arizona, Utah and other western states, but are too far from the
acid plants located in the East and South to compete. On the whole,
the scanty development of pyrite in the United States is due to the
competition of high-grade Spanish pyrite coming in to the Atlantic
ports at cheap ballast rates; to the import of Canadian pyrite either
to near-by points in New England or to the Great Lakes ports; to the
large production of cheap sulphur from Louisiana and Texas, which
has monopolized the sulphite pulp trade; and to the recovery of
by-product acid from copper and zinc smelters. The great increase in
the production of sulphur during and since the war is very likely
still further to curtail the market for pyrite. The production of
pyrite has been in the hands of American companies, several of the
larger operations being controlled by concerns either in the acid or
fertilizer business.
=Canada.=--The production of pyrite in Canada has increased rapidly,
particularly during the war, to about 300,000 tons. This is due to an
increased export to the United States, principally to sulphuric-acid
plants. The principal producing areas in Canada are: (1) The district
in Quebec, not far north of the Vermont border, where there are two
operating mines and a number of promising prospects. There are large
ore reserves and the ore carries considerable copper. The principal
mines are controlled by American capital. (2) The Goudreau district,
located some 40 miles north of Sault Ste. Marie, has large ore
reserves, but of rather low grade. Thus far an American company is the
principal producer. (3) The North Pine district near Graham, Ontario,
and a considerable distance west of Port Arthur, has been a large
producer of good-grade pyrite. The principal producer was a subsidiary
company of the General Chemical Co.
There is a large reserve of pyrrhotite, estimated at about 50,000,000
tons, much of which will average over 25 per cent. sulphur, in
connection with the Sudbury nickel deposits. At present it is not
commercially important. There are considerable deposits of pyrites
in various parts of British Columbia, but these are unimportant
commercially because of their distance from any available market.
The larger part of the Canadian product is controlled by American
interests, chiefly the American Chemical Co., whose headquarters are
in New York City. A large part of the Canadian output is imported to
the United States through Chicago, Cleveland, and Buffalo; and by rail
through Vermont, Boston and to New York City.
=Cuba.=--An important pyrite property is being developed about twenty
miles from Cienfuegos, Province of Santa Clara, Cuba. It is reported
as containing several million tons of good-grade ore, which will
average at least 40 per cent. sulphur and may contain a recoverable
copper content. The property is being developed by United States
capital, interests connected with the Davison Chemical Corporation,
of Baltimore, Md., who are one of the largest producers of sulphuric
acid on the Atlantic Coast. This property promises to be an important
near-by source of pyrite for the United States.
=Mexico.=--Important pyrite deposits are known to exist in Mexico, but
they are of no present commercial importance because of inaccessibility
and high freight rates, and unsettled political conditions. A large
deposit is reported about 30 miles inland in the State of Guerrero,
containing several million tons of high-grade pyrite of approximately
48 per cent. sulphur content and free from arsenic.
There is no prospect that Mexico will be of any immediate importance in
the world pyrite situation.
=Japan.=--Japan has a small pyrite production of from 75,000 to 100,000
tons per year, or about 1¹⁄₂ per cent. of the world output. Much of
it carries copper values. The production comes from several scattered
localities. The state has reserved the ownership of the original
mineral rights, and the operators to whom they have been leased appear
to be entirely Japanese. Japan consumes her pyrite for local purposes,
and exports most of her sulphur.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SULPHUR
=Italy and Sicily.=--Italy had practically a monopoly of the world’s
sulphur supply until 1904, when large-scale production began in the
United States. The importance of sulphur as a world mineral began with
the use of gunpowder in the fourteenth century. Considerable export
trade was early developed and has been of increasing importance since
1830. Ninety per cent. of the Italian production has come from the
Island of Sicily.
The sulphur-bearing district of Sicily is a central belt running across
the island, extending about 100 miles east and west and 50 miles north
and south. The richer deposits are scattered as irregular lenses or
basin-like bodies, in this extensive area. The deposits of commercial
value are of sedimentary type, occurring as stratified beds or sheets
in limestone, associated with gypsum and bituminous marl. There are
generally three or four sulphur-bearing layers, separated by a few feet
of barren rock. The average thickness of the sulphur beds is from 10 to
15 feet, although in a few places they run as high as several hundred
feet. The sulphur occurs as incrustations, pockets, or thin bands
intimately associated with the limestone. The average sulphur content
of the ore mined is from 20 to 25 per cent., with a range from 8 to 50
per cent.; and in a few places it reaches up to 90 per cent. Estimates
as to the reserves of ore vary greatly, but seem to indicate that there
is from 40 to 60 million tons of ore still unmined, which will average
about 23 per cent. of sulphur content.
Mining has been mostly by hand and the ore brought out on the backs of
men. A few mines had modern hoisting machinery and trams. The shortage
of labor during the war has increased the introduction of modern
appliances in some of the newer mines. With increasing depth the cost
of mining has increased to the point where American sulphur can compete
in European markets.
The methods of extracting the sulphur from the ore have also been
extremely crude and wasteful, but in the last few years better types
of ovens have been installed, giving a much higher recovery through
improved distillation and the use of superheated steam for melting the
sulphur.
The sulphur industry of Sicily furnishes a notable example of an
attempted commercial control which developed into a governmental
control of the industry. The recent history of the industry falls into
three periods. The first extends from 1875 to 1895 and is characterized
by a rapid increase in production, from 200,000 to 400,000 tons a year,
with a corresponding decrease in selling price from $25 a ton to as low
as $12 a ton. It was a period of overproduction, due to the ease with
which shallow mining could be carried on and to the abundant supply of
cheap labor available. These conditions resulted in the development
of a great number of small mines, whose competition reduced prices.
The second period, from 1896 to 1906, begins with the formation of
the Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Co., financed by English capital, which
entered into a five-year agreement with the principal producers, which
was later extended for an additional five years. It was primarily a
marketing organization, formed by the union of Italian and English
interests to control production, stabilize the industry, and maintain
prices. It eventually controlled from 75 to 85 per cent. of the
industry. All sulphur was purchased at about $16 per ton f.o.b. ship
and the selling price remained practically stable during the ten-year
period, at an average of $18 to $19 per ton. In spite of efforts to
restrict production, the annual output reached 550,000 tons during
most of this period. At the same time the higher prices maintained for
sulphur had stimulated the use of pyrite as a substitute. In order
to maintain prices under these conditions the excess production had
to be purchased and stored, so that in 1906 a stock of over 500,000
tons of sulphur had been accumulated in Sicily. Toward the end of
this period large-scale production began in the United States (1904).
In 1903 the United States produced less than 10,000 tons of sulphur
and was Italy’s best customer, buying over 170,000 tons in that year.
Within three years the United States was producing more than enough
to supply its own needs and was accumulating a large reserve stock.
The sudden loss of the American market and the threat of competition
in other markets brought on a crisis in the Sicilian industry, which
was intensified by the large number (30,000) of people employed in the
industry. At the termination of the agreement with the Anglo-Sicilian
company (July 31, 1906) steps were taken by the Italian government to
control the situation. The third period, from 1906 to the present,
is one of government intervention and control of the industry. All
the producers were compelled to join a company called the “Consorzia
Obbligatoria per l’Industria Solfiefera Siciliana,” organized under
a law passed in the Italian Parliament. The organization was managed
by a commission appointed by the government, and had complete control
over exports and prices. All sulphur had to be sold at fixed price to
this organization. A minimum interest was guaranteed on the capital
invested; local freight rates on sulphur for export were reduced;
sulphur stocks accumulated by the Anglo-Sicilian company were taken
over; and a campaign of price-cutting was started in the American
market, which resulted in a decrease of several dollars a ton in the
selling price of sulphur. A market agreement was soon reached and
prices recovered. A number of the smaller mines closed down and a law
was passed controlling and restricting the granting of new concessions.
Production declined to 350,000 tons in 1913. At the opening of the war
the principal United States producer was preparing to enter into more
active competition with Italian sulphur, particularly in the French
markets. As a result of the war, Italian production dropped to only
180,000 tons in 1917, largely due to labor shortage; about half of
the surplus stocks were used up, leaving only 160,000 tons on hand at
the end of 1917; and prices increased so that refined sulphur sold at
about $80 per ton and inferior grades at $55 per ton, f.o.b. Sicilian
ports. The increasing cost of producing sulphur, due to deeper mining
and increased labor costs, will make it difficult to compete in the
European markets with the greatly expanded production of the cheaper
American article.
Sulphur has been produced in several districts in the Italian
peninsula, particularly Romagna, Marches, Campania and Calabria. The
yield from these districts has been decreasing in recent years and has
generally been only from 25,000 to 30,000 tons. The sulphur content of
the ores ranges from 20 to 30 per cent. The deposits are of limited
extent and are being mined at greater depths. The production has been
largely used for local agricultural purposes, in preparations for use
against vine diseases.
=The United States.=--Until 1904, the production of sulphur in the
United States was considerably less than 10,000 tons per year and the
bulk of our requirements had to be met by import from Sicily. From 1904
to 1914 the United States produced enough for its own use and at the
end of this period was supplying Canada, had begun to actively enter
the French and German market, and in addition had accumulated a reserve
stock, in the hands of the producers, of approximately one million long
tons. Figures recently made public in connection with litigation over
patent rights show that half of this stock was accumulated in a single
year, 1912, when production reached 790,000 long tons, of which only
300,000 tons was marketed and the balance of 490,000 tons went into
storage. The United States production has exceeded that of Italy since
1912, although the sales have been less, because sulphur was being
withdrawn from stocks in Italy while stocks in the United States were
being increased. The net effect of the war was a four-fold increase in
the amount of sulphur sold in the United States, without any reduction
in stocks; while in Italy production fell off 50 per cent. and stocks
on hand were reduced by the same percentage.
From 98 to 99 per cent. of the United States production has come from
the Gulf Coast region of the states of Louisiana and Texas. A number
of other localities in West Texas, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and
Nevada have surface deposits, usually of limited extent, which have
been worked on a small scale, but have declined in importance with the
development of the better-grade and more accessible deposits of the
Gulf Coastal region.
The occurrence of sulphur in the Gulf Coast region is in connection
with a peculiar formation known as “Saline Domes” or “Mounds.” Over
twenty of these domes have been located, scattered in an area 200
miles long, extending through western Louisiana and eastern Texas, and
generally within 50 miles of the Gulf of Mexico. Commercial deposits
of petroleum, sulphur, and salt have been developed in connection with
these domes, but so far not more than one of the minerals has been
developed to commercial degree in a single dome. Sulphur was discovered
when drilling was being carried on for oil. So far, three domes have
been developed for sulphur, namely that owned by the Union Sulphur
Co. at Sulphur, La. (1903), that owned by the Freeport Sulphur Co. at
Freeport, Texas (1912), and that of the Texas-Gulf Sulphur Co. near
Matagordo, Texas (1919). Two other domes are under exploration and a
number of others may possibly contain sulphur.
The sulphur occurs at a depth of 300 to 1,200 feet and is associated
with limestone and underlain by gypsum. The surface area of the
producing domes varies from 200 to 1,500 acres. Exploration is done
by drilling at a cost of $200,000 to $300,000, and the cost of a
complete plant is several million dollars. The sulphur cannot be mined
by shafts, due to the quicksands and the poisonous gases encountered.
The deposit at Sulphur, Louisiana, remained unworked for almost 40
years after its discovery before a satisfactory process was developed
to mine it. This is known as the “Frasch Process” and consists of the
sinking of wells to the sulphur deposit, each well being lined with a
10 to 12 in. pipe. Smaller pipes are placed inside, so that superheated
water can be brought in contact with the sulphur ore, which is melted
and forced to the surface by compressed air. The sulphur on cooling
is ready for market and is over 99 per cent. pure. Each of the three
plants in operation is equipped with a boiler capacity of over 20,000
h.p. for superheating the water, and requires about a million and a
quarter barrels of fuel oil per year. The origin of these domes is
believed to be due to deep-seated igneous intrusions, resulting in
the alteration of gypsum and the crystallization of salt and sulphur,
which has caused an upbowing of the strata. Because of the nature of
the formation and the irregularity of the deposits it is impossible to
accurately estimate the reserves of sulphur.
With the addition of two new plants since 1912, the United States now
has a sulphur-producing capacity of about 1¹⁄₄ million tons per year,
or four times the normal sales before the war. If an outlet is to be
found for this excess sulphur, it must compete with pyrite in the
domestic market or with Sicilian sulphur in the European markets. In
the latter part of 1919 prices of $14 to $15 per ton f.o.b. mines were
quoted, which indicated that an effort was being made to secure part of
the acid trade which formerly used pyrite.
There is no element of political control in the United States sulphur
industry, beyond the temporary measures taken during the war in
licensing export and allocation of consumption. The commercial control
is entirely in the hands of American companies. The Union Sulphur
Co. has been endeavoring to prevent the use of the improved “Frasch
Process” by the other companies which are competing with it. If the
claim of infringement of patent rights should be sustained, it would
give the Union company control of the situation similar to that which
it had before the development of the two newer companies, and might
result in the restriction of output and maintenance of prices.
=Japan.=--Japan takes third rank in the production of sulphur, although
it is of minor importance, compared to either the United States or
Italy. The production of sulphur in Japan has slowly increased from
15,000 long tons in 1900 to 60,000 tons in 1913, or about 7 per cent.
of the world output. The domestic consumption is very small and about
90 per cent. of the output was exported, chiefly to Australia, the west
coast of the United States and Canada, and to China and India. During
the war the output increased to a maximum of about 100,000 tons, but
in 1918 production was considerably curtailed by the great advance in
freight rates to Australia, which had been purchasing about one-half of
the Japanese output.
The sulphur occurs in surface deposits of limited extent and seldom
reaches 100 feet in thickness. The deposits are generally of the
solfataric type and occur in the numerous areas of volcanic activity.
The majority of the productive areas are nearly circular in outline,
and indicate that they were formed by deposition in crater lakes. In
some cases they are stratified and overlain by fine brown clayey or
tufaceous material derived partly from the surrounding rocks and partly
from the sulphur itself. Other deposits of minor importance may have
been produced by impregnation. The ore mined runs from 50 to 60 per
cent. sulphur. Deposits below 40 per cent. sulphur are seldom worked.
Approximately two-thirds of the production has come from the
southwestern section of the Island of Hokkaido. Four mines average
about 10,000 tons production each per year, and the remainder of the
production comes from 10 to 12 smaller operations, ranging from the
vicinity of Mount Daiton, in Taiwan (Formosa), to the Kurile Islands.
There is no accurate estimate of ore reserves available. One of the
most important mines was estimated as containing several million tons
of 50 per cent. ore. The reserves are probably sufficient to maintain
present production for many years. The lack of shipping facilities has
handicapped production, and there seems little likelihood that the
relative importance of Japan in the sulphur industry will increase to
any great extent.
The sulphur mines are all operated by Japanese. The state reserves
the right of original ownership of all minerals, except a few placer
deposits. Right of working is granted to Japanese companies or
individuals according to priority of application. The mining law,
however, acknowledges the rights of any corporation organized by aliens
under Japanese law.
=Great Britain.=--Great Britain has an estimated annual by-product
recovery of from 30,000 to 40,000 tons of elemental sulphur. The
process of recovery is known as the Chance-Claus process, and is
applied in connection with the Le Blanc soda process. It is based upon
the decomposition of calcium sulphate in vat waste by means of carbon
dioxide, and the recovery of sulphur from the sulphuretted hydrogen gas
thus generated.
=Other Countries.=--The production of sulphur outside of the United
States, Italy and Japan is of minor importance.
Northern _Chile_ has a small production of sulphur from the volcanoes
of Tacora and Chupiquina. The reserves are estimated as quite large,
but the high elevation (14,000 to 20,000 ft.) and poor transportation
have restricted production to local uses in the vineyard districts of
Chile. The production as reported had gradually increased to about
6,000 tons in 1913 and is reported to have doubled since then.
_Spain_ produces about 10,000 tons of sulphur annually, from low-grade
deposits located in the neighborhood of Almeria. The larger figures
often reported are in terms of low-grade ore mined.
_Austria_ is credited with a production of from 10 to 15 thousand tons
of crude sulphur ore, probably representing only 2 or 3 thousand tons
of actual sulphur.
The largest sulphur mine in _Mexico_ is located at Cerritos, 25 miles
south of Guadalcazar, San Luis Potosi. Fifteen years ago it was
purchased by an American company, the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co.
It was later leased to German interests. The small output of a few
thousand tons was shipped to Germany before the war. There are a number
of deposits in San Luis Potosi in addition to the one at Cerritos.
It has been reported several times that a British company was about
to operate the sulphur deposits of the Mexican volcano, Popocatepetl,
near Mexico City. Statements regarding the deposits in the volcano are
conflicting, but investigations indicate that their magnitude has been
much exaggerated. Many other deposits occur in connection with local
volcanic areas, but so far are of little economic value because of
inaccessibility.
There are a number of deposits of sulphur in the Aleutian Islands
(_Alaska_), probably containing considerable sulphur, but partially
covered by glaciers and difficult of access. It is doubtful whether
they could be developed in the face of the competition of the cheap
sulphur from the coastal plain district of the United States.
CHANGES IN PRACTICE
No very far-reaching changes in practice are likely to occur in the
near future. The exhaustion of the surface sulphur deposits in Italy
and the necessity for deep mining is making necessary improvement and
installation of more modern methods there. Improved methods in the
refining of sulphur are also being installed whereby the losses under
the old _calcarone_ method will be largely eliminated. The consumption
of sulphur for sulphite wood pulp can be considerably reduced by the
general utilization of the improved practice which is already used
by the best plants. In localities where pyrite is available this
material may be used in the pulp industry to replace sulphur. In case
competition develops between the three large sulphur companies in
the United States, and the price of sulphur is considerably reduced,
it may result in the use of this material to a larger extent in the
sulphuric-acid industry. The sulphur burners can be installed much
more quickly and cheaply than the furnaces required to roast pyrite,
and after once being installed the amount of labor and care required
in their operation is less. The increased recovery of sulphuric acid
as a by-product from copper and zinc smelters will probably represent
an increasing factor in competition with acid made either from pyrite
or sulphur. The further increase of this source in the United States
is handicapped by the location of many of the copper smelters in the
west, at long distances from the market for sulphuric acid, which is
largely in the eastern and southern states. New processes are being
experimented with, for the production of elementary sulphur from these
sulphur fumes. If these are successful on a large scale, material
from this source may supply any future markets located in the west,
and might compete with the Japanese sulphur which has formerly been
imported in our Pacific Coast States.
POLITICAL CONTROL OF SULPHUR AND PYRITE
The political control of the important sulphur deposits of the world
primarily corresponds to the countries in which they are located. In
the case of the United States, the deposits are controlled by private
companies. As a strictly war measure, control was exercised over the
allocation and distribution of the output. In Italy the government
had assumed control of the output and marketing of sulphur. This was
largely brought about by the competition of American sulphur and
the consequent depression of the Italian industry. In 1906 what was
known as the Consorzia Obbligatoria was organized under a law passed
by the Italian Parliament, which provided that this company should
be administered by a royal commissioner appointed by the Italian
government. Under this law producers were obliged to sell their
output to this company, which had control of prices and exports. In
1910 restrictions on the granting of new concessions were made. The
arguments recently presented for the continuance of government control
were the increasing foreign competition, the large war increase in
United States production, the minor increase of Japanese production and
the possibilities of developments in northern Africa. The intent of
this governmental control of the industry is to combine and regulate
the efforts of individual producers in order to effectively meet future
competition.
COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF SULPHUR AND PYRITE
Before 1906 the Italian deposits were largely controlled by the
Anglo-Sicilian Sulphur Co., representing English capital, but since
that time, when the Italian government undertook to control the
industry, the commercial control has been primarily Italian.
In the United States the commercial control of sulphur output is in the
hands of three companies, one of which started producing just about the
time of the outbreak of the European war and another whose production
was just beginning in 1919. So far as is known, there is no combination
among these three interests. The Union Sulphur Co., which was the first
and principal producer, controls certain patents covering the “Frasch
Process.” During the war period an agreement was entered into by which
alleged infringement of patents was not pushed. Since the close of the
war it remains to be seen to what extent the patent rights involved may
affect the production of the other two companies, the Freeport and the
Texas Gulf, which in general use a similar process.
The production of sulphur in Japan is commercially controlled by
Japanese interests.
An American company, the Virginia-Carolina Chemical Co., owns a
sulphur deposit in Mexico, which was leased, before the war, to German
interests. Several other deposits in Mexico and South America were
reported as controlled by German interests, but thus far the production
from all these sources has been relatively of minor importance and
there is no immediate prospect of any great change.
The significant factor of commercial control in the pyrite situation is
the large investment of British capital in the Spanish deposits and to
a less extent the investment of French capital. United States capital
controls the principal pyrite developments in Canada, Cuba, Mexico and
Cyprus. English, French and Swedish capital is invested in Norway.
POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL POWERS
The _United States_ is the most favorably situated of any nation in its
supply of sulphur. In the years preceding the European war it produced
about one-half the world’s supply. Since that time its production has
increased several fold and it is now the dominating factor in the world
situation.
The relative position of _Italy_, which was formerly of equal
importance with the United States, is declining. Her cost of production
is increasing, and American sulphur will enter into keen competition
with the European markets. The resources of _Japan_ are comparatively
small and the larger part of her production has been exported. The
post-war conditions will probably curtail the markets for Japanese
sulphur, and there is no likelihood of any increase in Japan’s
position. England, France and Germany must primarily rely upon other
countries for their supply of both pyrite and sulphur. _England_
secures a part of her sulphur supply from a by-product source known as
the Chance-Claus process, which produces from 30 to 40 thousand tons
annually. In addition she secures large amounts of pyrite from Spain.
_France_ produces some local pyrite, but imports large quantities
of this material from Spain; and before the outbreak of the war
was securing increasing amounts of sulphur from the United States.
_Germany_ and _Austria_ have some resources in pyrite and probably had
considerable stocks of sulphur at the opening of the war. It has been
stated that in order to secure her needs of these materials Germany was
forced to use expensive processes, to reduce the sulphur content of
gypsum, to expand her pyrite production, and to increase the output of
smelter acid. Under normal conditions she will probably have to return
to imports of pyrite from Norway and Sweden, or sulphur from the United
States and Italy.