CHAPTER XV.

HOMEWARD BOUND.

Departure from Buenos Ayres.—Arrival at Monte Video.—Guano

deposits of Patagonia.—Bahia Blanca.—Eligibility of the

district for an overland route to Chili.—Chilian grant for

direct steam communication with England.—Accessions to

steam navigation on the Brazilian coast.—Opening of the

Amazon.—Departure from Monte Video.—Rough wind and heavy

sea.—Aspect of Raza under various lights and shades.—Hotel

accommodation of Rio Janeiro.—A wet day at Bahia.—Consular

memoranda on Venezuela, Bolivia, and Equador.—Arrival at

Pernambuco, and meeting with the Olinda.—Arrival at Porto

Grande.—Seven days’ steaming against the wind.—Madeira in the

distance.—Arrival at Belem.—Miseries and absurdities of the

quarantine system.—Towing the Pilot astern.—Passage up St.

George’s Channel.—Arrival in the Mersey.—Loss of the Olinda and

the Argentina.—New ocean and river steamers.

[Illustration: THE BRAZILEIRA ON HER RETURN VOYAGE.]

Buenos Ayres being the extent of my mission, and expecting the Brazileira

so soon at Monte Video, I hastened my departure for Monday, the 27th

September, when we embarked early, with a very heavy surf, caused by the

northerly wind blowing right on shore. Few passengers would venture off,

and it took me nearly an hour to reach the Argentina, in a good boat,

pulled by stalwart rowers, than whom there are few better than the Buenos

Ayreans, thanks to the perpetual practice required in their perilous

roadstead of a harbour. For a place with shallow water, I never saw so

heavy a surf, which renders it most uncomfortable to those who may be

compelled to embark under such circumstances. We had a fresh breeze the

greater part of the way, increasing to a strong one as we approached

the mount of Monte Video, reaching it at dark, so as to get into that

excellent haven. This, however, we did quite safely, and landed our

passengers in buoyant spirits, and full of admiration of our craft’s

performance, in the face of such difficulties. Next morning was wet and

hazy, but on its clearing off at about eleven o’clock we were agreeably

surprised to see our ocean steamer, Brazileira, close to the harbour. She

soon came to an anchor, two days before her time, to the inexpressible

confusion of many unbelieving individuals, who had been very prolific

in their forebodings that she would be considerably in arrear of her

promised undertaking. She was the first steamer that ever came direct to

the River Plate with cargo and passengers, both which were landed, at

Monte Video in thirty-five days, and Buenos Ayres in thirty-six days,

thus completely establishing the practicability of such a communication,

and adding another triumph to the wonders of steam. In such a country it

is a boon that can only be understood and appreciated by degrees, but

every practical writer on the affairs of the River Plate has pointed to

steam as the alpha and omega—the one thing needful towards a successful

development of its resources, and the only element by which these vast

countries can be rendered available to mankind, or perform their part

in the great work of their Creator. With steam and railways would come

hands and emigration, so much required, and where there is a vast

and lucrative field, perhaps the most lucrative in the world, for its

operation.

Before quitting the La Plata, and its future destinies, I would say a

few words on subjects connected therewith, although they may have no

immediate bearing on the present narrative. I have before remarked how

comparatively little is known in Europe of the past history of this part

of South America, and of its internal resources. South of Buenos Ayres

the curtain has been somewhat raised by guano researches on the coast of

Patagonia, which have not resulted in any great gain to the adventurers.

The climate is too humid, and the expense of drying the guano too great,

to admit of much extension in that trade, which would scarcely have been

opened but for the enterprize arising out of Ichaboe. Buenos Ayres has,

therefore, lost nothing by this supposed encroachment on her territory,

if it be rightfully hers—a point not altogether undisputed—which is, in

other respects, wide enough, in all conscience, to admit of any multitude

of industrious settlers, if they were disposed to come. Had similar

deposits of guano to those on the coasts of Chili and Peru existed at

Patagonia, then, indeed, there might have been a reasonable chance for

the interest on Buenos Ayres Bonds being paid, considerably sooner than

now seems likely. There is a spot to the southward, called Bahia Blanca,

with a good bay, and a river running from a long distance westward, that

promises well to become of much future importance. Parish makes allusion

to military operations in that locality, and I found that at Buenos Ayres

several parties had their attention directed there, as a place offering

considerable advantages, in the centre of large cattle districts, and

through which the shortest cut could be made to the south-west coast

of this continent. There is little doubt that if a safe and easy route

could be established across the country, it would be much frequented,

and by many be preferred to Panama, with its sickly tendencies; a voyage

of thirty or thirty-five days from England, and then a journey of ten or

twelve days’ might enable the traveller to reach the territory of Chili

through a fine country and healthy climate.

And speaking of Chili and Peru, the present may not be an inopportune

place—at least I can now avail of no other—to state that a further link

in the steam chain, wherein Brazil may be expected to play a prominent

part, is that to the west coast of South America, through the Straits of

Magellan, as already indicated in the introductory chapter in reference

to Chili, whose government have granted a subsidy of £12,000 a year for a

direct steam communication with England; and it is believed this can be

best effected by having branch steamers from Rio to Valparaiso, making

Rio, what it really ought to be, the port of transit for the southern

ocean.[119] The mineral wealth of Chili and Peru is still, as all know,

something almost fabulous, and the consumption of British manufactures in

those countries very considerable; so that steamers would be sure of a

paying freight both ways, with abundance of passengers, who would prefer

such a route to the inconvenience and expense of crossing the isthmus.

All that is required to secure to Brazil these important advantages, is

a relaxation in its fiscal system, by which steamers can discharge and

load in transit, without being subjected to local dues and restrictions,

which are an extinguisher to progress in any country. If they decline to

give these facilities, Monte Video and the Falkland Islands[120] will

be only too glad of the opportunity, and wherever it takes root there

it will remain. The question is important for Brazil, as a large number

of vessels now put into Rio in transitu that would follow in the wake

of steamers. Unfortunately, the facilities for dealing with cases of

distressed vessels are no further advanced than they were fifty years

back: not a graving dock, patent slip, or other convenient apparatus

yet existing in the otherwise noble harbour of Rio Janeiro, although a

floating sectional dock was in course of construction at Ponta d’Area.

It would appear that the formidable difficulties in navigating the

Straits of Magellan exist only in name. Winter and summer the passage

is quite easy and practicable, and settlements are taking place by

which both sailing ships and steamers can be furnished with stores and

provisions, whilst there is coal of the country ready to assist the

movements of steam. But in reality, the dreaded peril of Cape Horn

itself will soon be quite a matter of history,[121] if a halfway house

hereabouts be established, as the proofs already adduced, and now

quoted in a note, render a certainty. The coal is said to be a kind

of bituminous anthracite, which gets up steam very well when mixed

with English coal. Coal has been found on the coast of Chili of this

description, and in places readily accessible for steam purposes. With

the present high freights for coal shipped hence, the certainty of a

supply of even inferior fuel of the kind is most important.

Other lines of steam communication are in process of formation along

the South American, especially the Brazilian, coast, to connect the bye

ports and rivers with the principal cities and towns; and two steamers,

called the ‘Santa Cruz’ and ‘Continguiba,’ are shortly to leave for Bahia

on this most useful errand; so that, in a few years, we may expect to

find coasting steamers in Brazil as numerous almost as on our own coast,

conveying to and fro passengers and produce, to the great advantage of

the country and of our mercantile relations with it.

The Rio Company which has undertaken the contract with the Brazilian

government for opening up the navigation of the Amazon has hardly yet

been long enough in operation to show what can be accomplished. There

are immense difficulties to overcome in pioneering a navigation of this

kind through such wild, uncultivated, and almost unknown districts;

and without a considerable subsidy, no association would undertake the

task. Great credit is due to the Brazilian government for making a heavy

sacrifice in order to insure so desirable an object. They are moreover

negotiating with the Company with the view of correcting the clause of

the contract which insures to the Company the exclusive privilege of

navigating the river with steamers. These arrangements will doubtless

be brought to a successful issue, for a more enlightened and patriotic

citizen than Senhor Irenêo Evangelista de Souza, with whom the government

contract was made, does not exist in any country. He has done more

for the internal advancement of Brazil than any other man; witness the

splendid establishment at Ponta d’Area, for foundry work, engineering,

and ship building; the short railway to the foot of the Organ Mountains;

lighting the city of Rio with gas, the establishment of a new bank which

has lately merged into a national one; and, latterly, opening up the

navigation of the Amazon; besides many other improvements that little is

heard of. Only those personally acquainted with the indefatigable labours

of Senhor Irenêo in such a country can judge of their real beneficial

tendency, or of the gigantic mind required to cope with the difficulties

entailed. Great stir is making by our Yankee friends in this part of

the world; they have contracted with the Peruvian government for two

small wooden steamers, which were sent out piecemeal, and put together

at Pará. Report says very little in favour of the strength or speed of

these steamers, qualities very essential to such a navigation, exposed to

strong currents, and impediments from want of a proper knowledge of the

channel of the river. I believe the Rio Company are building some fine

powerful boats in this country, that will shortly be brought to bear on

this increasing and, I venture to predict, wonderful traffic.

My mission being for the promotion of steam in South America, and

the main aim and object of this volume being to make known here the

desirability of, and the field for, such enterprise in that country, I

trust the foregoing apparent digression in the midst of the return voyage

will not appear irrelevant.

Leaving Monte Video on the morning of the 1st October, we steamed down

the river, with a light breeze and sunny weather; soon passed Flores,

which very much resembles some of our channel lighthouses, on a low

island, a short distance from the land. Before sunset we had left the

island of Lobos behind, and soon came into a nasty head wind and sea,

which lasted for two or three days, causing the vessel to pitch a good

deal, and making every one uncomfortable. At daylight on the fifth

morning the mountains of Rio were in sight, the Corcovado towering over

them. Passing Raza, the scenery is very fine, and will bear oft-repeated

inspection with largely increased advantage, as it varies much with the

particular period of the day when seen, the lights and shadows being so

different, and changing with each succeeding hour. Early morning throws

its sharp silvery touch over everything, tinting the sides and peaks

of the mountains, which seem floating in mist, whilst the forts and

buildings of the city have a sombre hue. At mid-day all this effect has

cleared away; the hills stand out in bold relief—bright green is the

distinguishing character of the landscape—and the glare of white houses

and red tiles meets your eye in every direction. Towards evening the

aspect again changes to a deep brown or purple, steeping all things in

more glowing richness; and presently there is thrown over the whole that

peculiar olive which is quite a reality in the tropics, but the painting

of which looks more or less ideal to the vision accustomed only to the

comparatively frigid atmosphere of our temperate zone. I merely allude to

the general character of the scenery, which, of course, varies materially

with the changes of weather, and needless is it to add that there are

occasional sunsets which no description of language could adequately

pourtray.

We regret to say that the hotel accommodation of Rio Janeiro is very

deficient for the size of the place and the extent of traffic passing

through it. The best hotels are those of Pharoux and De l’Europe, in

the city, and the Hotel des Etrangers and Johnson’s Hotel, on the road

to Botafogo, the latter being peculiarly adapted for English ideas of

comfort, and also long known to English travellers passing through,

as well as a comfortable home to many residents there. The Hotel des

Etrangers is a large, spacious building, now kept by a Frenchman, and is

quite a fashionable resort for deputies visiting Rio for the session, as

also for foreign diplomatists. The accommodation at Johnson’s Hotel is

limited, and quite of a select nature. Comfortable boarding-houses, in

our meaning of the term, are very few and far between. The majority of

new-comers to, or passers-through, Rio, have private friends, to whose

houses they resort during their brief sojourn; but, undoubtedly, there

is ample scope for much greater accommodation being afforded to ‘man and

beast’ in this large city. The Emperor of Brazil is said to be coming to

Europe on a tour of some duration. It is to be hoped that not only will

he be accompanied by a large retinue, but that numbers of the affluent

inhabitants of this capital will also visit the old world at the same

time; for if so, they can carry back with them no experience that may be

turned to more desirable account in Rio than that which they will derive

from an acquaintance with first class British, French, or German hotels.

After four days’ detention at Rio, coaling, taking in cargo, &c., we

left, on the morning of the 20th October, with some eighty passengers on

board, for the northern ports of Brazil, Lisbon, and England. Again we

encountered the head wind and sea which had so perplexed us previously,

between Monte Video and Rio; but arriving, nevertheless, in three and

a half days at Bahia, where we spent a miserably wet day coaling. In

spite of the weather we got away in the afternoon, under a salute from

the forts in honour of the President[122] of Pará, who was a passenger

on board. Forty hours took us to Pernambuco Roads, which we left again

on Sunday afternoon, the 16th, once more in direct route for home. The

Olinda was due at Pernambuco, and strange enough, the next morning

we met her as if a line had been drawn for us to do so. Saluting each

other with two guns, and a reciprocal round of three hearty cheers, time

being too valuable for either to stop to satisfy curiosity, we pursued

our respective routes, not a little elated by reciprocal punctuality

and success thus far in our mutual maiden voyage. She looked remarkably

well, appeared to be steaming fast, and would be in Pernambuco early next

day. Our passenger list comprised fifty, of all denominations, English,

French, Brazilians, Portuguese, Argentine, &c.; but it is surprising

how everything gets into shape and order under such circumstances. We

sighted the Island of St. Paul’s, looking like the white sails of a

vessel, and on Sunday afternoon, the 22nd of October, came to anchor in

Porto Grande, St. Vincent, under seven days from Pernambuco, a distance

of 2,000 miles, very good work it must be confessed, though, perhaps,

nothing to boast of, considering what we had already achieved. Leaving

St. Vincent the same night, we had to steam against the north-east wind

and waves for seven consecutive days, with no aid from our canvass.

Then we passed Porto Santo, and saw both the Desertas and Madeira at a

good distance, basking in fine clear weather. The morning of the 3rd

October broke splendidly on the coast of Portugal, Cape Espectrial and

the distant hills in sight, the lower land being shrouded in mist; we

stood towards Cascaes Bay, got a pilot on board, and once more entered

the Tagus, in the short space of fifteen days from Pernambuco, and

twenty-one from Rio. We were obliged to bring up at Belem, and undergo

quarantine, although we brought clean bills of health, there being no

cases of fever reported at any of the Brazilian ports. A certificate

from four medical men on board attested this fact; as well as our

having no invalids on board of any kind. Between twenty and thirty of

our passengers left us here, having to endure the misery of eight days

in the Lazaretto—a castellated looking building, situated on the south

side of the Tagus—they were all transferred, with their luggage, to a

large lighter. A more lovely day could scarcely be conceived than the

one when we were at anchor at the quarantine station, coaling; most

tantalising to be debarred from availing ourselves of the opportunity

to land and have a run over the city, which many of our passengers had

seen for the first time. As to preventing an importation of yellow fever

by their quarantine regulations, it is a complete farce, as all kind of

communication are kept up with the shore; the officers of the ship are

allowed to go on shore to the health office, which is right on the main

road passing Belem, and the shore is a common thoroughfare; caravans

and people bathing where the boats land. It is difficult to conceive on

what grounds these absurd regulations are introduced, unless it be to

annoy and drive away people wishing to visit the place, and as part and

parcel of a system of intolerant restrictions that are enough to paralyse

the energies of any country. The inconvenience which such restrictions

cause is indescribable, nor can anything justify the infliction in such

cases as ours. If at any time there is really sufficient grounds for

adopting quarantine regulations, they ought to be delighted to remove

them so soon as the grounds were removed. In the present advanced

state of civilization, and with the rapid intercourse between nations,

quarantine is almost a barbarity, calculated to shut out the country

that exercises it from the rest of the world, whilst it is impossible it

can be efficacious in the manner it is carried on at Lisbon; besides,

the yellow fever has never been known to travel out of the tropics,

and surely a voyage of twenty or thirty days across the ocean, without

a case on board, is sufficient security, even supposing the fever to

exist in the country the vessel comes from. On the other hand, reports

of cholera in England cause an enforcement of quarantine outwards, thus

putting the crowning piece to this mass of absurdity and annoyance. The

subject cannot be alluded to with common patience, especially when it is

publicly stated that the medical men who have to determine these sanitary

points have a strong pecuniary interest in the lazarettos, and numbers of

people prey upon the unfortunate vessel and passengers subjected to these

terrible inflictions. Since my return, however, the Lisbon officials

seem to have become a little amenable to reason and decency, and their

preposterous regulations are in a trifling degree relaxed.

At 10 A.M. on the morning of the 1st November we weighed anchor, and

steamed past Belem, towing a pilot in his boat astern. Our late fellow

passengers in the Lazaretto were assembled at the top of the building,

waving flags and handkerchiefs, to bid us farewell, and one could

scarcely help feeling melancholy to see so many worthy people stuck up in

a kind of cage, for no earthly object but to gratify a morbid sensibility

on points sanitary. The pilot would not come on board, as it would

subject him to perform a given number of days’ quarantine afterwards.

There was a fresh breeze from the southward, and the rope soon broke,

leaving Mr. Pilot to find his way back to Lisbon, and the steamer to

find her own way out as best she could. A heavy sea was breaking on the

bar, in which the pilot could not possibly have been towed, so we were

well rid of him; but it only shows the operation of things under such

an iniquitous system, where a man is well paid for doing absolutely

worse than nothing—being in the way; for how is it possible for a pilot

to direct a vessel when he is towed astern of her, and any directions

he might give are impossible to be heard? However, we crossed the bar

safely, and soon passed the Rock of Lisbon, after which our fair wind

vanished; came strong ahead, with a good deal of sea, against which we

steamed until next day 2nd Nov., when it became calm, and the wind

gradually veered to south-east. Saw Cape Finisterre, and from thence

to St. Agnes Light (Scilly Islands); we were only thirty-five hours in

doing 450 miles of distance. From Scilly we posted our way up Channel;

went inside the Smalls; passed close to the Island of Grasholm, a very

wild spot; missed Bardsey, but saw Holyhead Light; had a tug round the

Skerries, blowing hard; at daylight got a pilot on board, and at 11 A.M.

entered the Mersey, exactly twenty-six days from Rio Janeiro, including

stoppages. My trip of 15,000 miles (including the run up the Parana)

occupied me very little over three months, during which time I visited

all the important sea ports of Brazil, Monte Video, Buenos Ayres, &c.,

spending a fortnight in Rio, and about the same time in the La Plata.

The ‘Brazileira’s’ entire voyage occupied seventy-three days, including

eighteen days’ stoppages, clearly proving that it is only a question of

time for these valuable countries to be brought within the scope of a

pleasure trip.

The performances of the Brazileira and of her sister ships of our fleet

had, on the whole, been highly satisfactory, and promised to realize to

the utmost every anticipation that had been entertained at the period

of the formation of the company. But, alas, for bright visions! two of

the flotilla unexpectedly, I may say unaccountably, are numbered with

the departed, and under pretty nearly identical circumstances—both from

shaving too close. The Olinda, wrecked hard by Holyhead, but fortunately

without sacrifice of life, in one of those terrible storms that swept

the British coast the beginning of this year, is a loss to the company

as regards her keeping up the main ocean line. The Argentina had, for a

time, been a shining light to the numerous passengers between the two

great cities on the La Plata, and she is, emphatically, a national loss

to them, as well as to the surrounding district, retarding, in fact,

the work of civilization and improvement. On a fine, clear, and almost

breathless evening, still daylight, she carried her temerity so far as to

approach too closely some sunken rocks near the entrance to Monte Video

harbour, going twelve miles an hour at the time, and in a moment her

career of usefulness was ended! There was almost a general mourning over

her, so great a favourite had she become, by the rapid and satisfactory

manner in which she illustrated the blessings of steam navigation in a

region where, of all others, such agency is most to be desired.[123]

In order to repair as speedily as possible the damages caused by the loss

of the Olinda and Argentina, the company have purchased the paddle-wheel

steamer Menai, well known for her quick passages between Liverpool,

Beaumaris, and Bangor, to replace the Argentina on the station between

Monte Video and Buenos Ayres, until such time as a larger and more

efficient vessel, now in course of construction, and that will be in

every way worthy of the passenger traffic between those two great cities,

can be built. They have also sent out the La Plata, a fine new screw,

built by Mr. John Laird, originally intended for the London and Oporto

trade, and to be called the Bacchante; but now destined to run between

Rio Janeiro, Monte Video, and Buenos Ayres, in connection with the ocean

steamers, which will not proceed beyond Rio Janeiro. In conjunction with

the above-mentioned vessels, the company intend placing on the line the

Imperador and Imperatrice, two steamers also in process of construction,

same size and power as the Bahiana. Our fleet will thus consist of the

Imperador, Imperatrice, and Bahiana, all new ships; the Brazileira and

Lusitania, now running; the La Plata, a branch boat; and the two River

Plate passenger-boats. I doubt not the public, as well as the respective

governments embraced in this line of steam communication, will consider

the enterprise as deserving of their especial support.

A page of my allotted space remains to be filled, and I cannot better

occupy it than with a brief summary of the news brought to the latest

moment before going to press, viz., that by the Mail, which arrived on

the 16th of April, with dates from Buenos Ayres, March 4; Monte Video, 6;

Rio Janeiro, 17; Bahia, 22; Pernambuco, 25; St. Vincent’s, Cape Verde,

April 4; Teneriffe, 8; Madeira, 9; and Lisbon, 12, as quoted in the

leading journal of the 17th.

Tranquillity continued undisturbed on the Plate. Business in imported

goods and manufactures was dull, owing to the total absence of dealers

from the interior. Since the blockade of July last upwards of 2,000

houses had been erected in the city of Buenos Ayres, and buildings were

still being raised with the greatest rapidity. Trade was expected to

improve. Articles of consumption were very dear. The supplies of produce

were very stinted, and at advancing prices. A large portion of the last

clip of wool remained on hand. The following extracts from a letter,

dated Buenos Ayres, March 4, give the latest particulars of political

events:—

‘Here everything goes on quite smoothly: at least, there is

nothing within the province to cause any uneasiness. Our

attention at present is wholly directed to Monte Video,

where the Brazilian policy is being carried out with rapid

strides. The only important question for us is how their

proceedings may be viewed by General Urquiza, as President

of the Confederation, whether he may make friends with us to

resist the Imperialists, or join with the Imperialists that he

may attack this province? Mr Buchental, a wealthy Brazilian

capitalist and speculator, has crossed over to Chili to consult

as to the means of forming a railroad from Valparaiso to the

Rosario. The latest news from the west coast represents nearly

all the Republics to the north in a state of excitement, but

we suspect there is a great deal of exaggeration. Mr. Gore,

British Minister at Buenos Ayres, has gone up the Parana for

the purpose, it is supposed, of exchanging the ratifications

of the treaty, and, perhaps, to grace the installation of the

Constitutional Presidency, which is to take place about this

time, some say on this very day. If Urquiza is wise, he will do

the best he can with his own domains, and leave us alone.’

From Rio there is nothing worth noticing, as regards political affairs.

A considerable reaction had taken place in the coffee-market, and prices

were lower. Supplies regular. From Pernambuco we learn that the South

American and General Steam Navigation Company’s steamer Lusitania

reached Pernambuco on the 18th ult. Great tightness exists in the

money-market—more so than had been experienced for a long period.

On the 13th, the South American and General Steam Navigation Company’s

steam vessel for the Plate, Menai, was off Cape Finisterre. Our Lisbon

accounts are to the 12th instant. The passengers by the Mail had been

placed in quarantine for eight days, in consequence of the reported

appearance of yellow fever at Pernambuco. The little rain which had

fallen in Portugal was not sufficient materially to improve the prospects

of the grain harvest, while the cattle in some parts were suffering much

from want of food.

ERRATUM.—In the hurry of passing the foregoing pages through

the press, many errors have occurred, which unavoidable absence

from London, and the nature of my duties in Liverpool, did not

permit of being corrected in time. For these I must crave the

reader’s indulgence, promising that they shall not be repeated,

and that many short comings shall be supplied, in the event of

another edition being called for, which I am in hopes, from

the nature of the subject itself, though not from its present

treatment, will soon be the case. One oversight, however, is of

too conspicuous a nature not to require notice, namely, that in

which the printers have confounded the sugar and cotton growing

province of Paraiba do Norte with the coffee plantations on the

River Parayba, in the province of Rio Janeiro, there being no

coffee grown in the former province, and consequently it is to

the latter the remarks in the text are intended to apply.

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS.

The Falklands recommended by the Colonial Land Emigration

Commissioners, as a place of Re-fit, Naval Station, and

Convict Settlement.—The Corporation of the Falkland Islands

Company.—How it could assist Her Majesty’s Government in

forming a Convict Settlement.—Proposal to demonstrate

the superior eligibility of this Colony for a Convict

Settlement.—Climate healthy.—Fresh Water abundant.—Cost of

Transport less than that to other Colonies.—Safe Custody and

Classification.—Geographical position and extent.—Distance from

the Main.—Little Naval Force required.—Causes of insecurity

at other Settlements not found at the Falklands.—Detached

Islands provide against escape.—Guard required less than

elsewhere.—Provisions cheap.—How supplied.—Cereals may be

raised.—Employment.—Supply of Convicts need not be gradual.—How

first comers are to be disposed of.—Preliminary outlay very

small, and may be recovered.—Opinions of various Servants of

the Crown.—Two Propositions.—1. What the Falkland Islands

Corporation should undertake.—2. What national advantages

would result from a Convict Settlement at this Colony.—Get rid

of Convicts.—Relieve the Mother Country.—Redeem the pledge

made to all Convicts.—Facilities for reformation.—Restoration

of the penitent to society, without injury to the

innocent.—Agricultural School for Juvenile Convicts.—Complete

Depot for Naval Re-fit near Cape Horn.—Saving of Port Charges

and of Freight.—All Ship’s Repairs could be done if Patent Slip

laid down.—Secure Coaling Station for Steamers.—First-rate

Naval Station.—In time of War ‘Key of the Pacific.’—Testimony

of Governor Rennie, and of Capt. Matthews, Commander of the

Great Britain Steamer.

[Illustration: FALKLAND ISLES

Engraved by George Philip & Son]

Some years ago, the British Government was disposed to entertain the

idea of placing a Convict Establishment on the Falkland Islands (a

purpose to which they had been applied by their former occupants),

and it appears that this idea was suggested by the representations of

various persons employed in the service of the Crown, in and about the

islands, and on the neighbouring continent, to the effect that the

locality was highly eligible for the purpose; in fact, the Colonial Land

and Emigration Commissioners have strongly recommended these islands

as a place of re-fit for merchantmen, as a naval station, and as a

convict settlement—and advised that the first operations to promote the

settlement should be undertaken by a public company. It is because the

attention of Government has been thus directed to the eligibility of

these islands, that it is thought well to present, in this brief form,

a statement of the advantages they naturally present, as well as of

those that may be secured, should Her Majesty’s Government be disposed

to resume the consideration of forming a convict settlement there, which

was probably postponed at the date referred to because convenient means

of carrying the project into execution did not then present themselves.

There is no reason to suppose that any objection was raised to the

locality itself, nor does it appear that any objection does actually

exist; on the contrary, it may be satisfactorily demonstrated that no

spot in Her Majesty’s dominions is better suited for a convict station.

A public company now exists, under the style of the ‘Falkland Islands

Company,’ the primary object of which is to trade in the produce of

the colony, and which has obtained from the Crown a royal charter,

incorporating it for that purpose. This fact is premised, to render it

apparent that, if her Majesty’s Government thinks well to avail itself of

the company’s services in making arrangements for a convict settlement

at the Falklands, the means needful to carry out the project are not

wanting. The existing establishments in the colony, recently assigned

to the corporation, are already in that state of forwardness, and the

capital they have at call in this country is sufficient to enable them

to assure Her Majesty’s Government of their capability to undertake

the immediate supply of all necessaries for a large number of convicts

as soon as they can arrive in the colony; moreover, they are prepared

to provide every description of stores on terms as reasonable as those

paid in any other colony, and in respect to the important items of beef,

mutton, and fuel, at a cheaper rate than they can be supplied elsewhere.

If, therefore, it be considered desirable to find a new locality for

convicts (which it appears from public report Her Majesty’s Government

have it in contemplation to select), this company can assist in carrying

out the object, and it only remains to point out why the Falklands

should be deemed most eligible in every point of view for the purpose in

question. The proposition would seem to be sustained by the following

facts:—

1. The climate is remarkably healthy. In proof of this assertion may be

adduced the concurrent testimony of numerous respectable and honourable

men:—amongst others, Captains Fitzroy, Sulivan, and Robertson, who

conducted the nautical survey—of Dr. Darwin, who accompanied Captain

Fitzroy’s expedition—of Weddell, and Captain Sir James C. Ross—of Captain

Mackinnon, and Captain Eden, who, together with the late Governor,

Captain Moody, and Mr. Hamblin, the colonial surgeon (now in England),

all unite in attributing extraordinary salubrity to the climate of

these islands. That it is considered agreeable may be inferred from

the existence of the present settlers, some of them men of capital and

station, who have formed establishments, and resided there for many

years. The temperature is declared to be remarkably equable, the extremes

of heat and cold, usual in England, being unknown there; then there is a

prevalence of south-westerly gales, which render the air of a peculiarly

bracing character, whilst it is considered far more enjoyable than

that of European countries situate north of the 52nd or 53rd degree of

latitude. Fresh water is everywhere found of excellent quality. From

these authorized statements, it may be taken for granted, that such a

temperature for active and healthy labour is far better suited to the

constitutions of men born in the climate of Great Britain, than the

hot and relaxing atmosphere of the equatorial latitudes, whereby the

power and inclination to labour is diminished, whilst residence in such

climates has the effect of fomenting the evil passions of men under

little or no moral or religious constraint.

2. The cost of transport would be one half of that to any of the existing

penal settlements. This fact being self-evident, requires no testimony

for its support. The islands lie less than half way between Great Britain

and Australia, California, and China, on the direct route to the Pacific.

3. This colony is peculiarly well adapted for the safe custody and

classification of convicts. The Falkland group, situated in the same

latitude, south, as the English midland counties are, north, consists

of two large islands, comprising an area of 6,400 square miles, and

several hundred smaller islands, from 20,000 acres each to islets of one

acre, and the total extent of territory is equal to rather more than

half that of the kingdom of Belgium. The numerous detached islands offer

remarkably well-adapted positions for permanent stations, say for a penal

settlement, whilst the western island combines those advantages that

are requisite to insure the practical working of the forced labour, and

subsequent reformed settlement, system, which might eventually render the

East Falkland a flourishing free colony, entirely unconnected with the

convict establishment. The situation of the islands is wholly isolated;

the nearest land is Staten Island, distant 250 miles by chart—they are

350 miles from Terra del Fuego, and 400 from the coast of Patagonia

in direct lines, countries either uninhabited, or peopled by savages,

without port or shipping—and there is no small shipping trade in or

about the Falklands. By means of the semaphore, a communication can be

kept up every ten minutes between the extreme western point of the West

Island and Port Stanley on the extreme east of the group—consequently

the naval force stationed there need be very trifling. Then the vessels

calling are all bound round the Horn, or returning from the Pacific, or

whalers—none of these, wanting men, would take convicts, and there is

none of that class of shipping on this track that are likely to take

them off. There are no woods to conceal fugitives, and no means of

constructing boats or rafts, should any contemplate so wild an adventure

as to try to gain the main, where certain death by starvation, or at the

hands of ruthless savages, would await them. These advantages cannot

fail to be appreciated when the position of this settlement is compared

with that of Van Dieman’s Land, Norfolk Island, or any of the islands of

the northern groups in that hemisphere. Here are no native population or

settlers to be corrupted by contact with convicts—no coasting traffic,

affording constant opportunity for escape, and both of which render safe

custody costly in other colonies. Norfolk Island, and more particularly

New Caledonia and the Fidgee group, lie in the track of a host of

independent traders, men who own and command their ships, and whose

occupation is trading between these islands, Sydney, the Society Islands,

the Marquesas and the Paumotu Islands, as well as with Valparaiso—whose

expeditions frequently last two or three years, and who notoriously take

part in the quarrels between the various petty Polynesian kingdoms;

in which cases they not unfrequently undertake to provide the party,

who is able to pay them for the service, with English soldiers, and in

performance of such engagements, kidnap convicts as a matter of traffic.

The existence of this trade, carried on to a considerable extent by men

who have some of them been convicts themselves, must always render the

custody of criminals at the islands named both hazardous and expensive.

The numerous detached islands which form the Falkland group afford every

facility for classification, and are most of them only approachable

on the north-eastern side, the rest of the coast being fringed with

sunken rocks, naturally buoyed by kelp, which render landing or getting

off impossible. The peculiarities of form and position herein noticed

would render the presence of a large military or civil guard quite

unnecessary—and it will probably appear, that such part of the duty of

an establishment there as appertains to their safe custody and to the

maintenance of proper order amongst the prisoners, could be carried out

more economically than at any other station.

4. Provisions of all kinds would be plentiful at cheaper rates than in

any other colony. Beef, mutton, and pork are in abundance, and could be

supplied of the best quality at 2_d._ to 3_d._ per lb. Flour, biscuit,

and clothing would have to be imported, probably from England and the

Canadas (until they could be raised in sufficient quantity on the

islands), and as vessels bound round the Horn can obtain fresh supplies

of provisions and water at Stanley, these articles could be landed in the

Falklands at a cheaper rate than elsewhere. Vegetables may be raised in

any quantity required, and white celery and other antiscorbutic plants

are indigenous. Labour is only needed to insure the raising of cereal

crops, and therefore the supply of such produce would follow the location

of convicts.

5. Employment would not be wanting. Good building stone and slate exists.

Coal and limestone are reported to have been discovered, but this

requires confirmation. Timber would have to be imported from our North

American colonies for some purposes, though the quantity of drift from

Staten Island and the neighbouring coasts is very great; and some of it

large enough for ship’s repairs. Roads, buildings, public works, the

collection and preparation of fuel, preparation of stores, &c., would

afford ample occupation for a large number of unskilled labourers, whilst

tradesmen and artizans could be occupied in providing for the other wants

of the community. Convicts of the lowest class could be advantageously

employed in the construction of slips, quays, a careening dock, barracks,

enclosures for cattle, dwellings for government officers, stone portage,

military works, levelling town allotments, road-laying, brick-making,

drainage, well sinking, and cutting channels for the supply of water

to the town and shipping. Whilst those of a superior class might have

ample occupation found for them in the construction of dwellings for

themselves, churches, working of salt-works, raising embankments and

planting, horse-breaking and keeping, tending flocks of sheep and herds

of cattle, curing beef and fish, opening streams for drainage, baking,

butchering, cutting, washing, and consolidating turf, collecting guano,

growing vegetable supplies, making shoes, clothing, cheese, butter, &c.,

for the consumption of the establishment and exportation; and procuring

fodder for the Government troop of horses; with many other occupations

which experience would suggest.

6. It is less necessary that the supply of convicts should be gradual in

these islands than in any other of our colonies. The labour of the first

comers would be mainly directed to providing for their own immediate

wants. These, in the first instance, might be lodged on board of hulks,

the same that conveyed them out, and their employment would be in the

erection of a large stone barrack, church, gaol, and storehouses, with

suitable dwellings for the overseers; all as regards the external walls

sound and strong, and on a scale to receive at least double their number,

with the needful attendants on the establishment. An old line-of-battle

ship, jury rigged, could be prepared to receive on board 1,500 to 2,000

convicts; and such a vessel, after her arrival, would not be required

for more than a year or two, but would last four or five years without

needing repairs as a convict hulk. They might afterwards be broken up,

and used as stores in finishing some of the buildings, and for other

suitable purposes. Wooden barracks constructed in this country might

of course be taken out with the convicts; but a hulk is suggested as a

temporary dwelling that could more probably be readily found, and would

not swell the preliminary estimate which it appears always desirable to

avoid in the formation of a new establishment. It should not be lost

sight of, that the stiff clay of the islands works up with the stone of

the ‘streams’ into very sound and durable walls, as witness those of the

old Spanish fort at Port Louis, built, it is said, in 1771, and now in a

good state of preservation.

It results, then, that a convict establishment may be planted at the

Falklands with a very small amount of preliminary outlay on the part

of the Home Government, and that such outlay may speedily be returned.

Such has been the expressed opinion of nearly all the men, who, being

qualified to form an opinion on such a subject, have had an opportunity

of examining the locality. Amongst these gentlemen, there appear the

names of Captains Fitzroy, Ross, Mackinnon, and Sulivan, as well as of

Mr., now Sir, Wm. Gore Ouseley, who, in his official correspondence some

years ago, expressed a very decided opinion on this subject. In fine,

these islands have been recommended by the Colonial Land and Emigration

Commissioners, ‘as a place of transportation, perhaps more eligible than

any other British possession,’ and these gentlemen have already forcibly

suggested a notice to Parliament on the subject.

Having thus demonstrated that no more eligible spot could be found for

convicts, it only remains to point out specifically what the Falkland

Islands Company should undertake, provided Her Majesty’s Government

decide to send such persons to the Falklands, and to avail themselves

of the company’s services in so doing:—and then to set forth the highly

important results _in a national point of view_ that would follow the

adoption of this measure.

The company should contract to furnish all such supplies as the

Government might require of them. They should also undertake to employ

convict labour in the drainage and general improvement of their own

territory, paying to government a fair rate of wages for such labour; and

this would provide a considerable source of revenue, as doubtless the

company would be only too glad to avail themselves of such a means of

rendering their very extensive possessions really productive, in a far

greater space of time than they could hope to accomplish it by importing

free labour, and probably even at less cost.

Thus this colony, hitherto almost overlooked, notwithstanding its very

remarkable geographical position, may become one of the most valuable

possessions of the Crown: and, in times to come, or rather in the time

that has come, rank in importance not second to Gibraltar, Malta, Aden,

Hong Kong, and such other places as are valuable in proportion to the

power they confer on their possessors of maintaining friendly relations

with the other nations of the earth, or protecting their own interests in

the present rupture with Russia. The following national advantages would

thus be secured.

First:—We should get rid of the vexed question of ‘What are we to do

with our convicts?’ and that in a manner not obnoxious to any one of the

objections raised against other localities.

Secondly:—Her Majesty’s Government would be relieved from the

embarrassment that must always attend the attempt to retain convicts in

this country. For the time must come when their terms expire, and then

the real difficulty of disposing of them must be grappled with. It can

hardly be supposed that the mother country will consent to receive among

her highly moral people those whom the colonies have _una voce_ agreed

to reject. And it would be an injustice and impolicy, that could not be

contemplated, to condemn such men to constant isolation. In the East

Falkland they may settle, and thence they may insensibly migrate whither

they list, without the blazonry of their former guilt preceding them,

and thus have really a fair chance of resuming an honest and respectable

position; which it is, to say the least, extremely difficult for men to

accomplish at the spot whereon they have undergone their punishment, and

consequently amongst a people where they are branded with disgrace.

Thirdly:—The philanthropist will hail with infinite satisfaction the

establishment of a settlement which, whilst it provides for the proper

punishment of offenders against the laws, affords the best possible

opportunity of promoting and encouraging genuine reform—a reform that

would eventually restore the penitent to society, and moreover without

the outward symbol of past crime that would cause it, by rejecting him,

to drive him back on his evil habits. The process would be accomplished

without the risk of any moral stain upon the innocent, and the locality

proposed is physically adapted, by a very remarkable combination of

circumstances, to the promotion of morality. A _juvenile_ Convict

Agricultural School, on principles already tried elsewhere, might

advantageously form part of the general system adopted in the Falklands;

and, being entirely separate from the adult establishment, would prove a

valuable aid in the progress of reformation.

Fourthly:—The most convenient place for re-fit for our merchantmen and

foreigners, as well as for steamers, trading between Europe and the

Pacific, would speedily be rendered perfectly available. The enormous

port charges of the east and west coast ports of South America would

be avoided. Freight would be saved to shipowners, and the comforts of

passing emigrants promoted, by the facility of re-provisioning and

watering half way. And all this at a port wholly unconnected with

the convict settlement, where a small dockyard could be economically

constructed, and would amply and speedily repay the expense incurred.

Fifthly:—Her Majesty’s ships, and those of the merchant navy also, could

undergo repair here cheaper than at any port in those seas—and, if a

patent slip were laid down, more speedily; for at present there is not,

strange to say, one patent slip south of the line, on all the coast round

to Callao. This important advantage would effect an immense saving in

the cost of Her Majesty’s squadron constantly kept afloat on the east

coast, and that also on the west coast of South America, one item of

which would be a fortnight to three weeks’ saving of wear and tear on

every voyage home from the Pacific. This consideration becomes of double

importance now that Russian men-of-war are known to be in the Pacific on

the look-out for our merchantmen.

Sixthly:—As lines of steamers are established round the Horn, the

Falklands are the point of all others most suitable for a coaling

station, (as the documents in this work from the most competent

authorities have abundantly proved,) and one that in time of war could be

easily rendered impregnable.

And, lastly, now that war is in reality upon us, with the certainty of

being a tolerably long one, it is difficult to exaggerate the advantage

which the possession of these islands would afford to Great Britain

in respect to their position, provided proper works were constructed,

for which there are great local advantages. In this point of view, any

protracted delay in rendering the Falklands thoroughly available as a

first-rate naval station, on the footing of Gibraltar and other places,

would appear to be an oversight.

The whole of the above objects may be speedily accomplished with the

accession of convict labour; without it, the prospect of these advantages

is very remote, and their realization might, at any moment, be frustrated

by the colony passing (as heretofore) into the hands of some more

enterprising nation, whose rulers may entertain a shrewd notion of the

vast importance attaching to a naval station that may truly be called

‘the key to the Pacific.’ One position may be advanced as indisputable;

namely, that now war has involved us with at least one of the great

maritime powers, the entire Pacific fishery, and the whole trade on and

about the Western Coasts of America, may come under the absolute control

of the possessors of the Falkland Islands, should a _coup de main_ of our

unscrupulous foe bring about the temporary transfer of the station to him.

P.S. Since the above was in type, Mr. Bentley has published a work

from the pen of Earl Grey, entitled ‘The Colonial Policy of Lord John

Russell’s Administration,’ containing much valuable matter relative to

the system of transportation, and a brief notice of the Falkland Islands.

Respecting the Falklands, the noble Earl observes, that the object of the

Government was—

‘To create a small settlement, where passing ships might re-fit

and obtain supplies for which these islands, notwithstanding

the inclemency of their climate, were considered to be

peculiarly well adapted, from their possessing admirable

harbours, and lying directly in the track of vessels returning

to this country from Australia, or the Pacific, by Cape Horn.

They also afforded considerable resources in the herds of wild

cattle which are to be found upon them.’ His lordship goes

on to remark, that ‘An arrangement was concluded by which a

regular communication will be established between this country

and the Falkland Islands, by means of a small vessel plying

between these islands and Monte Video, where it will meet the

mail steamer from England every alternate month.’ And that,

‘Hitherto this settlement has not advanced rapidly; probably

it would hardly have been expected to do so, unless a larger

expenditure had been incurred than was considered advisable in

carrying out and establishing emigrants there; but it seems

now to have taken root, and will, I trust, do well hereafter.

Already, from the growing up of some little trade, and from

land having been brought into cultivation, it has been found

possible, in the last four years, to discontinue the issue of

rations from the Government stores to the inhabitants, who

can now purchase for themselves what they require. Those of

the working-class can find ample employment at good wages,

and ships which call there can depend upon obtaining the most

necessary supplies. The advantages offered by this place of

call on the long voyage home are beginning to be known, so

that each year more vessels are stopping there on their way;

and, from the great increase of the trade with Australia and

California, it is probable that the port of Stanley (the name

of the settlement) will be more and more resorted to. I am

informed that a ship wanting, water or provisions, in the run

home from Cape Horn, may save not less than from ten days to

a fortnight by calling at Stanley, instead of Buenos Ayres,

or Rio de Janeiro besides having no port charges to pay. In

proportion as more vessels call for supplies, these will be

furnished more abundantly and better, since private enterprise

will be sure to meet the demand which the greater resort of

shipping to the port will create. It is to be hoped, also, that

the means of re-fitting ships that have suffered in the stormy

passage round Cape Horn, which already exist to some extent,

will be increased there in the same manner, and that the plan

of establishing there a patent slip, which was at one time

under consideration with a view of its being undertaken by the

Government, will be taken up as a private speculation.’

The annexed official document has been presented to Parliament during

the present session; and although its date is anterior to that of the

valuable communication from Capt. Matthews, of the Great Britain, as

already quoted, it so materially confirms the value of the settlement

as to suggest that Government should lose no time in increasing the

two-monthly mail service now existing between the islands and Monte

Video, and in erecting a patent slip, as they have lately done a

lighthouse; for it is obvious that the Falklands must now assume, in the

consideration of England, the status to which their political, as well as

their geographical, position entitles them:

_Copy of a despatch from Governor Bennie to the Right Honourable Sir

John S. Pakington, Bart.—Government House, Stanley, Falkland Islands,

January 8, 1853.—(Received March 17, 1853.)—Sir,—In transmitting the

Blue Book of this colony for the year ending 31st December 1852, I have

the honour to report a continuance of the same steady, though not very

rapid progress, which has prevailed in this small community during the

last four years. The resort of shipping to these islands for supplies and

repairs, forming one of the chief sources of prosperity, it is gratifying

for me to observe the progressive increase shown by the returns of the

year just ended over that of the previous year. In the year ending

December 1851, 17,538 tons of shipping from England and foreign parts

entered this harbour; in the year ending December 1852, there were 22,024

tons, being an increase of 4,486 tons. This augmentation necessarily

produces a demand for produce, labour, and stores of every description,

affording remunerative profits to the storekeepers, and employment at

good wages to the labouring classes, unskilled 3s. to 5s. per diem, and

skilled 6s. to 10s. Provisions are abundant, and at reasonable prices.

The transference to the Falkland Islands Company of the large interests

held by Mr. Lafone, and the commencement by that corporation of a more

comprehensive system of operation, supported by a large capital, gives

me very favourable hopes of benefit to the colony, and I trust to the

shareholders. It is, however, worthy of remark, that whilst a powerful

company, invested with great privileges by Her Majesty’s Government (as

regards its property in land and cattle) has likewise established a

considerable mercantile warehouse in the town of Stanley, the general

business is going on so satisfactorily that all the original storekeepers

are now adding to their premises and extending their dealings. The master

of a barque, the Record, lately in the harbour, publicly notified that

he would take passengers to the gold diggings in Australia at 10l. per

head, and it gives me much pleasure to add, that not a person could be

found in the colony to accept his proposition. In the year 1849, I put

up for sale 12 allotments of one acre each, of suburban land near the

town, suitable for the working classes to build on or to cultivate as

gardens, and the amount idealized averaged 6l. per acre, being three

times the usual government price. A few weeks since, having been given to

understand that other parties wished to have an opportunity of purchasing

similar allotments, I selected 11 of the same extent, but not quite equal

to the former in situation. The prices on this occasion reached 12l. per

acre on the average, or six times the usual fixed sum, and twice that

of 1849. The grumbling and discontent manifested by a portion of the

enrolled pensioners settled here has subsided since the notification

to them by the Secretary-at-War that they were at liberty to return to

England if they preferred to do so, nor has even one of them up to the

present time availed himself of the permission. Small, comparatively, as

the instances are which I have the honour to communicate, I trust they

may lead to a more just appreciation of the capabilities and utility of

this colony, and of the favourable prospects which it affords to steady

and industrious emigrants.—I have, &c. (Signed) GEORGE RENNIE.—The Right

Hon. Sir John S. Pakington, Bart. &c., &c._

FINIS

FOOTNOTES

[1] In reference to the preponderating interest of Liverpool in this

trade, an influential metropolitan journalist, commenting on the treaty

with Paraguay soon after its ratification in London, observes:—

Liverpool is the very centre and focus of our foreign trade.

There almost every man you meet is either engaged in commerce,

or is in the service of those so engaged. Liverpool, like the

seat of the Pope of Rome—but in a widely different sense—has

its agents and its commercial missionaries in every climate

and in every latitude, and there is not one among them who is

not as intent and energetic in his work as those ‘soldiers

of the faith,’ whom Rome sent out on the South American

missions in the two centuries from 1535 to 1735. The fiery

enthusiasm of Don Pedro de Mendoza himself, who offered

Charles V. to complete the conquest of Paraguay and the Rio

de la Plata at his own expense, is equalled by some of those

indomitable agents of the counting-house, who are as zealous

for commercial conquests as the Andalusian Hidalgo was for

the aggrandisement of his Sovereign and master. We doubt that

even Father Charlevoix himself, so often cited and praised

by his brother Breton, Chateaubriand, and who has given

us six volumes of a charming history of Paraguay—which he

explored in person—exhibited more zeal for the interests of

his order in the countries watered by the Rio de la Plata,

the Rio Salado, the Rio Negro, the Catapuliche, and the Rio

de la Encarnacion, than do those Liverpool junior partners,

clerks, and supercargoes, who are charged with the interests

of considerable commercial houses in such distant latitudes.…

Through the rivers opened to us by the efforts of Lord

Malmesbury, one-fourth, at least, of the produce of South

America, must be brought to the market of the world, and of

this commerce Liverpool will certainly have the largest, and

Bristol, Glasgow, and London, a considerable share.

[2] In the original prospectus of the company, whose calculations,

apart from two wrecks, as to the performances of their vessels have

since been so well verified by experience, it was stated that, ‘The

importance and extent of our trade with Brazil and the River Plate, and

the necessity which exists for a more perfect postal communication with

these countries, mainly suggested this enterprise; and, accordingly, the

first efforts of this company will be devoted, not only to supply the

desideratum of a bi-monthly mail, but to afford to shippers of goods a

cheap and speedy conveyance, which the acceleration of the mails over

the old system of sailing packets renders most desirable; the tonnage

at present employed in the Rio and River Plate trades, from the Port

of Liverpool alone amounts to 30,000 tons annually, while the value of

exports, principally consisting of Manchester and other similar fabrics,

is upwards of three millions sterling per annum. The number of first

class passengers was, until the establishment of the mail steamers, very

circumscribed; but since that period it has materially increased, not

less than one hundred per month, each way, being now the average. Of the

second class of passengers and the lower description of emigrants the

numbers who have gone from Great Britain and the continent, by sailing

vessels, has been very great, more than is generally supposed, not fewer

than 4,000 persons having emigrated to Rio Grande and the southern ports

of Brazil during the last year, while to the River Plate the numbers

for years past has been still more considerable; and the inducements

held out to emigrants in both countries are so great, that, with the

additional facilities afforded by a regular steam communication, a

largely progressive increase may be fairly calculated on. Thus it will

be seen that a large field is open for this company’s operations, and,

as the rates of passage proposed to be charged are extremely moderate,

being within what has hitherto been obtained by sailing ships, it is not

unreasonable to suppose that the estimate of the number of passengers,

upon which the requisite calculations are based, is under what may

fairly be expected from this country, the continent, and Portugal. Three

steam-ships, of from 1,500 to 1,700 tons, and about 300 horse-power,

will, in the first instance, be built for the Rio line. The vessels will

be modelled after the most approved principles, and, with the ample

power proposed, it is confidently anticipated that an average speed of

at least 10 knots per hour will be attained. The branch boat will be of

smaller dimensions, suitable for the navigation of the River Plate. It

is calculated that the passage to Rio will not exceed twenty-five days,

and that the whole distance to the River Plate will be accomplished in

thirty-five days, including the needful detention in Rio to transfer the

cargo and passengers to the branch boat. The average passages of the best

ships at present employed is not less than fifty days to Rio, and sixty

to the River Plate.’ The branch boat, it will be seen hereafter, was

lost, as likewise the Olinda, the second ship of the Ocean line, both,

however, having been replaced.

[3] Though the great Genoese came in sight of St. Salvador, Bahama

Islands, on the 11th of October, 1492, it was not until 1497 that he

found the continent, the same year that Cabot, the son of a Venetian

pilot residing at Bristol, discovered Newfoundland, and named it Prima

Vista; the year also (or, as some say, the year before), that Amerigo

Vespucci, a Florentine in the service of Spain, and subsequently of

Portugal, and again of Spain, reached the east coast, and was fortunate

in giving his name to the entire of the continent, north and south.

The Bahamas were not known to the English for nearly 200 years (1667)

after the discovery by Columbus, when Captain Seyle was nearly wrecked

there while proceeding to Carolina, also discovered by Cabot in 1500.

The Bahamas were long infested by pirates; but in 1718 Captain Rogers

expelled them, and the islands became and have since remained the

property of the Crown of England, with the consent of Spain, though the

British had had a settlement there long previously.

[4]

He turned; but what strange thoughts perplexed his soul,

When, lo! no more attracted to the Pole,

The Compass, faithless to the circling Vane,

Fluttered and fixed, fluttered and fixed again!

At length, as by some unseen Hand imprest,

It sought, with trembling energy, the West!

‘Ah, no!’ he cried, and calmed his anxious brow;

‘Ill, nor the signs of ill, ’tis Thine to show;

Thine but to lead me where I wished to go!’

ROGERS’ COLUMBUS.

[5] Though his scope embraces no part of the West Coast, nor any portion

of the East Coast beyond the line, the author hopes, by the introduction

of a few of the more prominent facts connected with each republic, to

render this volume somewhat useful to those of his readers who may be

desirous of a slight _precis_ of the history and position of the various

states of South America, but who would, nevertheless, be deterred from

entering upon details of feuds and complications more unintelligibly

perplexing than the records of the dynastic chaos of the Saxon heptarchy,

or the septic entanglements of the earliest Celtic kings. To this

end, therefore, there will be appended a note on each of the outlying

districts, if we may so call them, as they occur in the text; and first

in the foregoing order comes

MEXICO.—After the usual experience of viceregal misrule, common to all

the Spanish transmarine dependencies, this noble province threw off

the yoke and asserted its independence in 1820, and virtually achieved

it about a year afterwards, principally through Iturbide, a Spanish

soldier of great valour and military skill, and who might probably have

done for the land of his adoption what Washington had effected for the

United States. Unlike that great character, however, he abused for his

own selfishness the power he acquired; and, not content with being head

of the state as regent on behalf of the people, he perfidiously caused

himself to be proclaimed emperor, in 1822, and imperial revenues and

honours to be decreed to himself and to his family. These measures,

with many others of a like kind, produced such general defection, that

he assembled the dispersed members of Congress in the capital, in 1823,

and abdicated, agreeing to reside for the remainder of his life in

Italy, on which condition a large allowance was made him. But, faithless

to his word in this instance, as before, he returned from Leghorn,

through England, attempted a revolution, miserably failed in raising

any followers, and was ignominiously shot, at Padilla, in Santander, by

La Garza, commander of that province, pursuant to instructions from the

provincial legislature, in 1824. Vittoria, one of the ablest lieutenants

of Iturbide in the war of independence, had been proclaimed president the

year before; and the year after (’25) a treaty of commerce was ratified

with Great Britain. Such proceedings, with the recognition that was soon

to follow of the independence of the revolted country, had formed a topic

of urgent interest at the Congress of Verona, in 1822, when, seeing what

was looming in the future of South America, the Duke of Wellington,

plenipotentiary from England, instructed by Mr. Canning, in continuation

of the policy of Lord Castlereagh, to whom the Duke had just succeeded,

presented a note, stating, that ‘The connection subsisting between the

subjects of his Britannic Majesty and the other parts of the globe has

for long rendered it necessary for him to recognise the existence,

_de facto_, of governments formed in different places, so far as was

necessary to conclude treaties with them. The relaxation of the authority

of Spain in her colonies of South America has given rise to a host of

pirates and adventurers,—an insupportable evil, which it is impossible

for England to extirpate without the aid of the local authorities

occupying the adjacent coasts and harbours; and the necessity of this

coöperation cannot but lead to the recognition, _de facto_, of a number

of governments of their own creation.’

Austria, Russia, Prussia, and France (represented by M. de

Chateaubriand), diplomatically ignored this overture to humiliate their

royal brother of Spain by admitting that which they were soon afterwards

compelled, for their own sakes, to acquiesce in. All the efforts of the

successor of Ferdinand and Isabella ignominiously failed to win back

or retain any portion of the glorious inheritance of the throne of the

Indies. A vast expedition, sent against Mexico, surrendered to the now

successful revolutionists in 1829, a few months after the expulsion

of the Spaniards had been decreed. Unfortunately, however, democratic

anarchy soon supervened upon monarchic despotism; for hardly was the old

tyranny got rid of, than Guerrero, the president, was deposed; and Mexico

has since been but another word for whatever is most unwise in foreign

policy or most pernicious in domestic administration. In 1838 war was

declared against France, and of course, ended in disaster to Mexico,

after five months’ duration, the most memorable incidents being the

capture of the strong fortress of St. Jean d’Ulloa, by Prince Joinville,

who greatly distinguished himself; and the brave defence of Vera Cruz,

by Santa Anna, who there lost a leg. This soldier of fortune, something

of the stamp of Rosas, having been repeatedly elected to supreme power,

deposed, exiled, imprisoned, and restored, is once more president,

with what prospect of continuance it is impossible to tell. Neither

misfortune, nor experience of the impolicy of excessive severity, seems

to have mitigated the innate ferocity of the man’s character. With a

defiance of opinion more in consonance with the era of the Borgias than

of constitutional government, or even of a civilized government in the

middle of the 19th century, only as late as November last the Dictator

caused death to be inflicted, by shooting, without the pretext of a

trial, and as though they were the veriest wild beasts, on Senhor Tornel,

formerly President Arista’s Minister of War, and Senhor de la Rosa, who

was minister for foreign affairs immediately after the capitulation of

the city of Mexico, and was the immediate instigator of Santa Anna’s

expulsion from the country on that occasion, being also the writer of

the letter officially informing him of his disgrace. Their offence

was, simply, being obnoxious to the dictator—nothing more. Like Rosas,

however, he has evinced more consideration for the foreign creditor than

might have been expected; and about the period of the barbarity just

named, devoted a considerable sum in liquidation of the more pressing of

these demands, his ability to do so arising, it was said, (though the

authority is as apocryphal as the circumstance itself) from a donation

by the pope, as an equivalent for the restoration of the order of the

Jesuits in Mexico. Others say that his funds have accrued from a sale

to the United States of territory adjoining the present Californian

possessions of the Union; and that, with the proceeds, he means to repeat

Iturbide’s experiment in imperial power and title. Be this as it may,

the area of Santa Anna’s sway, is much less now than it was formerly;

for, owing to a succession of decisive repulses sustained from the United

States, with which war was declared in 1846, and carried on till the

beginning of 1848, Mexico has lost California; Texas having been annexed

to the States in 1846; Yucatan, &c., having also seceded; and now, of

the once prodigious territory of the Montezumas, and known in Spanish

colonial history as the vice-royalty of Mexico, there remains, according

to the treaty of 1848, but the comparatively narrow strip of land between

the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific.

This, though only a fragment of what it once belonged to, is still most

rich in minerals, and most fruitful in valuable products, and highly

important from its position; but nearly all its natural advantages

are destroyed by the insecurity and deficiencies of its political

institutions, and the incapacity and selfishness of those administering

them among a very numerous population, equal, at least, to that of

Scotland, after all the curtailments we have spoken of. It is needless to

acquaint any reader of the public journals, to whom the words ‘Mexican

Bondholders’ must be a ‘horrid, hideous sound of woe, sadder than

owl-songs on the midnight blast,’ that the finances of the state are in

a condition the reverse of consolatory to creditors. For the precise

nature of those obligations, in whose fulfilment England is so much

interested, we must refer to the very numerous pamphlets published by

the various committees appointed in London to advise upon this intricate

and unsatisfactory subject. That there is every desire on Santa Anna’s

part to meet English liabilities, there can be no doubt; one motive

for his anxiety being, it is said, the achievement of a stock-jobbing

_coup_ on his own account, or, rather, on account of the adventurers

he is surrounded by. If internal peace could only be secured, the vast

resources of the country, and its unparagoned geographical position,

midway, as it were, in the very path of the commerce of both hemispheres,

would soon permit of its financial difficulties being adjusted. The

question is, whether Santa Anna, in putting down anarchy—if he can

keep it down—will not commit excesses as bad as the revolutionists in

an opposite direction? The latter is the tendency of his acts at the

present; but it is impossible to predicate of such a country what may or

may not turn up from one hour to another. The representative of Mexico,

hitherto charged, until lately, with the difficult task of negociating

in this country with the English creditors, has been Colonel Facio. The

Mexican diplomatic staff in London consists of Senhor de Castillo y

Lanzas, 10, Park-place, Regent’s-park, envoy extraordinary and minister

plenipotentiary; Don Augustin A. Franco, first secretary; Don José

Hidalgo, 2nd secretary; Don Ignacio Luijano, attaché; Don B. G. Farias,

32, Great Winchester-street, vice-consul.

Though Consuls were sent, for commercial purposes, to nearly all the

important ports of the new South American states, as early as October,

1823, it was not for several years afterwards that political or

diplomatic representatives were despatched. The first was Mr. Alexander

Cockburn, as envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to

Columbia, February, 1820; second, Sir R. Ker Porter, chargé d’affaires

to Venezuela, July, 1835; third, Mr. Turner, envoy extraordinary and

minister plenipotentiary to New Granada, June, 1837; and fourth, Mr.

W. Wilson, chargé d’affaires to Bolivia, 1837. These states will be

severally noticed as they occur in the text. It was in March, 1835, that

Sir Richard Pakenham, now British Minister in Portugal [see Lisbon] was

accredited as plenipotentiary to Mexico. At present the same post is

filled by Mr. Percy William Doyle (many years chargé d’affaires there)

whose salary is £3,600, with £400 a-year house rent; secretary of

legation, William Edward Thornton, salary, £600; paid attaché, Mr. A.

H. Hastings Berkeley, salary, £200; and an unpaid attaché. The annexed

list exhibits the names and salaries of the British consular corps in

Mexico:—Mexico, F. Glennie, consul, £400; Vera Cruz, F. Giffard, consul,

£500; Tampico, consul, Cleland Cumberlege, £500; San Bias, Eustace W.

Barron, consul, £300; Mazatlan, S. Thomson, vice-consul, £150; Acapulco,

Charles Wilthew, consul, £400.

[6] In the month of February, 1554, he addressed a long letter to the

emperor,—it was the last he ever wrote him,—soliciting his attention

to his suit. He begins, by proudly alluding to his past services to

the Crown: ‘He had hoped, that the toils of youth would have secured

him repose in his old age. For forty years he had passed his life with

little sleep, bad food, and with his arms constantly by his side. He had

freely exposed his person to peril, and spent his substance in exploring

distant and unknown regions, that he might spread abroad the name of

his sovereign, and bring under his sceptre many great and powerful

nations. All this he had done, not only without assistance from home,

but in the face of obstacles thrown in his way by rivals and by enemies,

who thirsted like leeches for his blood. He was now old, infirm, and

embarrassed with debt. Better had it been for him not to have known the

liberal intentions of the emperor, as intimated by his grants; since he

should then have devoted himself to the care of his estates, and not have

been compelled, as he now was, to contend with the officers of the Crown,

against whom it was more difficult to defend himself than to win the land

from the enemy.’ He concludes with beseeching his sovereign to ‘order the

Council of the Indies, with the other tribunals which had cognisance of

his suits, to come to a decision; since he was too old to wander about

like a vagrant, but ought, rather, during the brief remainder of his

life, to stay at home and settle his account with Heaven, occupied with

the concerns of his soul, rather than with his substance.’ This appeal

to his sovereign, which has something in it touching from a man of the

haughty spirit of Cortez, had not the effect to quicken the determination

of his suit. He still lingered at the court, from week to week, and from

month to month, beguiled by the deceitful hopes of the litigant, tasting

all that bitterness of the soul which arises from hope deferred. After

three years more, passed in this unprofitable and humiliating occupation,

he resolved to leave his ungrateful country and return to Mexico. He had

proceeded as far as Seville, accompanied by his son, when he fell ill

of an indigestion, caused, probably, by irritation and trouble of mind.

This terminated in dysentery, and his strength sank so rapidly under the

disease, that it was apparent his mortal career was drawing towards its

close.—_Prescott._

[7] PERU.—Referring to what has been already said as regards Mexico for

a general notion of the relationship between Spain and her colonies,

when the spirit of revolt began to develope itself in the latter, it

is only necessary to add here that, since its emancipation, Peru has,

like all the congeries of republics of which it forms one, been a prey

to civil dissension and military turmoil. Of late years its increasing

commerce, the vast pecuniary means it has discovered, in its guano

islands, of meeting its engagements with the European creditor, and

the comparatively pacific spirit that prevails in its councils and in

those of the neighbouring states, are producing their natural results;

and, despite occasional exceptions, there is every reason to look for

a prosperous future. The conquest of Peru having been effected with

infinitely more ease than that of Mexico, as far as the mere military

resistance of the natives was concerned, it continued for nearly 300

years subject to Spain, and formed its last stronghold in that quarter

of the world. The history of the struggles for independence, from the

time that the first Protector, San Martin, [see Chili, page 18] entered

the country with the combined Chilian and Buenos Ayrean army, and

proclaimed its freedom at Lima, the capital, in 1821, till the Spaniards

were finally expelled, would embrace the biography of the commander

just named, and the still more celebrated one, Bolivar, who, with his

victorious troops from Columbia, to which he had given liberty in 1821,

mainly contributed to the liberation of Peru, whereof he became President

in 1825, San Martin retiring in 1822, with these memorable words:—‘I

have proclaimed the independence of Chili and Peru; I have taken the

standard with which Pizarro came to enslave the empire of the Incas;

and I have ceased to be a public man.’ Bolivar ran through pretty much

the same vicissitudes of popular caprice as we have recounted in the

case of Santa Anna, though an incomparably superior character in every

respect; and, after numberless feuds, and escaping plots against his

life by those he had raised to power, was on the point of returning from

voluntary seclusion, on his patrimonial estate, to assume once more the

direction of affairs, in obedience to the voice of the public, who,

too late, found out that he was the only man for the occasion, when he

died in 1830, in his 47th year, leaving behind the highest reputation

which South American history has afforded, not only as a commander

and an administrator, but as a constitutional legislator. Repeated

revolutions have since ensued, partly caused by rivalries of internal

factions, and partly by the hostilities of neighbouring states, which,

being themselves torn with dissension, and constantly changing their

territorial status, have rendered war upon Peru, or on the part of Peru,

almost unavoidable. This is the case at present; Bolivia, under its

President, Belzu, having invaded Peru, and protracted hostilities being

certain. Under such circumstances it is hardly necessary to add, that

the finances of the country have been inadequate to its expenditure,

and that, consequently, the foreign creditors have fared exceedingly

ill. Of late, however, the prospects have greatly improved, owing to the

immense demand for that peculiar manure which is found in the condition

most approved by agriculturists on the Peruvian coast, and in the next

greatest perfection on the neighbouring coast of Chili, whence, indeed,

the first cargo, which created so much interest, was brought a few years

back into Liverpool, causing small observation, however, for a long time.

But, unluckily for the foreign creditor and the true interests of the

Peruvian government, the latter fixed so high a price on the commodity,

as to create a complete monopoly, attended with most of the mischiefs

of which all monopolies are the parents. Until the close of the last

year, it was imagined that the supply of this most essential ingredient

in farming economy was literally inexhaustible, and that the cost to

the consumer might be kept up at the original excessive rate. About

that period, however, it was ascertained, through a survey instituted

by Admiral Moresby, commanding the British squadron on the West Coast,

that at the then rate of demand (and it has gone on increasing since) the

whole stock (many millions of tons though it was) would be exhausted in

the course of about twenty years. Moreover, as the discovery, first, of

the unique virtues of guano, and, secondly, of its deposit in the finest

known quality and greatest quantity here, were purely accidental, it is

not improbable, indeed is regarded as certain, that there will also be

discoveries of other excellent fertilizers of a like kind, and of other

vast deposits of guano, if not quite so excellent, yet sufficiently so

to deprive Peru of its principal customers at existing rates. Should

either of these occurrences take place—should it be found, as Lord

Clarendon anticipated, in answer to a deputation on the subject, that

nitrate of soda is extractable from the immense heaps of fish refuse

on the Newfoundland coast, and will supply, as chemists believe, the

fructifying element of guano; or should it be found that those deposits

of guano in more damp latitudes,—the Falklands, for instance—will admit

of being profitably freed from the effects of moisture, of course the

value of the Peruvian commodity will decline accordingly, and so will the

prospects of the bondholders, who have probably been amongst the greatest

of all the sufferers from the _mala fides_ and impoverishment of South

American debtors. A species of new bonds have recently been created, to

the great detriment of the interest of the holders of the old ones, and

the dissatisfaction is extreme, especially as the government, instead of

being warned by the facts we have recounted in respect to guano, and by

the discovery of valuable guano islands by North American citizens in

the Caribbean Sea, have actually advanced the price of the commodity to

the extent of the recently enhanced freights, as compared with the usual

rates of shipping charges.

Apart from the monetary, the diplomatic credit of Peru has always

been respectably sustained at the Court of St. James’s. The corps at

present consists of Don Manuel de Mendiburu, minister plenipotentiary;

Don Francisco de Rivero, consul-general, 78, Grosvenor-street,

Grosvenor-square; Don Emilio Altheus, D. M. Espantosa, and Major D. S.

Osma, attachés. Consul’s-office, 6, Copthall-court. Consuls—J. E. Naylor,

Liverpool; R. J. Todd, Cardiff; John G. Dodd, Newcastle-upon-Tyne; Edward

Wright, Dublin.

England is represented in Peru by Mr. S. H. Sullivan, chargé d’affaires

at Lima; salary as such £1,700 a-year, besides the usual £1 per diem

allowed to all functionaries of that class discharging consular duties.

Until last year (1853) the diplomatic salary was £2,000. At Callao, the

port of Lima, the salary of the consul (Mr. J. Barton) has also been

reduced from £500 to £200, but the fees of office still make the post

very lucrative. At Islay, the vice-consul, Mr. T. Crompton, receives

£500; and at Arica and Payta, Mr. G. H. Nugent and Mr. Alexander Blacker,

vice-consuls, £300 and £100 respectively.

[8] CHILI.—Though probably none of the Spanish conquests in South

America were effected with greater ease than that of Chili—a sort of

dependency on the Incas of Peru, and faithful to their cause long after

it was lost at head-quarters—nowhere were the natives impressed so

much at first with the superiority of the invincible stranger, a sum

equivalent to half a million of ducats being presented to Almagro, in

recognition of his ‘divinity’ when he crossed the Cordilleras; yet none

of their acquisitions, subsequently, cost the conquerors more trouble.

Notwithstanding the scandalous cruelties of the invaders, it was not

till 1546, ten years after Valdivia (a second lieutenant of Pizarro’s)

had entered their country, that resistance was wholly put down. The

Chilians, the last in being subdued, were also among the first to take

advantage of the troubles of the mother country in her decrepitude and

decline. On the invasion of Spain by the French, and the rout of the

Spanish Bourbons in 1809, Chili, affecting to be solicitous for the

sovereignty of Ferdinand VII., and to be desirous of administering the

government of itself in his name, established a junta in the capital,

St. Jago, in 1810, and ultimately avowed itself a decided separatist.

Spain, however, was still able to make head against the revolutionists;

and after a series of encounters, in which fortune alternated rapidly,

she vindicated her authority by a very decisive victory at Rancagua, in

1817. This, however, did not prevent the popular party triumphing at

Chacabuco, in the same year, and seizing on the capital. Again the king’s

troops succeeded at Chancarayada; but, once more, and conclusively, the

republicans carried all before them in the eventful battle of Maypu, in

1818, though it was not till the beginning of 1826 that the province

was finally freed from the presence of the peninsular cohorts, and

declared independent, the old country itself, however, refusing any such

recognition till 1842, when a treaty of peace and friendship was signed

at Madrid, and ratifications exchanged in 1845. Throughout these wars

the most conspicuous revolutionary leader was General San Martin, a

soldier of Irish origin, as his name imports,[9] being one of the many

of his countrymen whom the struggles for independence brought forward in

the Spanish colonies, in none more so than in Chili, the first Supreme

Director, as the officer elected by the juntas was originally called,

being Barnardo O’Higgins, with whom were associated Col. O’Leary, General

Miller, and numerous others ‘racy of the soil’ of saints and shillelaghs.

Of all the European celebrities, however, who figured on the stage

of South American strife, none are to be compared to the heroic Lord

Cochrane, now the venerable Admiral Earl Dundonald, who, having fitted

out a ship of his own in England in the cause of the patriots, and being

appointed to the command of the Chilian fleet, coöperating with the land

forces of Bolivar, displayed that characteristic skill and enterprise

which have so preëminently distinguished him throughout his chivalrous

and romantic career, some few incidents of which will be found mentioned

in our notice of a congenial and no less heroic spirit, Admiral Grenfell,

of the Brazilian service, in which Dundonald played a conspicuous part.

From what we have said already, both of Mexico and also of Peru, it will

naturally be inferred that Chili has suffered greatly from internal

disorders; but, unlike those countries, she has contrived to avoid

a very onerous national debt; and consequently her credit abroad is

comparatively very good; indeed, better probably than that of any South

American state, save Brazil, whose securities rank next to those of Great

Britain itself. The recent gold discoveries in California and Australia

have immensely increased her export trade, and will continue to do so

for an indefinite period; while a large source of domestic revenue

has been opened up by the possession of guano islands (of which more

hereafter), second only in extent, and scarcely second in richness, to

those treasures of a like kind whereof we have spoken under the head of

Peru, the example of which country is followed as to the maintenance of

the price of the article at an exorbitant rate.

The Chilian diplomatic and consular corps in England consists of

Spencer N. Dickson, consul, 8, Great Winchester-street, London; W. W.

Alexander, consul, Bristol, Cardiff, and Newport; William Jackson,

consul, Liverpool; Thomas W. Fox, jun., consul, Plymouth; James H.

Wolff, consul, Southampton; John W. Leach, consul, Swansea. The British

diplomatic and consular corps in Chili consists of the Hon. E. J. Harris,

chargé d’affaires at the capital, St. Jago, salary £1,600, and the usual

consular allowance of £1 per diem; consul at Valparaiso, Mr. Henry Rouse,

salary £300, reduced from £700; consul at Coquimbo, Mr. David Ross,

salary £300; and vice-consul at Conception, Mr. Robert Cunningham, salary

£250—all exclusive of fees.

[9] His aid-de-camp was General John O’Brien, afterwards accredited by

the Banda Oriental, or State of the Uruguay, as diplomatic representative

to England, where he contributed greatly to familiarise the British

public with the bearings of the Plate Question, and to popularise the

cause of Monte Videan resistance to the aggression of Rosas. In this

object he was essentially assisted by his learned and accomplished

countryman, Mr. W. Bernard Macabe, a distinguished London journalist,

and well-known author in historical and miscellaneous literature, who

discharged the duties of acting consul-general for the Uruguay in London

for some years, till the end of 1852, when he proceeded to Dublin, where

he has since prosecuted his intellectual avocations with his customary

assiduity and success. The General, we believe, is now residing in

honoured retirement, in his old age, in the neighbourhood of Valparaiso,

on a property allowed him by the Government of Chili, to whose original

independence his exertions materially contributed.

[10] The subject of this poem is the establishment of the Portuguese

empire in India; but whatever of chivalrous, great, beautiful, or

noble, could be gathered from the traditions of his country, has been

interwoven into the story. Among all the heroic poets, says Schlegel,

either of ancient or modern times, there has never, since Homer, been any

one so intensely national, or so loved or honoured by his countrymen,

as Camoens. It seems as if the national feelings of the Portuguese had

centred and reposed themselves in the person of this poet, whom they

consider as worthy to supply the place of a whole host of poets, and as

being in himself a complete literature to his country. Of Camoens they

say,

Vertere fas; æquare nefas; æquabilis uni

Est sibi; par nemo; nemo secundus erit.

Few modern poems in any language, have been so frequently translated as

the ‘Lusiad.’ Mr. Adamson, whose ‘Memoirs of the Life and Writings of

Camoens’ must be familiar to the reader, notices one Hebrew translation

of it, five Latin, six Spanish, four Italian, three French, four German,

and two English. Of the two English versions one is that of Sir R.

Fanshawe, written during Cromwell’s usurpation, and distinguished for

its fidelity to the original; the other is that of Mickle, who, unlike

the former, took great liberties with the original, but whose additions

and alterations have met with great approbation from all critics—except,

as indeed was to be expected, from the Portuguese themselves.—_Dr.

Cauvin._—In the course of the present year (1854) another English

version, from the pen of Sir Thomas Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New

South Wales, and formerly on the staff in the Peninsula, has been issued

by Messrs. Boone, of Bond-street, in one volume, with an engraving, said

to be an excellent likeness, of the poet.

[11]

‘Eu sou aquelle occulto, e grande Cabo,

A quem chamais vos outros Tormentario;

Que nunca a Ptolemeo, Pomponio, Estrabo,

Plinio, e quantos passaram, foi notorio:

Aqui toda a Africana Costa acabo

Neste meu nunca visto promentorio,

Que para o polo Antartico se estende,

A quem vossa ousadia tanto offende.’

CAMOENS, canto 5, verse 50.

‘In me the spirit of the Cape behold,

That Rock by you the Cape of Torments named,

By Neptune’s rage in horrid Earthquake framed,

Where Jove’s red bolts o’er Titan’s offspring flamed.

With wide-stretch’d piles I guard the pathless strand,

And Afric’s southern mound unmoved I stand;

Nor Roman prow, nor daring Tyrian oar,

Ere dashed the white wave foaming to my shore;

Nor Greece, nor Carthage, ever spread the sail

On these my seas to catch the trading gale.

You, you alone, have dared to plough my main,

And with the human voice disturb my lonesome reign.’

Mickle’s Translation of this verse, the ‘Lusiad,’ p. 205.

[12] STEAM THROUGH THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN TO THE PACIFIC.—In a work like

this, almost specially devoted to an exemplification of the achievements

and the prospects of steam enterprise in South America, we take the

earliest opportunity of placing on record the efforts of a gentleman,

who, in those distant waters first explored by Magellan, and through the

very straits named after that daring navigator, conducted a steamer to

the West Coast long before the Royal Mail Company, as mentioned in our

prefatory remarks, sent any of their paddle-wheels to the East Coast.

The first steamers that ever navigated these straits were the Peru and

Chili, belonging to the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, under the

orders of Captain George Peacock, a gentleman well known in connection

with naval steam tactics, now superintendent of the Southampton docks,

and vice-consul for the Uruguay at that port. Leaving England in command

of the Peru, in July, 1840, and touching only at Rio de Janeiro for a

supply of fuel, he anchored in Port Famine, Patagonia, on the 13th of

September, after a passage at sea of only 43 days. These vessels, built

by Messrs. Curling and Young, of Limehouse, were contracted and fitted

out with great care, under the superintendence of Captain Peacock, being

also rigged on a new plan proposed by him, whereby they were enabled to

proceed under sail alone during a great part of the voyage, the steam

only having been used for 21 out of the 43 days occupied between Plymouth

and Port Famine. This was an unprecedented feat in the annals of steam

navigation up to that period, and has scarcely been surpassed since, as

these vessels carried out a large amount of general cargo to Valparaiso,

besides their spare machinery, and a great quantity of stores, proving

the importance of all steamships for long voyages, whether screw or

paddle-wheel, being fully and properly rigged. The Pacific Steam

Navigation Company was projected in 1833 by William Wheelwright, Esq., an

enterprising American gentleman, who had passed many years on the West

Coast of South America, and who obtained exclusive privileges, from the

Chilian and Peruvian governments, for establishing steam in the Pacific,

provided steamers were placed on the coast within a given period. On Mr.

Wheelwright’s arrival in England he found great difficulty in forming a

company, although no one doubted but that the navigation and requirements

of the West Coast were, perhaps, better adapted for steam navigation than

any other spot on the face of the globe. Unfortunately for the projector,

the extreme pressure of the money-market at that time, coupled with the

distance of the intended scene of operations, the want of confidence

in the grants of South American states, and the political changes to

which they were exposed, all conduced to impede the enterprise; and,

after passing upwards of three years of untiring patience and suffering,

numberless anxieties, heart-sickening vexations, and even personal

privations (the fate of too many enterprising men in the prosecution of

new and useful projects), and when his capital was nigh wrecked, and

his favourite scheme about to be abandoned as hopeless, he had the good

fortune to meet with the late Lord Abinger, who, together with the noble

members of the Scarlett family, warmly espoused the undertaking, and

with the aid of other kind friends, the company was at length formed,

and, towards the close of the year 1839, two vessels, of 750 tons and

180 horse power each, were contracted for. The keels were laid Jan.,

1840, and the ships built, launched, fitted out, and sent to sea in

July, within a period of seven months, no expense being spared to effect

this object, with a view of saving the privileges to be conceded by the

Chilian government.

This proved to be impracticable, notwithstanding the extraordinary

exertions that had been made, owing to the vexatious annoyances of

the port authorities at Rio de Janeiro, who exacted such stringent

regulations and created such difficulties, that the steamers were delayed

fourteen days, where 48 hours would have sufficed. The fine harbour of

Port Stanley, at the Falkland Islands, was not then known to possess the

facilities it now does for such repairs, nor were there at the time the

necessary means of effecting them; otherwise Captain Peacock, who has the

highest opinion of that harbour, and has urged it as a port of call and

for coaling on the captains of all sailing or steam-vessels coming home

from Australia by Cape Horn, would have at once resorted to it, and so

saved the almost ruinous delay and vast expense occasioned him at Rio.

The consequence of this detention was, that the vessels did not arrive at

Port Famine, the southern-most harbour claimed by the republic of Chili,

until the 13th of September, whilst the privileges, already alluded to,

expired on the first of that month.