CHROMIUM
BY E. C. HARDER
USES OF CHROMIUM
Chromite is the principal ore from which metallic chromium and chromium
products are obtained. The theoretical composition of chromite is
represented by the formula FeO Cr₂O₃, which represents 32 per cent.
ferrous oxide and 68 per cent. chromic oxide. In many ores, however,
the ferrous oxide is partly replaced by magnesia, up to 30 per cent.,
and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, up to 20 per cent.
Thus the composition of chromite varies considerably. The percentage
of chromic oxide may be as low as 10 per cent.; that of ferrous oxide
may range from 10 to 50 per cent. Other common minerals of chromium are
picotite (chrome spinel), uvarovite (chrome garnet), chrome diopside
and crocoite (lead chromate).
Chrome ore is consumed mainly in the manufacture of special steels
and in tanning leather. The special steels comprise chrome steel,
chrome-nickel steel, chrome-tungsten steel, and chrome-vanadium steel.
Metallic chromium is added to such steel in the form of ferrochrome,
an alloy of chromium and iron containing 60 to 70 per cent. metallic
chromium. Chrome steel is tough and hard to break. It hardens rapidly
and has a fine grain and a fibrous fracture; it does not break readily
upon concussion and because of its hardness is difficult or impossible
to cut with ordinary machine tools. Metallic chromium is present in
percentages varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Special steels containing
chromium are used for guns, armor plate, armor-piercing projectiles,
automobile parts, machine tools, bars for prisons, burglar-proof
safes, shoes, cutlery, crusher jaws, stampmills, springs and for other
articles in which hardness and toughness are necessary. During the war,
when a considerable shortage of chromite threatened, less chromium was
used in chrome steels, and certain other hardening materials were used
in its place. The results are said to have been unsatisfactory, however.
Ferrochrome used in the manufacture of chrome steels is produced in
the electric furnace by smelting a mixture, in proper proportions, of
chromite, coal or coke, lime, and fluorspar or silica.
Much chrome ore is used in the steel industry for refractory materials
in lining open-hearth furnaces. Some of the ore thus used is first
manufactured into chrome brick and some is utilized in the crude
form. Chrome brick is used in open-hearth furnaces as a lining along
the slag line between the magnesite bottom of the furnace and the
silica-brick sides and roof. Chrome brick is used also to cover the
ports of gas-fired furnaces. It is desirable for these purposes
on account of its neutral reaction, which reduces the wear due to
corrosion. Lump or crushed chromite is used for patching the bottoms
of open-hearth furnaces, particularly the toe or apex of the bottom,
the ore being either hammered in place as lump or crushed and mixed
with a little water or tar and clay and then tamped into place. The use
of lump chrome in repairing such furnaces is desirable on account of
the rapidity with which the furnaces can be repaired and on account of
the greater wear that chromite will stand. The amount of chromite used
for this purpose ranges from 2 pounds to 10 pounds per ton of steel
manufactured. Magnesite has been used to replace chromite for repairing
furnaces, but has been found to be more expensive and to stand less
wear.
Chrome brick is used in a minor way in electric furnaces for
manufacturing steel, in a belt along the slag line and in the
area around the pouring lips. It is also being used in furnaces
manufacturing steel by the duplex process.
Chrome brick, besides being used in steel-making furnaces, is used in
lining furnaces for making copper, nickel, and other metals. In these
furnaces it is used in the bottoms and around the tap holes. Magnesite
brick, as well as bauxite brick, have been used to replace chromite
brick for this purpose.
Chromium chemicals used for tanning are mainly sodium or potassium
bichromates. About half of the bichromates produced in the United
States is commonly used for tanning, the remainder being used for
paints, pigments, dry colors, and dyes in the paint, printing and
engraving, and textile industries. Chrome yellow, chrome orange, and
chrome black are used in calico printing and dyeing. Chromic oxide, or
chrome green, is an indelible pigment employed in printing banknotes.
Various other chrome colors are used for paints and pigments as well as
in the ceramic arts. The minor uses of chrome chemicals are many.
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
Chromite throughout the world is associated with basic igneous rocks,
such as peridotite or pyroxenite, or with the alteration products
of these rocks, such as serpentine, talc schist, and related rocks.
Chromite deposits are generally in the form of lenses, pods, or
irregular masses that may occur singly or may be associated in groups.
Besides being found as large bodies, chromite occurs as a minor
constituent of these rocks, being widely disseminated through them as
small specks and particles. Chromite that forms workable deposits is
believed to have been separated out of the molten mass of basic igneous
rock by segregation and to have formed separate bodies within the rock
mass during the cooling. Most chromite deposits are found along the
borders of intrusive masses not far from the contact of older rocks
into which they are intruded. This is probably due to the formation of
peripheral fractures during the cooling of the igneous mass, chromite
being forced up into these openings. The action of convection-currents
in the molten magma may also have resulted in localizing chromite
bodies near the borders of the mass. However, bodies of chromite are
quite abundant in other parts of the igneous masses as well, often
being found at long distances from bordering rocks.
By weathering of chromite-bearing igneous rock, chromite bodies
are freed and occur as loose masses in resultant residual clays.
Such bodies in clay are of commercial importance in many places.
The breaking down of chromite-bearing rocks results in setting
free disseminated specks and particles of chromite, and these may
be transported and later deposited along streams flowing out of
chromite-bearing areas. In this manner accumulations of chromite sands
are formed. Besides chromite, these sands usually contain considerable
quantities of other heavy minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite, garnet,
and rutile, and the chromite in them is generally not available
commercially.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL
The world’s chromite supply has been obtained mainly from the following
sources, named roughly in order of their importance:
New Caledonia; southern Rhodesia; western and southern Asia Minor; Ural
Mountains, Russia; eastern Greece, adjacent islands, Macedonia, and
Serbia; Baluchistan and Mysore, India; Quebec, Canada; Atlantic and
Pacific coast states, United States; State of Bahia, Brazil; Oriente,
Cuba; Japan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Austria-Hungary; and Guatemala.
The geographic distribution of the more important deposits of chromite
is shown in Plate IV.
Other countries in which deposits of chromite are known but in which
little or no ore has been produced are: Shetland Islands, Scotland;
Norway; Sweden; Silesia; Portugal; New South Wales, Australia; New
Zealand; Transvaal; Togoland; and Newfoundland.
Table 25 shows the output of chromite in the chief producing countries
from 1905 to 1917.
=Australasia.=--Important quantities of chromite occur on the island
of _New Caledonia_, in the South Pacific, and in smaller amounts in
Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
[Illustration: PLATE IV.--Geographical distribution of the chromite
deposits of the world. By E. C. Harder.]
TABLE 25.--WORLD’S CHROMITE PRODUCTION 1905-1917 IN LONG TONS[53]
-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+
|1905[54]| 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 |
-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+
United States | 22 | 107| 290 | 359 | 598|
Canada[55] | 7,657 | 8,068| 6,425 | 6,451 | 2,205|
Cuba[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Guatemala[57] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Brazil[57] | | | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | | | |
Islands) | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Norway | ... | ...| 105[56]| ... | ...|
Sweden | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | | |
and Herzegovina) | 183 | 315| 305 | 492 | 327|
Greece[60] | 8,759 |11,348|11,545 | 4,281 | 9,448|
Serbia[61] | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
Russia | 26,620 |16,708|25,940 |10,777 |21,857|
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | | |
Minor) | ... |23,404|21,111 |28,394 |11,364|
Rhodesia | ... | 3,256| 8,017 |11,927 |22,875|
India | 2,708 | 4,375| 7,274 | 4,745 | 9,250|
Japan | ... | ...| ... | ... | ...|
New South Wales | 52 | 15| 30 | ... | ...|
New Caledonia | 75,717 |82,910|56,461[56]|24,970[56]|39,368|
-----------------------+--------+------+----------+----------+------+
-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+
| 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+
United States | 205| 120 | 201 | 255 |
Canada[55] | 267| 140 | ... | ... |
Cuba[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Guatemala[57] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Brazil[57] | | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | | |
Islands) | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Norway | ...| ... | 113[56]| ... |
Sweden | 31| | | |
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | | |
and Herzegovina) | 315| 246 | 197 | 300[56]|
Greece[60] | 9,311| 4,542 | 6,209 | 6,242[56]|
Serbia[61] | ...| ... | ... | ... |
Russia |14,157| 1,218[56]|20,934 |21,401 |
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | | |
Minor) | [59]|11,993 |16,823[63]| [59]|
Rhodesia |39,287|46,753 |61,840 |62,365 |
India | 1,737| 3,804 | 2,890 | 5,580[56]|
Japan | 2,091| 1,500 | 1,591 | [59]|
New South Wales | ...| 148 | 23 | |
New Caledonia |39,368|34,447 |41,325 |62,352 |
-----------------------+------+----------+----------+----------+
-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
| 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917
-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
United States | 591 | 3,281 |47,035 |43,725
Canada[55] | 121 |11,008 |24,545 |32,457[56]
Cuba[57] | ... | ... | 34 | 17[58]
Guatemala[57] | ... | ... | ... | 179[58]
Brazil[57] | | | |
Great Britain (Shetland| | | |
Islands) | 100 | | |
Norway | 80[56]| 344[56]| |
Sweden | | | |
Austria-Hungary (Bosnia| | | |
and Herzegovina) | 474[56]| [59]| [59]|
Greece[60] | 6,947[56]|10,255[56]| 9,724[56]| [59]
Serbia[61] | ... | [59]| [59]| [59]
Russia | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59]
Turkey[62] (mainly Asia| | | |
Minor) | [59]| [59]| [59]| [59]
Rhodesia |48,235 |60,617[56]|79,350[56]| [59]
India | 5,887[56]| 3,768[56]|20,160[56]| [59]
Japan | 2,075[56]| 2,932[56]| 8,149[56]| [59]
New South Wales | | | |
New Caledonia |41,336[56]|65,941[56]|74,115[64]|41,230[56]
-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
[53] Figures not otherwise credited were obtained from “Mineral
Resources of United States, 1914” and subsequent years, U. S.
Geological Survey (figures originally obtained mainly from the
British statistical publication, _Mines and Quarries_: General report
with statistics, pt. 4, London).
[54] Figures for 1905 taken direct from _Mines and Quarries_, 1905
and 1906.
[55] Mineral production of Canada, 1916, Canada Department of Mines,
Mines Branch.
[56] _Mineral Industry_, 1917.
[57] Exports from Cuba, Guatemala, and Brazil in 1918 were
respectively 8,820 tons, 1,193 tons, and 17,854 tons.
[58] Exports.
[59] Not available.
[60] Production from the Saloniki district included under Turkey
previous to 1914.
[61] Present Serbian deposits in Turkish domain before the war.
[62] Exports from Turkey for fiscal years beginning with March.
[63] _Mines and Quarries_ reports production of Turkey in 1912 as 145
tons.
[64] Stateman’s Year Book, 1918, London.
Serpentine, in masses intruding metamorphic rocks and sediments ranging
in age from Archean to Mesozoic, is abundant throughout the island
of New Caledonia, and chromite invariably is associated with it as a
minor constituent. Locally, large masses of fairly pure chromite are
found, generally as lenticular bodies in the serpentine, but locally as
irregular masses in residual clay derived from the decomposition of the
serpentine.
Chromite deposits of three types are known in New Caledonia, as
follows: Rock chrome, consisting of solid ore bodies in serpentine;
residual chromite, as irregular bodies or scattered masses, frequently
disintegrated, in red residual clay derived from the weathering of
the serpentine; and chrome sand and gravel in surface wash and stream
deposits. Ores of the first two classes are both important commercially
in New Caledonia and are both present in most mines. Ores of the last
named class are not worked.
Of these New Caledonian deposits, that of Mt. d’Or, in the southern
part of the island, was the first to be discovered and worked, being
found by Garnier in 1866. Later the deposits of Ngo Bay and others
further south were exploited. Production and exportation of New
Caledonian chromite began in the early 80’s and continued in a minor
way until 1902, the production coming mainly from Mt. d’Or and the Ngo
Bay deposits.
In 1902, L. Bernheim formed the Société le Chrome, in which French
capital was largely interested. This company operated mines in the
northern and southern parts of the island. It developed the Tiebaghi
deposits near the port of Pagoumene, now among the most important
in New Caledonia. The exportation of chromite soon increased, and
gradually New Caledonian ore replaced Turkish ore in the market. In
1911 the Chrome Co., Ltd., of London, was formed and acquired from
the Société le Chrome the Tiebaghi and other mines. At the same time
it acquired the right from the Rhodesia Chrome Mines Co., Limited,
to market the Rhodesian ore, thus securing practically a monopoly of
the world’s chromite trade. The Chrome Co., Ltd., is controlled by
French and English interests. Chalas & Sons, Finsbury Pavement House,
London, E. C, are the largest stockholders. There were formerly German
stockholders. L. Bernheim does not seem to be associated with the
Chrome Co., Ltd., but it is said that he still owns chromite deposits
in New Caledonia. Besides the operations of the Chrome Co., Ltd.,
there are a number of independent operations in different parts of the
island. These are mainly under the control of inhabitants of the island.
=Africa.=--The important chromite deposits of southern _Rhodesia_
are near the town of Selukwe, which is connected by railroad with
the shipping port of Beira. They occur scattered through an area of
schist and serpentine. One hundred and twenty chromite bodies have been
mapped out, but the only ones that have been developed are ten closely
grouped large bodies at Chrome Mine northwest of Selukwe. One of the
largest bodies is 180 feet wide and 240 feet long. The ores are high
grade, averaging between 48 and 51 per cent. chromic oxide.
Recently considerable publicity has been given to the discovery of what
are reported to be among the largest deposits of high-grade chromite
in the world in the Umvukwe Hills in the Lomagundi district 30 miles
from Banket Junction, southern Rhodesia. The ore is said to occur over
a large area in bodies in serpentine. More than two million tons is
reported to have been uncovered. The deposits were discovered by Albert
Peake, of Umvukwe Ranch, and are owned by Peake Brothers, who are said
to have offered them to the Imperial government on special terms.
Chromite was mined in Rhodesia for the first time in 1905, the ore
coming from claims near Selukwe held by the Bechuanaland Exploration
Company, Ltd. Production steadily increased, slowly at first but more
rapidly after 1910, when the Selukwe mines were taken over by the
Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1910 the staking of chromite claims in
the Hartley district was reported and in 1911 chromite was discovered
at Victoria. Shipments from Selukwe stopped in August, 1914, after the
declaration of war, but began in December and increased during 1915
and 1916. In 1917 the discovery of the large and valuable deposits of
chromite in the Lomagundi district (already mentioned) was reported.
Previous to 1916 the entire production of Rhodesian chromite came from
the Selukwe mines of the Rhodesia Chrome Mines, Ltd. In 1917, however,
another company, the Rhodesia Metals Syndicate, Ltd., entered the field
and is producing important amounts of ore.
=Asia.=--Before _Turkey_ lost most of her European possessions after
the Balkan wars, the chromite deposits of the Kossowo, Uskub, and
Monastir district of Serbia and the Saloniki district of Greece were
within her borders. Now, however, only the deposits of _Asia Minor_
remain to her.
Chromite deposits are widely scattered through many parts of _Asia
Minor_ and are said to be numbered by the hundreds. The most important
deposits are grouped into three districts: In the regions of Brussa
and Kutahia south of the Sea of Marmora, where the important Daghardi
deposits are found; near Macri, Denislu and around the Gulf of
Adalia in the southwestern part of the peninsula, as well as on the
neighboring Island of Rhodes; and near Mersina, Adana, Aleppo, and
elsewhere in the region around the Gulf of Alexandretta northeast of
the Island of Cyprus. Smaller deposits are reported in the vilayets of
Angora and Kastamuni in the north central part of Asia Minor and near
Beirut and Damascus in Syria. All the ore bodies are found in more
or less schistose and decomposed serpentine in groups of lenslike or
irregular bodies.
The chromite mines of Asia Minor have produced important quantities of
ore. From about 1870, when Turkey began to supplant the United States
as the world’s principal producer of chromite, to near 1900, Asia Minor
furnished the bulk of the chromite for the world’s consumption. Most
of the ore mined has come from the mines in the Brussa region on the
south and southwest slopes of the Mysian Olympus and from the mines
of the Macri region. The Brussa and Kutahia deposits are said to have
produced an average of about 20,000 tons annually for many years, of
which the Daghardi mine is said to have furnished nearly three-fourths.
This deposit consists of high-grade ore averaging 51 to 55 per cent.
chromic oxide and has been estimated to contain about 10,000,000 tons
of ore. Probably this is somewhat an exaggeration, although doubtless
the deposit is large and important.
The chromite mines in the Macri region have furnished a considerable
part of the output of Asia Minor, but much of the ore mined in recent
years has been of low grade, running as low as 40 per cent. chromic
oxide. The chromite near Denislu and that near the Gulf of Adalia, on
the other hand, is said to be very rich, some deposits containing ore
averaging as high as 56 per cent. chromic oxide.
Most of the chromite mines of Asia Minor are probably now under the
control of the Turkish government, having reverted back ten or fifteen
years ago when increasing competition of New Caledonia chromite in
foreign markets resulted in the shutting down of many of the mines. The
taxes on both worked and undeveloped mineral properties are so heavy
in Turkey that unless mines are bringing in continuous and substantial
revenues, they cannot be held by private individuals.
It has been the policy of Turkey not to allow her mineral properties
to fall into the hands of foreigners. Even while the exploitation of
the chromite deposits was most vigorous, therefore, the mines, although
in many places worked by foreign firms, were largely owned by the
Turkish government or by Turkish subjects who leased them. Thus in
1904 the principal deposits near Brussa were owned by an officer of
the Porte and were operated by J. W. Whittal & Co., an English firm in
Constantinople, while other deposits in the same district were worked
by Patterson & Canghellari, an English company located in Smyrna. The
famous Daghardi deposit, in the Kutahia region, at that time was owned
by the Turkish minister of marine and was operated by a Turk named
Raghit Bey.
In the Macri district, a number of low-grade deposits were in 1904
under the control of Patterson & Co., of Smyrna, and the mines near
the Gulf of Adalia were controlled by a French syndicate. Some large
deposits near Denislu, in the interior, north of Macri, are said to be
lying undeveloped owing to the refusal of the Turkish government to
permit mining.
The chromite deposits in the region surrounding the Gulf of
Alexandretta have been worked in a small way both by Turks and
foreigners. Among operators in the region are mentioned Durian Effendi,
a Turk, representing the Ottoman Bank; Husni Herikizadeh Effendi, a
Turk of Adana; Nader Brothers, of Mersina; Alfred Keun & Co. of Smyrna;
Protopazzi Brothers, of Smyrna, and Mavrommati & Sons, of Mersina,
both probably Greek firms; Loizides, of Mersina; and Hadji Kemal Bey,
of Constantinople. Durian Effendi is mentioned also as having operated
chromite mines near Beirut.
The most important chromite deposits of _India_ are in the northern
part of Baluchistan, but the mines of the Madras and Mysore districts
in southern India have also furnished important amounts of ore. A
small production has come from Bengal. The deposits of Baluchistan are
large and the ore is rich, much of it averaging nearly 55 per cent.
chromic oxide. One deposit is reported to be 440 feet long by 5 feet
wide. The ore bodies are segregations in serpentine. The problem of
transportation is difficult, as the ores are far from the coast and
land transportation facilities are poor. Nevertheless, those mines
have made a steady output since they were opened in 1903. The largest
production was in 1907, when the yield exceeded 7,000 tons. Since then
there has been a decrease owing to competition from New Caledonia and
Rhodesia.
Chromite ore bodies were exploited in Madras as early as 1861 and small
amounts of ore were mined intermittently. The ores are associated
with magnesite veins in serpentine. Since 1907 a steady production is
recorded from Madras, which has increased recently. Important deposits
of chromite are found in Mysore. These deposits have produced more than
2,000 tons of ore annually in recent years, which is reported to have
been sent to the United States. The chromite deposits of Bengal are
said to be small and unimportant. In Bombay a large body of low-grade
chromite is said to measure 1,000 by 300 feet and to average 34 per
cent. chromic oxide.
Before 1910 chromite mining in _Japan_ was sporadic and unimportant,
but since 1910 the output has been steady and increasing. The principal
occurrences of chrome ore are in the southwestern part, the mines
of Wakamatsu, in Hoki, being the most important. The ore is said to
average about 40 per cent. chromic oxide. Chromite is also reported to
occur in the northern part of Japan. The Japanese chromite deposits are
small and soon exhausted.
The principal chromite deposits of _Russia_ are in the southern part of
the Ural Mountains and are associated with serpentine and soapstone.
The deposits are classed under three heads: Large granular masses in
serpentine, finely disseminated chromite in serpentine, and chromite
sand in platinum- and gold-bearing placers. The characteristic
occurrence of chromite bodies in the Urals is as segregations within
areas of dunite largely altered to serpentine. Platinum in scattered
grains is associated with chromite in the dunite in several places.
Recently chromite deposits have been reported in the northern part of
the Caucasus Mountains.
=Europe.=--The chromite deposits of the _Balkan Peninsula_ may be
grouped into four main districts: central Serbia; southern Serbia;
Saloniki, in eastern Macedonia; and Magnesia, southern Thessaly, and
the neighboring islands. The chromite deposits are found in serpentine
derived from the alteration of peridotite.
The chromite mines of _Serbia_ and _Macedonia_ for many years furnished
a small production, credited to European Turkey, which before the
last Balkan War embraced all the chromite-bearing areas. Many of the
deposits of central Serbia are poorly situated with reference to
transportation, the ore being hauled on carts to the railroad stations
and thence by rail to the coast. In eastern Macedonia some of the
mines are relatively near the coast and the ore is carried on carts
to Saloniki. The mines of Serbia and Macedonia were worked in part by
individuals and in part by the same firms which mined the chrome ores
of Asia Minor, such as Patterson & Co., Whittal & Co., and others.
The chromite mines of Magnesia, Thessaly, and adjacent islands in
eastern _Greece_ have furnished a more or less continuous output for
the last 30 or 40 years. The ore mined, however, has been mainly of low
grade, most of it averaging between 30 and 40 per cent. chromic oxide.
It is said to be used largely for refractory purposes. Before 1908 most
of the Grecian production of chromite came from the mines of Magnesia,
but more recently the mines of southern Thessaly have furnished most of
the ore. Mines in the Grecian Archipelago have also furnished some ore.
The annual output of Greece has varied from a few hundred tons to more
than 15,000 tons. During the past 20 years it has rarely fallen below
5,000 tons.
Chromiferous iron ore in considerable quantity is mined in Greece,
most of it being exported. In 1913 ten or more mines were worked. The
production has averaged more than 100,000 tons annually. The mines are
operated in part by Greek and in part by French and British firms.
The chromic iron ores produced in the former _Austrian Empire_ have
come mainly from the central part of Bosnia, but the chromite mines in
Upper Styria and those on the Roumanian border have also furnished an
appreciable output, the ore being low-grade. The deposits of Bosnia are
in serpentine. The ore is of good quality and has been mined for use
as a furnace lining. On and near the left bank of the Danube River in
the Banat, Hungary, there is an extensive area of serpentine containing
chromite in bunches. The deposits have been worked to a slight extent.
=North America.=--In _Canada_ chromite-bearing areas of considerable
extent are found in the southern part of the Province of Quebec, where
nearly all the productive chromite mines of Canada are situated. The
ore occurs in serpentine in irregular masses and pockets without
definite form, that range in size up to 75 feet along the longer axis,
rarely reaching 100 feet. The amount of high-grade ore in the Quebec
chromite deposits is not large, but low-grade ore bodies which under
normal market conditions can not be mined at a profit are numerous
and of large size. The low-grade ores range in content of chromic
oxide from less than 20 per cent. to 35 or 40 per cent. Nearly all
the Canadian ore mined has been exported to the United States. From
1910 to 1914 the output of chrome ore from the Quebec mines was
insignificant, owing to the cost of mining low-grade ores and the lack
of a market for them. When the price of chromite rose late in 1914,
American firms began active developments in the field, and subsequently
two concentrators were built by the Mutual Chemical Co. The output of
Canadian chromite, both of crude ore and concentrates, during the war
period was noteworthy, the production rising from 121 long tons in
1914, to 47,035 long tons in 1916 and 43,725 long tons in 1917.
The principal American firms interested in the development of the
Canadian chromite deposits during the past few years have been the
Mutual Chemical Co., the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., the
Electrometallurgical Co., and the Quebec Asbestos & Chrome Co. The
last-named company purchased one of the concentrators built by the
Mutual Chemical Co., and has furnished a considerable output both
of crude ore and concentrates. Canadian firms have also produced
considerable ore.
With the close of the war and the drop in the price of chromite, the
Canadian mines have been largely abandoned. It is possible, however,
that some American firms that mine ore for use in their own plants may
continue work on a small scale.
When the _United States_ was the world’s principal chromite-producing
country, the output came from the eastern United States and principally
from Maryland. The Wood chrome mine and neighboring deposits in
Baltimore and Harford counties furnished most of the production.
Smaller amounts were mined in North Carolina and Pennsylvania.
The principal chromite deposits of the United States, and those that
have furnished nearly all the ore produced in recent years, are in
California and Oregon. Recently deposits of some extent have been
found in Montana, but these have not reached the producing stage. The
chromite deposits of California are for the most part grouped into
four principal districts, the Klamath Mountains region of northwestern
California and southwestern Oregon; the Coast Range of west central
California; the Sierra Nevada range throughout a considerable part of
its length; and the San Luis Obispo district of southwestern California.
The chrome ores of California and Oregon form lenses or irregular
bodies in serpentine and related rocks. Many of the ore bodies are
found in comparatively fresh peridotite and dunite, and the intimate
relation between the chromite and the associated pyroxene or olivine is
well shown. In places, also, chromite masses are found in the mantle of
residual material derived from the alteration of serpentine and other
rocks. Most of the chrome ores of the Pacific Coast are of low-grade,
few running more than 45 per cent. chromic oxide. Concentrating plants
have been built to beneficiate the ore from bodies large enough to
warrant such expenditure. At some plants the grade of ore was thus
raised to more than 52 per cent. Locally small bodies of high-grade ore
have been found.
The chromite mines of the eastern United States were first worked about
1827 and continued to be operated for about forty years. The California
deposits began to be developed about 1870, but never furnished a large
output until the war raised the price of chromite to unprecedented
figures and ore could be produced at a profit in spite of high costs
and high freight rates to consuming centers. The chromite mines of
the United States have always been worked and controlled by American
capital. In California the ore has been mined mainly by private
individuals working small scattered deposits. A few large firms, such
as the California Chrome Co., the Adams & Maltby Co., L. H. Butcher
Co., and the Union Chrome Co., worked on a larger scale during the war
period.
Deposits of chromite have been known in Alaska for a number of years,
but not until the war brought high prices was it possible to mine
them at a profit. The deposits of present importance are near the
southwestern end of the Kenai Peninsula. About 1,000 tons of ore
containing 46 to 49 per cent. chromic oxide was mined in 1917.
=South America, Central America and Cuba.=--As far as is known, only
one chromite-bearing district of importance occurs in South America,
this being in the State of Bahia, in _Brazil_. One deposit has been
worked at this locality by E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia, and
the discovery of several neighboring deposits is reported. The first
shipments of ore were made in February, 1918, and by July 1, 1918,
12,620 tons had been sent to the United States. The deposits are said
to be owned by Newman & Co., a firm of American exporters in Bahia.
They are leased to E. J. Lavino & Co., of Philadelphia.
South America, outside of Brazil, has no known chromite deposits
of importance. In _Colombia_, chrome ore is reported to exist near
Antioquia and chromiferous pig iron is said to have been produced by
the blast furnace near Medellin. In _Venezuela_, chrome ore is said to
occur on Coro Peninsula.
Important chromite deposits lie along the north coast of _Cuba_ in
the provinces of Camaguey and Oriente. A small deposit is found in
the northwestern part of the Province of Matanzas. The most important
deposits in Cuba are those at the Caledonia mine, south of the Bay of
Nipe and northeast of the Bethlehem Steel Co.’s Mayari iron mines.
These deposits are estimated to contain about 40,000 tons of ore in
sight. They are owned and worked by the Bethlehem Steel Co., which
began exploitation in the spring of 1918. Shipments during 1918
amounted to 8,820 tons. Next in importance to the deposits at the
Caledonia mine are those along the coast, northeast of Baracoa, known
as the Cayoguan and Potosi deposits, where about 35,000 tons of ore
is estimated to be in sight. The deposits are on the north edge of a
rugged mountain range forming the eastern end of Cuba. The Cayoguan
claims are owned by Brady interests, American, and the Potosi claims by
the Harbison-Walker Refractories Co., of Philadelphia.
In the Province of Camaguey the deposits are found northeast of the
town of Camaguey. They consist chiefly of masses of ore in residual
clay and float on the surface. The underlying rock is serpentine. The
Camaguey deposits are owned in part by Lehigh University and in part by
Cubans. The estimated reserves are 20,000 tons.
Exploitation of the chromite deposits of Cuba began in the fall of 1917
and continued during the spring and summer of 1918. Only the Caledonia
mine has produced ore. The chromite deposits are all associated with
areas of serpentine.
Chromiferous iron ores that are destined to play an important part in
the American iron and steel industry are found at Mayari, Camaguey, and
Moa, along the northeastern coast of Cuba. The reserves are measured
in hundreds of millions of tons. Only the Mayari deposits are mined at
present.
Chromite deposits were developed in the interior of _Guatemala_ in
1917 and shipments started in the autumn. The deposits were owned and
operated by the International Railways of Central America, an American
company, and are situated in the hills 100 miles inland from Puerto
Barrios. The ore is in serpentine. It is very pure and is especially
desirable for chemical purposes. The average chromic oxide content
of the shipments during 1918 was 58 per cent., thus making this the
highest grade ore that came to the American market. The ore was used by
the Grasselli Chemical Co. Because of the distance from the railroad,
these ores are very expensive to mine, and it was only on account
of the high prices paid for chromite during the war that they were
developed.
POSITION OF LEADING COMMERCIAL NATIONS
The country that leads in the manufacture of chromium products, such
as ferrochrome and chrome chemicals, is the United States. In normal
times the United States consumes more than one-third of the annual
consumption of chromite by the world. In 1913 the chromite used by
manufacturers of ferrochrome and chrome chemicals in the United States
amounted to 65,000 tons. Owing to the war, the consumption increased
markedly until 1917, when it was nearly 130,000 tons. The normal
consumption of chromite in England is about 25,000 tons and in France
approximately 35,000 tons. These amounts have not greatly increased in
recent years. Germany is an important producer of chromium products,
normally consuming 30,000 tons of chromite annually. Russia and the
former Austrian Empire used perhaps 5,000 tons each annually. Norway
and Sweden use small amounts. Russia’s consumption has been mainly in
the manufacture of chromium chemicals, and that of the former Austrian
Empire was principally for refractory purposes. In Norway and Sweden
small amounts of ferrochrome are produced.
=United States.=--The United States, although the world’s largest
consumer of chromite, is not an important producer of this mineral
in normal times. During the 30 years preceding the war, the annual
production never exceeded 4,000 long tons of crude ore, and during the
last 15 years preceding the war the largest annual production was 598
long tons, in 1909. The production in 1913 was less than 1 per cent. of
the domestic requirements.
The chromite supply of the United States has, therefore, come largely
from foreign sources, and these sources have been mainly Asia Minor,
Rhodesia, and New Caledonia. Before 1905 Turkey in Asia was the
principal source of supply. Since then, however, Rhodesia and New
Caledonia have largely replaced Turkey in the American chrome market.
Although numerous deposits of chromite occur in the western United
States and locally in the eastern states, these deposits are usually
small and scattered or of low grade. On account of their physical
character, small size, scattered occurrence, or distance from consuming
centers, domestic chromite could not be furnished to consumers in
the required grade or for the price that chromite from rich foreign
deposits could be furnished. For this reason the American chromite
deposits remained undeveloped and no ore was mined except small
quantities which were consumed for refractory purposes in neighboring
metallurgical works.
When in 1914, at the beginning of the war, the price of chromite
increased, production was immediately stimulated, this being shown by
the rapid increase in output from 591 long tons of crude ore in 1914 to
about 82,350 long tons of crude ore in 1918, equivalent to about 66,554
tons of ore on the basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide. Even this
largely increased domestic output, however, filled only little more
than one-half of the American requirements, the total amount of chrome
ore consumed in 1918 being about 104,000 long tons on the basis of 50
per cent. chromic oxide. Had the market for chromite kept up, however,
the domestic mines would have supplied a much larger proportion of
the requirements in 1919. The consumption of chromite in the United
States in 1913 amounted to 65,000 tons of ore containing 50 per cent.
chromic oxide. From this it rose to about 127,000 tons in 1917, which
represents the maximum annual consumption thus far.
The following table shows the production and imports of chromite on the
basis of 50 per cent. chromic oxide, from 1913 to 1918, as well as the
total quantity available for consumption for these years. No chromite
is exported from the United States.
TABLE 26.--PRODUCTION AND IMPORTS OF CHROMITE, UNITED STATES, 1913-1918
----+-----------+-----------+---------------
| | |Total available
|Production | Imports |for consumption
|(long tons)|(long tons)| (long tons)
----+-----------+-----------+---------------
1913| 230 | 65,180 | 65,410
1914| 530 | 74,578 | 75,108
1915| 2,756 | 73,762 | 76,318
1916| 39,509 | 110,849 | 150,358
1917| 36,729 | 64,978 | 101,707
1918| 66,554 | 92,678 | 159,232
----+-----------+-----------+---------------
The prices paid for domestic chromite in the United States in recent
years ranged from an average of $11.19 per ton in 1913 to an average of
about $24.00 per ton in 1917.
When the need of increased shipping was felt in the latter part of
1917, steps were taken to reduce the imports of chromite from distant
countries, such as Turkey, New Caledonia, and Rhodesia, to increase
the imports from nearby sources such as Brazil, Cuba, and Canada, and
to urge the maximum production from domestic mines. As a result, the
imports of chromite from Brazil were 17,854 long tons of crude ore
and from Cuba 8,821 long tons of crude ore in 1918. The only previous
production in Cuba was 34 long tons in 1916 and 17 long tons in 1917.
Brazil had no production before 1918. The imports from Canada amounted
to 20,949 long tons of crude ore in 1918, as compared to 19,021 long
tons of crude ore in 1917, and 12,220 long tons of crude ore in 1916.
In order to reduce the importation of chromite from countries far
overseas, various restrictions were put into effect by the War Trade
Board in the early part of 1918.
The development of domestic chromite supplies means the depletion
of limited resources, high cost of production, use of lower-grade
ores, and lowered efficiency in consumption. With the free access of
high-grade foreign ores, the market for domestic ores, therefore,
disappears; and the domestic chromite-mining industry can not survive
to any large extent. If world conservation of raw materials or the
best use of the world’s resources is of chief importance, the domestic
chromite-mining industry should be allowed to decline, and cheaper
and higher-grade foreign ores should be allowed to replace domestic
chromite. Experience during the past few years has shown that the
chromite deposits of the United States, supplemented by imports from
Canada, Brazil, and Cuba, can largely supply the domestic requirements
for a limited period.
The United States controls only a small part of the chromite reserves
of the world. American firms own the principal Cuban deposits and
control the Brazilian deposits through leases. The United States is,
therefore, dependent to a large extent upon the good will of France
and England for a continuous supply of chrome ore, these two countries
jointly being largely in control of the chromite reserves of Rhodesia
and New Caledonia. Turkey controls most, if not all, of the chromite
deposits of Asia Minor, but because of their enclosed situation on the
Mediterranean, these deposits could not be relied upon as a source of
supply in time of need. The same is true of the deposits of the Ural
region in Russia.
The chief chromite-consuming firms in the United States are the
Electrometallurgical Co., probably the largest producer of ferrochrome
in the world; the Mutual Chemical Co., and the National Electrolytic
Co., large producers of chromium chemicals, and the Harbison-Walker
Refractories Co., American Refractories Co., and various steel-making
plants, users of chromite for refractory purposes.
=Great Britain.=--Before the war Great Britain consumed annually about
25,000 tons of chromite, most of it being used by Blackwell & Sons,
Ltd., for the manufacture of ferrochrome. The ferrochrome made in
England, however, is not sufficient to supply the needs of the British
steel industry, and much is imported from France.
Except for unimportant occurrences in the Shetland Islands there are no
chromite deposits in the British Isles, and Great Britain is therefore
dependent entirely upon overseas sources of supply. British colonies,
on the other hand, are rich in chromite deposits, and as long as
British ships have freedom of movement on the ocean, they will have
access to the more important chromite deposits of the world.
Owing to their richness and large size, the most important of all the
British-controlled deposits are those of Rhodesia. Only one of many
deposits in this area is being operated, and the reserves in untouched
ore bodies are undoubtedly large, comparable perhaps with those of New
Caledonia.
The production of the Rhodesian chrome mines has in recent years
averaged in the neighborhood of 60,000 tons annually or about 35 per
cent. of the world’s production, and doubtless the output could be very
greatly increased if other known deposits were developed. However,
even the present production is more than twice the actual chromite
requirements of Great Britain. These requirements, however, do not
represent the needs for metallic chromium or chromium compounds, and if
France should cease to supply Great Britain with ferrochrome, a much
larger amount of the raw material, chromite, would be necessary for the
English steel industry.
Besides the chromite deposits of South Africa, chromite deposits of
importance are found in other British colonies, notably in British
India and Canada. Amounts of chromite varying from 2,000 tons to 10,000
tons have been produced annually in British India for many years,
coming mainly from Baluchistan, in the northwestern part, but a small
production has come also from Mysore, in the southern part. In early
years, India furnished a more important part of the world’s supply of
chromite than at present. Transportation is a serious difficulty in the
mining of these deposits and when New Caledonian and Rhodesian ores
became developed, the Indian ores dropped in importance.
The Canadian deposits, while of considerable extent, and having ready
accessibility to eastern American markets, have not been extensively
or continuously mined, on account of their low-grade character. By
concentration, a medium high-grade product can be obtained, but
concentration methods are expensive and bring the cost of the material
up to such an extent that it can not compete with other ores now on the
market. Thus, the cost of producing both Indian and Canadian ores is
such that under normal conditions it is difficult to find a market for
them, but in case of necessity, a considerable tonnage can be supplied
from these sources.
Other British colonies in which deposits of chromite exist are New
South Wales, Tasmania, and New Zealand. As far as known, the deposits
in these countries are small and only those of the first have furnished
a small production.
Besides controlling chromite deposits in many parts of the world
through her colonial possessions, Great Britain controls deposits
through British firms with foreign possessions. Thus, the Chrome
Co., Ltd., of mixed British and French interests, controls not only
the Rhodesian chromite output but also owns and controls most of the
important New Caledonian mines.
Great Britain has in the past received most of her supplies of chromite
from Rhodesia, New Caledonia, and Turkey. Although more than enough
chromite is produced in Rhodesia to supply the British needs, England
has allowed most of the Rhodesian ore to be exported to other countries
and has imported foreign ore for part of her own needs. Probably the
largest part of the Rhodesian output before the war went to the United
States. Much of the ore consumed in England has come from Turkey, where
English firms have been interested in chromite mining for many years.
Most of the Indian output probably has been used in Great Britain, but
a part has gone to France.
=France.=--A few deposits of chromite are known in France, but they
are of no importance commercially. France, therefore, like England,
is entirely dependent upon overseas sources for her chromite supply.
Unlike England, however, France has only one colony, New Caledonia,
containing important chromite deposits; but luckily this colony
contains enough to make it one of the world’s principal sources of
chromite.
Although the Chrome Co., Ltd., which controls the principal New
Caledonian chromite deposits and is the largest shipper, represents
both English and French capital, France through political means can
control the output of chromite from the island. While in the past
probably the major part of the chromite used in France has come from
this source, France has also used Rhodesian and Turkish ores and
probably Russian ores to a considerable extent, and much New Caledonian
ore has gone to Germany, the United States and Great Britain.
The principal French firms manufacturing ferrochrome are the Société
Electrometallurgique Française, at La Praz; Société La New Metallurgie,
at Giffre; Société Anonyme Electrometallurgique, at Albertville;
Keller, Leleux et Cie, at Livet; Société Electrometallurgique de Saint
Beron, at Saint Beron; Ch. Betrolus, at Bellegarde; and Rochette
Frères, at Epierre.
=Germany.=--Except for unimportant low-grade deposits in Silesia,
Germany has no chromite supplies within her borders. As a user of
chromite Germany ranks in importance with France, most of the ore
consumed being used in the manufacture of ferrochrome, the principal
manufacturers of which have been the Krupp works. Chrome chemicals are
also made in abundance, however. None of Germany’s former colonies
is known to have chromite deposits except Togoland, and the Togoland
deposits are undeveloped and are believed to be unimportant.
In the past, Germany has received chromite from New Caledonia,
Rhodesia, Turkey, Greece, and probably Russia. Because of the long rail
haul from Russia and the poor state of development of the industry
in Turkey, the ores from these two countries were, in the years
immediately preceding the war, being largely replaced by ores from
overseas. The four large chromite-consuming countries have, therefore,
all been looking mainly to New Caledonia and Rhodesia for their sources
of supply.
During the war, when overseas chromite was not available, Germany was
enabled by her relations with Turkey to obtain chromite from Asia
Minor, and probably from chromite mines in Serbia, Hungary, Bosnia, and
Herzegovina. Thus in time of need, when the usual overseas sources of
supply were cut off, Germany, through her relations with neighboring
countries, was able to obtain by land sufficient chromite to supply her
ordnance requirements. Had the war continued Germany would doubtless
have developed the chromite resources of the Urals, and those, together
with the deposits of Asia Minor, even in their present state of
development, could have kept Germany supplied indefinitely.
It is probable that German control became important in the mines
of Asia Minor during the war. By relatively small improvements in
transportation facilities, such as building branch railroad lines
to the principal deposits, the chromite mines of Asia Minor might be
rejuvenated to such an extent as to enable the ores to compete with
Rhodesian and New Caledonian ore and to place them again among the
world’s large producers. The deposits are large and the reserves rank
in importance with those of Rhodesia and New Caledonia.
=Russia.=--Russia is independent as far as her requirements of chromite
are concerned. Out of her production of about 20,000 tons annually,
the domestic industry consumes less than one-fourth and the rest is
available for export to nations less favored with chromite resources.
Most of the chromite used in Russia goes into the manufacture of chrome
chemicals. The Russian bichromate works at Elabouga, east of Kazan,
established in 1892, have consumed about 2,000 tons of ore annually.
SUMMARY
The political and commercial control of the principal chromite deposits
of the world is summarized in the following table:
TABLE 27.--POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL OF CHROMITE DEPOSITS
Political Predominant
Country control commercial control
New Caledonia French French-British
Rhodesia British British
Asia Minor Turkish Turkish
Ural Mountains, Russia Russian Russian-British
Greece Grecian Uncertain
Serbia Serbian Uncertain
India British Probably British
Canada British United States-Canadian
United States United States United States
Brazil Brazilian United States
Cuba Cuban United States
Japan Japanese Japanese
Austria-Hungary Austrian Uncertain
Guatemala Guatemalan United States
Great Britain and France produce in their colonial possessions chromite
enough for their own needs and for export, but the United States,
the world’s largest consumer, must depend, except in time of extreme
emergency, upon imports, mainly from New Caledonia and Rhodesia.
Various countries have from time to time played important rôles in
supplying the world’s demand for chromite. One country after another
has been displaced, as cheaper or better grades of chromite came into
the market. At times these changes were caused by the finding of larger
bodies of higher-grade ores than had previously been mined, and at
other times they were caused by cheaply transported ores replacing ores
inconveniently situated with reference to centers of consumption.
Thus, at the beginning of the nineteenth century and up to about
1830, the Ural Mountain region of Russia supplied the major part of
the world’s requirements for chromite, which were small. About 1830,
important discoveries of chromite were made in the eastern United
States, particularly in Maryland, and the United States soon displaced
Russia as the leading producer of chromite. After this, for many years,
the United States continued to lead in chromite production until about
1870, when the domestic deposits gradually approached exhaustion and
important deposits discovered in European Turkey and Asia Minor began
to be extensively developed.
Asia Minor was the principal chromite-producing country from about
1870 until about the beginning of the twentieth century. The deposits
continued to be worked fairly steadily on account of their richness and
large size, although they were inconveniently situated with reference
to transportation. Only certain deposits, such as those in the Macri
and Alexandretta regions, were so near to the coast that the ore could
be carried on muleback or by camel to the shipping ports. From the
larger deposits, such as Daghardi, the ore had to be transported by
animals to railroad stations, often a distance of many miles, and then
by rail to the coast. Because of these difficulties, Turkish ore was
largely replaced by ore from the important New Caledonian and Rhodesian
deposits as soon as those were developed.
In New Caledonia labor is cheap and the deposits are all near the
coast. By means of sailing vessels and tramp steamers which charge low
rates and often require such heavy materials as chromite for ballast,
this ore can be delivered to points of consumption at a relatively
small cost. The Rhodesian chromite deposits are not as accessible from
the coast, but they are large and rich and the rail freight rates to
the shipping port are exceptionally low. For this reason, Rhodesian ore
has been able to successfully compete in the market with New Caledonian
ore, and these two sources have, therefore, in recent years, jointly
supplied most of the requirements of the principal nations for chromite.
During the war, because of abnormal conditions arising from the
shortage of shipping facilities, there was considerable uncertainty
as to whether it would be possible to supply American consumers of
chromite with imported ores. Under the stimulus of much higher prices,
the production of chromite in the United States increased from 255 long
tons of crude chromite in 1913, to about 82,350 tons in 1918, mainly
from California, Washington and Oregon. This production was larger
than the annual production of crude ore from any single source (except
82,910 tons from New Caledonia in 1906) since the chromite-mining
industry began. This production, of course, could not be continued
without a rapid depletion of American chromite reserves, and does not
represent a normal development.