PESTILENCE.
See PLAGUE.
PETALISM.
A vote of banishment which the ancient Syracusans brought into
practice for a time, in imitation of the Ostracism of the
Athenians,—(see OSTRACISM). The name of the citizen to be
banished was written, at Syracuse, on olive-leaves, instead of
on shells, as at Athens. Hence the name, petalism.
_Diodorus,
Historical Library,
book 11, chapter 26._
PETER,
Latin Emperor at Constantinople (Romania), A. D. 1217-1219.
Peter I. (called The Great), Czar of Russia, 1689-1725.
Peter I., King of Aragon and Navarre, 1094-1104.
Peter I., King of Hungary, 1088-1046.
Peter II., Czar of Russia, 1727-1780.
Peter II., King of Aragon, 1196-1213.
{2527}
Peter II., King of Sicily, 1337-1342.
Peter III., Czar of Russia, 1762.
Peter III., King of Aragon, 1276-1285;
King of Sicily, 1283-1285.
Peter IV., King of Aragon, 1336-1387.
Peter the Hermit's Crusade.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1094-1095; and 1096-1099.
Peter.
See, also, PEDRO.
PETERBOROUGH, Earl of, and the siege of Barcelona.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1705.
PETERLOO, Massacre of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1816-1820.
PETER'S PENCE.
King Offa, of the old English kingdom of Mercia, procured, by
a liberal tribute to Rome, a new archbishopric for Lichfield,
thus dividing the province of Canterbury. "This payment … is
probably the origin of the Rom-feoh, or Peter's pence, a tax
of a penny on every hearth, which was collected [in England]
and sent to Rome from the beginning of the tenth century, and
was a subject of frequent legislation. But the archiepiscopate
of Lichfield scarcely survived its founder."
_W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History of England,
chapter 8, section 86 (volume 1)._
PETERSBURG, Siege and evacuation of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (JUNE: VIRGINIA), (JULY: VIRGINIA),
(AUGUST: VIRGINIA); 1865 (MARCH-APRIL: VIRGINIA).
PETERSHAM, Rout of Shays' rebels at.
See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1786-1787.
PETERVARDEIN, Battle of (1716).
See HUNGARY: A. D. 1600-1718.
PETILIA, Battle at.
See SPARTACUS, RISING OF.
PETIT SERJEANTY.
See FEUDAL TENURES.
PETITION OF RIGHT, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1625–1628; and 1628.
PETITS MAÍTRES, Les.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1650-1651.
PETRA, Arabia.
The rock-city of the Nabatheans.
See NABATHEANS.
PETRA, Illyricum: Cæsar's blockade of Pompeius.
See ROME B. C. 48.
PETRA, Lazica.
See LAZICA.
PETROBRUSIANS.
HENRICIANS.
"The heretic who, for above twenty years, attempted a
restoration of a simple religion in Southern France, the
well-known Pierre de Bruys, a native of Gap or Embrun, …
warred against images and all other visible emblems of
worship; he questioned the expediency of infant baptism, the
soundness of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and opposed
prayers for the dead; but he professed poverty for himself,
and would have equally enforced it upon all the ministers of
the altar. He protested against the payment of tithes; and it
was, most probably, owing to this last, the most heinous of
all offences, that he was, towards 1130, burnt with slow fire
by a populace maddened by the priests, at St. Gilles, on the
Rhone. … His followers rallied … and changed their name of
Petrobrusians into that of Henricians, when the mantle of
their first master rested on the shoulders of Henry, supposed
by Mosheim [Eccles. History, volume 2] to have been an Italian
Eremite monk."
_L. Mariotti (A. Gallenga),
Frà Dolcina and his Times,
chapter 1._
PETROCORII, The.
A Gallic tribe established in the ancient Périgord, the modern
French department of the Dordogne.
_Napoleon III.,
History of Cæsar,
book 3, chapter 2, footnote._
PETRONILLA, Queen of Aragon, A. D. 1137-1163.
PETRONIUS MAXIMUS, Roman Emperor (Western), A. D. 455.
PEUCINI, The.
"The Peucini derived their name from the little island Peuce
(Piczino) at the mouth of the Danube. Pliny (iv. 14) speaks of
them as a German people bordering on the Daci. They would thus
stretch through Moldavia from the Carpathian Mountains to the
Black Sea. Under the name Bastarnæ they are mentioned by Livy
(xl. 57, 58) as a powerful people, who helped Philip, king of
Macedonia, in his wars with the Romans. Plutarch ('Life of
Paullus Æmilius,' ch. ix.) says they were the same as the
Galatæ, who dwelt round the Ister (Danube). If so, they were
Gauls, which Livy also implies."
_Church and Brodribb,
Geographical Notes to The Germany of Tacitus._
PEUKETIANS, The.
See ŒNOTRIANS.
PEUTINGERIAN TABLE, The.
This is the name given to the only copy which has survived of
a Roman official road-chart. "Tables of this kind were not
maps in the proper sense of the term, but were rather diagrams
drawn purposely out of proportion, on which the public roads
were projected in a panoramic view. The latitude and longitude
and the positions of rivers and mountains were disregarded so
far as they might interfere with the display of the provinces,
the outlines being flattened out to suit the shape of a roll
of parchment; but the distances between the stations were
inserted in numerals, so that an extract from the record might
be used as a supplement to the table of mileage in the
road-book. The copy now remaining derives its name from Conrad
Peutinger of Augsburg, in whose library it was found on his
death in 1547. It is supposed to have been brought to Europe
from a monastery in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, and to
have been a copy taken by some thirteenth century scribe from
an original assigned to the beginning of the fourth century or
the end of the third.'
_C. Elton,
Origins of English History,
chapter 11 and plate 7._
ALSO IN:
_W. M. Ramsay,
Historical Geography of Asia Minor,
part 1, chapter 6._
PEVENSEY.
The landing-place of William the Conqueror, September 28,
A. D. 1066, when he came to win the crown of England.
See, also, ANDERIDA.
PFALZ.
PFALZGRAF.
In German, the term signifying Palatine and Palatine Count.
See PALATINE COUNT.
PHACUSEH.
See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.
PHÆACIANS, The.
"We are wholly at a loss to explain the reasons that led the
Greeks in early times … to treat the Phæacians [of Homer's
Odyssey] as a historical people, and to identify the Homeric
Scheria with the island of Corcyra [modern Corfu]. … We must …
be content to banish the kindly and hospitable Phæacians, as
well as the barbarous Cyclopes and Læstrygones, to that outer
zone of the Homeric world, in which everything was still
shrouded in a veil of marvel and mystery."
_E. H. Bunbury,
History of Ancient Geography,
chapter 3, section 3 volume 1)._
PHALANGITES, The.
The soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx.
{2528}
PHALANX, The Macedonian.
"The main body, the phalanx—or quadruple phalanx, as it was
sometimes called, to mark that it was formed of four
divisions, each bearing the same name—presented a mass of
18,000 men, which was distributed, at least by Alexander, into
six brigades of 3,000 each, formidable in its aspect, and, on
ground suited to its operations, irresistible in its attacks.
The phalangite soldier wore the usual defensive armour of the
Greek heavy infantry, helmet, breast-plate, and greaves; and
almost the whole front of his person was covered with the long
shield called the aspis. His weapons were a sword, long enough
to enable a man in the second rank to reach an enemy who had
come to close quarters with the comrade who stood before him,
and the celebrated spear, known by the Macedonian name
sarissa, four and twenty feet long. The sarissa, when couched,
projected eighteen feet in front of the soldier, and the space
between the ranks was such that those of the second rank were
fifteen, those of the third twelve, those of the fourth nine,
those of the fifth six, and those of the sixth three feet in
advance of the first line; so that the man at the head of the
file was guarded on each side by the points of six spears. The
ordinary depth of the phalanx was of sixteen ranks. The men
who stood too far behind to use their sarissas, and who
therefore kept them raised until they advanced to fill a
vacant place, still added to the pressure of the mass. As the
efficacy of the phalanx depended on its compactness, and this
again on the uniformity of its movements, the greatest care
was taken to select the best soldiers for the foremost and
hindmost ranks—the frames, as it were, of the engine. The bulk
and core of the phalanx consisted of Macedonians; but it was
composed in part of foreign troops."
_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 48._
PHALARIS,
Brazen bull of.
Epistles of.
Phalaris is said to have been a rich man who made himself
tyrant of the Greek city of Agrigentum in Sicily, about 570 B.
C., and who distinguished himself above all others of his kind
by his cruelties. He seems to have been especially infamous in
early times on account of his brazen bull. "This piece of
mechanism was hollow, and sufficiently capacious to contain
one or more victims enclosed within it, to perish in tortures
when the metal was heated: the cries of these suffering
prisoners passed for the roarings of the animal. The artist
was named Perillus, and is said to have been himself the first
person burnt in it by order of the despot."
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 43._
At a later time Phalaris was represented as having been a man
of culture and letters, and certain Epistles were ascribed to
him which most scholars now regard as forgeries. The famous
treatise of Bentley is thought to have settled the question.
PHALERUM.
See PIRÆUS.
PHANARIOTS, The.
"The reduction of Constantinople, in 1453, was mainly achieved
by the extraordinary exploit of Mahomet II. in transporting
his galleys from the Bosphorus to the interior of the harbour,
by dragging them over land from Dolma Bactche, and again
launching them opposite to the quarter denominated the Phanar,
from a lantern suspended over the gate which there
communicates with the city. The inhabitants of this district,
either from terror or treachery, are said to have subsequently
thrown open a passage to the conqueror; and Mahomet, as a
remuneration, assigned them for their residence this portion
of Constantinople, which has since continued to be occupied by
the Patriarch and the most distinguished families of the
Greeks. It is only, however, within the last century and a
half that the Phanariots have attained any distinction beyond
that of merchants and bankers, or that their name, from merely
designating their residence, has been used to indicate their
diplomatic employments."
_Sir J. E. Tennent,
History of Modern Greece,
chapter 12 (volume 2)._
ALSO IN:
_E. A. Freeman,
The Ottoman Power in Europe,
chapter 4._
_J. Samuelson,
Roumania, Past and Present,
chapter 13, sections 3-7._
PHARAOH, The title.
The title Pharaoh which was given to the kings of ancient
Egypt, "appears on the monuments as piraa, 'great house,' the
palace in which the king lived being used to denote the king
himself, just as in our own time the 'porte' or gate of the
palace has become synonymous with the Turkish Sultan."
_A. H. Sayee,
Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments,
chapter 2._
PHARAOHITES.
See GYPSIES.
PHARISEES, The.
See CHASIDIM; and SADDUCEES.
PHARSALIA, Battle of.
See ROME: B. C. 48.
PHELPS' AND GORHAM'S PURCHASE.
See NEW YORK: A. D. 1786-1799.
PHERÆ.
A town in ancient Thessaly which acquired an evil fame in
Greek history, during the fourth century, B. C., by the power
and the cruelty of the tyrants who ruled it and who extended
their sway for a time over the greater part of Thessaly. Jason
and Alexander were the most notorious of the brood.
PHILADELPHIA, Asia Minor.
The city of Philadelphia, founded by Attalus Philadelphus of
Pergamum, in eastern Lydia, not far from Sardes, was one in
which Christianity flourished at an early day, and which
prospered for several centuries, notwithstanding repeated
calamities of earthquake. It was the last community of Greeks
in Asia Minor which retained its independence of the Turks. It
stood out for two generations in the midst of the Seljouk
Turks, after all around it had succumbed. The brave city was
finally taken by the Ottoman sultan, Bayezid, or Bajazet,
about 1390. The Turks then gave it the name Alashehr.
_G. Finlay,
History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires,
book 4, chapter 2, section 4 (volume 2)._
----------PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: Start--------
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1641.-
The first settlement, by New Haven colonists.
See NEW JERSEY: A. D. 1640-1655.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1682-1685.
Penn's founding of the city.
See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1682-1685.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1686-1692.
Bradford's Press.
See PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 15<15-1709.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1701.
Chartered as a city.
See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1701-1718.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1719-1729.
The first newspapers.
Franklin's advent.
See PRINTING: A. D. 1704-1729.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1765.
Patriotic self-denials.
Non-importation agreements.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1764-1767.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1774.
The First Continental Congress.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1774 (SEPTEMBER)
and (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1775.
Reception of the news of Lexington and Concord.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (APRIL-JUNE).
{2529}
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1775.
The Second Continental Congress.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (MAY-AUGUST).
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777.
The British army in the city.
Removal of Congress to York.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1777 (JANUARY-DECEMBER).
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1777-1778.
The gay winter with the British in the city.
The Battle of the Kegs.
The Mischianza.
"The year 1778 found the British at Philadelphia in snug
quarters, unembarrassed by the cares of the field, and, except
for occasional detachments, free from other military duties
than the necessary details of garrison life. The trifling
affairs that occurred during the remainder of the season
served rather as a zest to the pleasures which engaged them
than as a serious occupation. … No sooner were they settled in
their winter-quarters than the English set on foot scenes of
gayety that were long remembered, and often with regret, by
the younger part of the local gentry. … Of all the band, no
one seems to have created such a pleasing impression or to
have been so long admiringly remembered as André. His name in
our own days lingered on the lips of every aged woman whose
youth had seen her a belle in the royal lines. … The military
feats about Philadelphia, in the earlier part of 1778, were
neither numerous or important. Howe aimed at little more than
keeping a passage clear for the country-people, within certain
bounds, to come in with marketing. The incident known as the
Battle of the Kegs was celebrated by Hopkinson in a very
amusing song that, wedded to the air of Maggy Lander, was long
the favorite of the American military vocalists; but it hardly
seems to have been noticed at Philadelphia until the Whig
version came in. The local newspapers say that, in January,
1778, a barrel floating down the Delaware being taken up by
some boys exploded in their hands, and killed or maimed one of
them. A few days after, some of the transports fired a few
guns at several other kegs that appeared on the tide; but no
particular notice of the occurrence was taken. These torpedoes
were sent down in the hope that they would damage the
shipping." When Howe was displaced from the command and
recalled, his officers, among whom he was very popular,
resolved "to commemorate their esteem for him by an
entertainment not less novel than splendid. This was the
famous Mischianza [or Meschianza] of the 18th of May, 1778;
the various nature of which is expressed by its name, while
its conception is evidently taken from Lord Derby's fête
champêtre at The Oaks, June 9th, 1774, on occasion of Lord
Stanley's marriage to the Duke of Hamilton's daughter. … The
regatta, or aquatic procession, in the Mischianza was
suggested by a like pageant on the Thames, June 23rd, 1775. …
A mock tournament—perhaps the first in America—was a part of
the play."
_W. Sargent,
Life of Major John André,
chapter 9._
ALSO IN:
_J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott,
History of Philadelphia,
chapter 17 (volume 1)._
_A. H. Wharton,
Through Colonial Doorways,
chapter 2._
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1778.
Evacuation by the British.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE).
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1780-1784.
Founding of the Pennsylvania Bank
and the Bank of North America.
See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1780-1784.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1787.
The sitting of the Federal Constitutional Convention.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.
PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: A. D. 1876.
The Centennial Exhibition.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1876.
----------PHILADELPHIA, Pennsylvania: End--------
PHILADELPHIA, Tenn., Battle at.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1863 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: TENNESSEE).
PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY COMPANY.
See LIBRARIES, MODERN: UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
PHILIP,
Roman Emperor, A. D. 244-249.
Philip, King of Macedon,
The ascendancy in Greece of.
See GREECE: B. C. 359-358, and 357-336.
Philip, King of the Pokanokets,
and his war with the English.
See NEW ENGLAND: A. D.1674-1675, to 1676-1678.
Philip, King of Sweden, 1112-1118.
Philip (called The Bold), Duke of Burgundy, 1363-1404.
Philip (called The Good), Duke of Burgundy, 1418-1467.
Philip I. King of France, 1060-1108.
Philip II. (called Augustus), King of France, 1180-1223.
Philip II., King of the Two Sicilies, 1554-1598;
Duke of Burgundy, 1555-1598;
King of Spain, 1556-1598;
King of Portugal, 1580-1598.
Philip III. (called The Bold), King of France, 1270-1285.
Philip III., King of Spain, Portugal and the Two Sicilies,
and Duke of Burgundy, 1598-1621.
Philip IV. (called The Fair), King of France, 1285-1314.
Philip IV., King of Spain, 1621-1665;
King of Portugal, 1621-1640.
Philip V., King of France and Navarre, 1316-1322.
Philip V., King of Spain (first of the Spanish-Bourbon line),
1700-1746.
Philip VI., King of France
(the first king of the House of Valois), 1328-1350.
PHILIPHAUGH, Battle of (1645).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1644-1645.
PHILIPPI, The founding of.
Philip of Macedonia in 356 B. C. took from the Thasians the
rich gold-mining district of Pangæus, on the left bank of the
Strymon on the border of Thrace, and settled a colony there in
what afterwards became the important city of Philippi.
_C. Thirlwall,
History of Greece,
chapter 42._
PHILIPPI, Battles of (B. C. 42).
See ROME: B. C. 44-42.
PHILIPPI, West Virginia, Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).
PHILIPPICS OF DEMOSTHENES, The.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336, and 351-348.
PHILIPPICUS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 711-713.
PHILIPPOPOLIS, Capture of, by the Goths.
See GOTHS: A. D. 244-251.
----------PHILIPSBURG: Start--------
PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1644.
Taken by the French.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1643-1644.
PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1648.
Right of garrisoning secured to France.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1676.
Taken from France by the Imperialists.
See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1674-1678.
PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1679.
Given up by France.
See NIMEGUEN, PEACE OF.
PHILIPSBURG: A. D. 1734.
Siege and reduction by the French.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.
----------PHILIPSBURG: End--------
{2530}
PHILISTINES, The.
"One small nation alone, of all which dwelt on the land
claimed by Israel, permanently refused to amalgamate itself
with the circumcised peoples,—namely the uncircumcised
Philistines. They occupied the lots which ought to have been
conquered by Dan and Simeon, and had five principal cities,
Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, Gath and Ekron, of which the three
first are on the sea-coast. Ashdod and Gaza were places of
great strength, capable of long resisting the efforts of
Egyptian and Greek warfare. The Philistines cannot have been a
populous nation, but they were far more advanced in the arts
of peace and war than the Hebrews. Their position commanded
the land traffic between Egypt and Canaan, and gave them
access to the sea; hence perhaps their wealth and
comparatively advanced civilization. Some learned men give
credit to an account in Sanchoniathon, that they came from
Crete." They gave their name to Palestine.
_F. W. Newman,
History of the Hebrew Monarchy,
chapter 2._
"Where the Philistines came from, and what they originally
were, is not clear. That they moved up the coast from Egypt is
certain; that they came from Kaphtor is also certain. But it
by no means follows, as some argue, that Kaphtor and Egypt are
the same region. … It appears more safe to identify Kaphtor
with" Crete. "But to have traced the Philistines to Crete is
not to have cleared up their origin, for early Crete was full
of tribes from both east and west. … Take them as a whole, and
the Philistines appear a Semitic people."
_George Adam Smith,
Historical Geography of the Holy Land,
chapter 9._
ALSO IN:
_Dean Stanley,
Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church,
lecture 16._
_H. Ewald,
History of Israel,
book 2, section 3._
See, also,
JEWS: THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN, and after.
PHILOCRATES, The Peace of.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.
PHLIUS, Siege of.
Phlius, the chief city of the small mountain state of
Phliasia, in the northeastern corner of Peloponnesus,
adjoining Argos and Arcadia, made an heroic effort, B. C. 380,
to maintain its liberties against Sparta. Under a valiant
leader, Delphion, it endured a siege which lasted more than an
entire year. When forced to surrender, in the end, it was
treated with terrible severity by the Spartan king, Agesilaus.
_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 5, chapter 5._
PHOCÆANS, OR PHOKÆANS, The.
"The citizens of Phocæa had been the last on the coast-line of
Ionia [see ASIA MINOR: THE GREEK COLONIES] to settle down to a
condition of tranquillity. They had no building-ground but a
rocky peninsula, where they found so little space over which
to spread at their ease that this very circumstance made them
a thorough people of sailors. In accordance with their local
situation they had turned to the waters of the Pontus,
established settlements on the Dardanelles and the Black Sea,
and taken part in the trade with Egypt. Here however they were
unable to hold their own by the side of the Milesians, … and
the Phocæans accordingly saw themselves obliged to look
westward and to follow the direction of Chalcidian navigation.
… It was thus that the Ionian Phocæans came into the western
sea. Being forced from the first to accustom themselves to
long and distant voyages, instead of the easy summer trips of
the other maritime cities, they became notably bold and heroic
sailors. They began where the rest left off; they made voyages
of discovery into regions avoided by others; they remained at
sea even when the skies already showed signs of approaching
winter and the observation of the stars became difficult. They
built their ships long and slim, in order to increase their
agility; their merchant vessels were at the same time
men-of-war. … They entered those parts of the Adriatic which
most abound in rocks, and circumnavigated the islands of the
Tyrrhenian sea in spite of the Carthaginian guard–ships; they
sought out the bays of Campania and the mouths of the Tiber
and Arnus; they proceeded farther, past the Alpine ranges,
along the coast as far as the mouth of the Rhodanus, and
finally reached Iberia, with whose rich treasures of precious
metals they had first become acquainted on the coast of Italy.
… During the period when Ionia began to be hard pressed by the
Lydians, the Phocæans, who had hitherto contented themselves
with small commercial settlements, in their turn proceeded to
the foundation of cities in Gaul and Iberia. The month of the
Rhodanus [the Rhone] was of especial importance to them for
the purposes of land and sea trade. … Massalia [modern
Marseilles], from the forty-fifth Olympiad [B. C. 600] became
a fixed seat of Hellenic culture in the land of the Celts,
despite the hostility of the piratical tribes of Liguria and
the Punic fleet. Large fisheries were established on the
shore; and the stony soil in the immediate vicinity of the
city itself was converted into vine and olive plantations. The
roads leading inland were made level, which brought the
products of the country to the mouth of the Rhone; and in the
Celtic towns were set up mercantile establishments, which
collected at Massalia the loads of British tin, of inestimable
value for the manufacture of copper, while wine and oil, as
well as works of art, particularly copper utensils, were
supplied to the interior. A totally new horizon opened for
Hellenic inquiry."
_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 2, chapter 3._
See, also,
ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539.
PHOCAS, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 602-610.
PHOCIANS, The.
See PHOKIANS.
PHOCION, Execution of.
See GREECE: B. C. 321-312.
PHOCIS: B. C. 357-346.
Seizure of Delphi.
The Ten Years Sacred War with Thebes.
Intervention of Philip of Macedon.
Heavy punishment by his hand.
See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.
----------PHŒNICIANS: Start--------
PHŒNICIANS:
Origin and early history.
Commerce.
Colonies.
"The traditions of the Phœnicians collected at Tyre itself by
Herodotus …; those of the inhabitants of Southern Arabia
preserved by Strabo; and, finally, those still current in
Babylonia during the first centuries of the Christian era,
when the Syro-Chaldee original of the book of 'Nabathæan
Agriculture' was revised—all agree in stating that the
Canaanites at first lived near the Cushites, their brethren in
race, on the banks of the Erythræan Sea, or Persian Gulf, on
that portion of the coast of Bahrein designated El Katif on
our modern maps of Arabia. Pliny speaks of a land of Canaan in
this neighbourhood, in his time. … According to Tragus
Pompeius, the Canaanites were driven from their first
settlements by earthquakes, and then journeyed towards
Southern Syria.
{2531}
The traditions preserved in 'Nabathæan Agriculture' state, on
the contrary, that they were violently expelled, in
consequence of a quarrel with the Cushite monarchs of Babylon
of the dynasty of Nimrod; and this is also the account given
by the Arabian historians. … The entry of the Canaanites into
Palestine, and their settlement in the entire country situated
between the sea and the valley of Jordan, must … be placed
between the period when the twelfth dynasty governed Egypt and
that when the Elamite king, Chedorlaomer, reigned as suzerain
over all the Tigro-Euphrates basin. This brings us
approximately between 2400 and 2300 B. C. … The Sidonians
formed the first settlement, and always remained at the head
of the Phœnician nation, which, at all periods of its history,
even when joined by other peoples of the same race, called
itself both 'Canaanite' and 'Sidonian.' … The Greek name,
Phœnicians, of unknown origin, must not be applied to the
whole of the nations of the race of Canaan who settled in
Southern Syria; it belongs to the Canaanites of the sea coast
only, who were always widely separated from the others.
Phœnicia, in both classical history and geography, is merely
that very narrow tract of land, hemmed in by mountains and
sea, extending from Aradus on the north to the town of Acco on
the south."
_F. Lenormant,
Manual of Ancient History of the East,
book 6, chapter 1._
"Renan sums up the evidence when he says: 'The greater number
of modern critics admit it as demonstrated, that the primitive
abode of the Phœnicians must be placed on the Lower Euphrates,
in the centre of the great commercial and maritime
establishments of the Persian Gulf, conformably to the
unanimous witness of antiquity.' The date, the causes, and the
circumstances of the migration are involved in equal
obscurity. The motive for it assigned by Justin is absurd,
since no nation ever undertook a long and difficult migration
on account of an earthquake. If we may resort to conjecture we
should b inclined to suggest that the spirit of adventure gave
the first impulse, and that afterwards the unexampled
facilities for trade, which the Mediterranean coast was found
to possess, attracted a continuous flow of immigrants from the
sea of the Rising to that of the Setting Sun."
_G. Rawlinson,
The Story of Phœnicia,
chapter 2._
_G. Rawlinson,
History of Phœnicia,
chapter 3._
"The campaigns which the Pharaohs undertook against Syria and
the land of the Euphrates after the expulsion of the Shepherds
could not leave these cities [Sidon and others] unmoved. If
the Zemar of the inscriptions of Tuthmosis III. is Zemar
(Simyra) near Aradus, and Arathutu is Aradus itself, the
territories of these cities were laid waste by this king in
his sixth campaign (about the year 1580 B. C.); if Arkatu is
Arka, south of Aradus, this place must have been destroyed in
his fifteenth campaign (about the year 1570 B. C.). Sethos I.
(1440-1400 B. C.) subdued the land of Limanon (i. e. the
region of Lebanon). and caused cedars to be felled there. One
of his inscriptions mentions Zor, i. e. Tyre, among the cities
conquered by him. The son and successor of Sethos I., Ramses
II., also forced his way in the first decades of the
fourteenth century as far as the coasts of the Phenicians. At
the mouth of the Nahr el Kelb, between Sidon and Berytus, the
rocks on the coast display the memorial which he caused to be
set up in the second and third year of his reign in honour of
the successes obtained in this region. In the fifth year of
his reign Ramses, with the king of the Cheta, defeats the king
of Arathu in the neighbourhood of Kadeshu on the Orontes, and
Ramses III., about the year 1310 B. C., mentions beside the
Cheta who attack Egypt the people of Arathu, by which name in
the one case as in the other, may be meant the warriors of
Aradus. If Arathu, like Arathutu, is Aradus, it follows, from
the position which Ramses II. and III. give to the princes of
Arathu, that beside the power to which the kingdom of the
Hittites had risen about the middle of the fifteenth century
B. C., and which it maintained to the end of the fourteenth,
the Phenician cities had assumed an independent position. The
successes of the Pharaohs in Syria come to an end in the first
decades of the fourteenth century. Egypt makes peace and
enters into a contract of marriage with the royal house of the
Cheta. … The overthrow of the kingdom of the Hittites, which
succumbed to the attack of the Amorites soon after the year
1300 B. C., must have had a reaction on the cities of the
Phenicians. Expelled Hittites must have been driven to the
coast-land, or have fled thither, and in the middle of the
thirteenth century the successes gained by the Hebrews who
broke in from the East, over the Amorites, the settlement of
the Hebrews on the mountains of the Amorites [see JEWS:
CONQUEST OF CANAAN], must again have thrown the vanquished, i.
e. the fugitives of this nation, towards the coast. With this
retirement of the older strata of the population of Canaan to
the coast is connected the movement which from this period
emanates from the coasts of the Phenicians, and is directed
towards the islands of the Mediterranean and the Ægean. It is
true that on this subject only the most scanty statements and
traces, only the most legendary traditions have come down to
us, so that we can ascertain these advances only in the most
wavering outlines. One hundred miles to the west off the coast
of Phenicia lies the island of Cyprus. … The western writers
state that before the time of the Trojan war Belus had
conquered and subjugated the island of Cyprus, and that Citium
belonged to Belus. The victorious Belus is the Baal of the
Phenicians. The date of the Trojan war is of no importance for
the settlement of the Phenicians in Cyprus, for this statement
is found in Virgil only. More important is the fact that the
settlers brought the Babylonian cuneiform writing to Cyprus. …
The settlement of the Sidonians in Cyprus must therefore have
taken place before the time in which the alphabetic writing,
i. e. the writing specially known as Phenician, was in use in
Syria, and hence at the latest before 1100 B. C. … In the
beginning of the tenth century B. C. the cities of Cyprus
stood under the supremacy of the king of Tyre. The island was
of extraordinary fertility. The forests furnished wood for
ship-building; the mountains concealed rich veins of the metal
which has obtained the name of copper from this island. Hence
it was a very valuable acquisition, an essential strengthening
of the power of Sidon in the older, and Tyre in the later
period. …
{2532}
As early as the fifteenth century B. C., we may regard the
Phenician cities as the central points of a trade branching
east and west, which must have been augmented by the fact that
they conveyed not only products of the Syrian land to the
Euphrates and the Nile, but could also carry the goods which
they obtained in exchange in Egypt to Babylonia, and what they
obtained beyond the Euphrates to Egypt. At the same time the
fabrics of Babylon and Egypt roused them to emulation, and
called forth an industry among the Phenicians which we see
producing woven stuffs, vessels of clay and metal, ornaments
and weapons, and becoming preeminent in the colouring of
stuffs with the liquor of the purple-fish which are found on
the Phenician coasts. This industry required above all things
metals, of which Babylonia and Egypt were no less in need, and
when the purple-fish of their own coasts were no longer
sufficient for their extensive dyeing, colouring-matter had to
be obtained. Large quantities of these fish produced a
proportionately small amount of the dye. Copper-ore was found
in Cyprus, gold in the island of Thasos, and purple-fish on
the coasts of Hellas. When the fall of the kingdom of the
Hittites and the overthrow of the Amorite princes in the south
of Canaan augmented the numbers of the population on the
coast, these cities were no longer content to obtain those
possessions of the islands by merely landing and making
exchanges with the inhabitants. Intercourse with
semi-barbarous tribes must be protected by the sword. Good
harbours were needed. … Thus arose protecting forts on the
distant islands and coasts, which received the ships of the
native land. … In order to obtain the raw material necessary
for their industry no less than to carry off the surplus of
population, the Phenicians were brought to colonise Cyprus,
Rhodes, Crete, Thera, Melos, Oliarus, Samothrace, Imbros,
Lemnos and Thasos. In the bays of Laconia and Argos, in the
straits of Eubœa, purple–fish were found in extraordinary
quantities. … We may conclude that the Phenicians must have
set foot on Cyprus about the year 1250 B. C., and on the
islands and coasts of Hellas about the year 1200 B. C.
Thucydides observes that in ancient times the Phenicians had
occupied the promontories of Sicily and the small islands
lying around Sicily, in order to carry on trade with the
Sicels. Diodorus Siculus tells us that when the Phenicians
extended their trade to the western ocean they settled in the
island of Melite (Malta), owing to its situation in the middle
of the sea and excellent harbours, in order to have a refuge
for their ships. … On Sardinia also, as Diodorus tells us, the
Phenicians planted many colonies. The mountains of Sardinia
contained iron, silver, and lead. … The legend of the Greeks
makes Heracles, i. e. Baal Melkarth, lord of the whole West.
As a fact, the colonies of the Phenicians went beyond Sardinia
in this direction. Their first colonies on the north coast of
Africa appear to have been planted where the shore runs out
nearest Sicily; Hippo was apparently regarded as the oldest
colony. In the legends of the coins mentioned above Hippo is
named beside Tyre and Citium as a daughter of Sidon. … Ityke
(atak, settlement, Utica), on the mouth of the Bagradas
(Medsherda), takes the next place after this Hippo, if indeed
it was not founded before it. Aristotle tells us that the
Phenicians stated that Ityke was built 287 years before
Carthage, and Pliny maintains that Ityke was founded 1,178
years before his time. As Carthage was founded in the year 846
B. C. [see CARTHAGE] Ityke, according to Aristotle's
statement, was built in the year 1133 B. C. With this the
statement of Pliny agrees. He wrote in the years 52-77 A. D.,
and therefore he places the foundation of Ityke in the year
1126 or 1100 B. C. About the same time, i. e. about the year
1100 B. C., the Phenicians had already reached much further to
the west. … When their undertakings succeeded according to
their desire and they had collected great treasures, they
resolved to traverse the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles,
which is called Oceanus. First of all, on their passage
through these pillars, they founded upon a peninsula of Europe
a city which they called Gadeira. … This foundation of Gades,
which on the coins is called Gadir and Agadir, i. e. wall,
fortification, the modern Cadiz, and without doubt the most
ancient city in Europe which has preserved its name, is said
to have taken place in the year 1100 B. C. If Ityke was
founded before 1100 B. C. or about that time, we have no
reason to doubt the founding of Gades soon after that date.
Hence the ships of the Phenicians would have reached the ocean
about the time when Tiglath Pilesar I. left the Tigris with
his army, trod the north of Syria, and looked on the
Mediterranean."
_M. Duncker,
The History of Antiquity,
book 3, chapter 3 (volume 3)._
"The typical Phœnician colony was only a trading station,
inhabited by dealers, who had not ceased to be counted as
citizens of the parent State. … In Phœnicia itself the chief
object of public interest was the maintenance and extension of
foreign trade. The wealth of the country depended on the
profits of the merchants, and it was therefore the interest of
the Government to encourage and protect the adventures of the
citizens. Unlike the treasures or curiosities imported by the
fleets of royal adventurers, Phœnician imports were not
intended to be consumed within the country, but to be
exchanged for the most part for other commodities. The
products of all lands were brought to market there, and the
market people, after supplying all their own wants in kind,
still had commodities to sell at a profit to the rest of the
world. The Government did not seek to retain a monopoly of
this profit; on the contrary, private enterprise seems to have
been more untrammelled than at any time before the present
century. But individuals and the State were agreed in desiring
to retain a monopoly of foreign traffic as against the rest of
the world, hence the invention of 'Phœnician lies' about the
dangers of the sea, and the real dangers which 'Tyrian seas'
came to possess for navigators of any other nation. …
Phœnician traders were everywhere first in the field, and it
was easy for them to persuade their barbarous customers that
foreigners of any other stock were dangerous and should be
treated as enemies. They themselves relied more on stratagem
than on open warfare to keep the seas, which they considered
their own, free from other navigators. … Silver and gold, wool
and purple, couches inlaid with ivory, Babylonish garments and
carpets, unguents of all sorts, female slaves and musicians,
are indicated by the comic poets as forming part of the
typical cargo of a Phœnician merchantman, the value of which
in many cases would reach a far higher figure than a small
ship-owner or captain could command.
{2533}
As a consequence, a good deal of banking or money-lending
business was done by the wealthy members of the great
Corporation of Merchants and Ship-owners. The Phœnicians had
an evil reputation with the other nations of the Mediterranean
for sharp practices, and the custom of lending money at
interest was considered, of course wrongly, a Phœnician
invention, though it is possible that they led the way in the
general substitution of loans at interest for the more
primitive use of antichretic pledges. … To the Greeks the name
Phœnician seems to have called up the same sort of association
as those which still cling to the name of Jew in circles which
make no boast of tolerance; and it is probable enough that the
first, like the second, great race of wandering traders was
less scrupulous in its dealings with aliens than compatriots.
… So far as the Punic race may be supposed to have merited its
evil reputation, one is tempted to account for the fact by the
character of its principal staples. All the products of all
the countries of the world circulated in Phœnician
merchantmen, but the two most considerable, and most
profitable articles of trade in which they dealt were human
beings and the precious metals. The Phœnicians were the
slave-dealers and the money-changers of the Old World. And it
is evident that a branch of trade, which necessarily follows
the methods of piracy, is less favourable to the growth of the
social virtues than the cultivation of the ground, the
domestication of animals, or the arts and manufactures by
which the products of nature are applied to new and varied
uses. Compared with the trade in slaves, that in metals—gold,
silver, copper and tin—must seem innocent and meritorious; yet
the experience of ages seems to show that, somehow or other,
mining is not a moralizing industry. … Sidon was famous in
Homer's time for copper or bronze, and Tyre in Solomon's for
bronze (the 'brass' of the Authorized Version); and the
Phœnicians retailed the work of all other metallurgists as
well as their own, as they retailed the manufactures of Egypt
and Babylonia, and the gums and spices of Arabia. … Two things
are certain with regard to the continental commerce of Europe
before the written history of its northern countries begins.
Tin and umber were conveyed by more than one route from
Cornwall and the North Sea to Mediterranean ports. In the
latter case the traders proceeded up the Rhine and the Aar,
along the Jura to the Rhone, and thence down to Marseilles;
and also across the Alps, by a track forking off, perhaps at
Grenoble, into the valley of the Po, and so to the Adriatic. …
Apart from the Phœnician sea trade, Cornish tin was conveyed
partly by water to Armorica and to Marseilles through the west
of France; but also to the east of England' (partly overland
by the route known later as the Pilgrims' Way), and from the
east of Kent, possibly to the seat of the amber trade, as well
as to a route through the east of France, starting from the
short Dover crossing."
_E. J. Simcox,
Primitive Civilizations,
volume 1, pages 397-402._
"The epigraphic texts left us by the Phœnicians are too short
and dry to give us any of those vivid glimpses into the past
that the historian loves. When we wish to make the men of Tyre
and Sidon live again, when we try to see them as they moved in
those seven or eight centuries during which they were supreme
in the Mediterranean, we have to turn to the Greeks, to
Herodotus and Homer, for the details of our picture; it is in
their pages that we are told how these eastern traders made
themselves indispensable to the half-savage races of Europe. …
The Phœnicians carried on their trade in a leisurely way. It
consisted for the most part in exchanging their manufactured
wares for the natural produce of the countries they visited;
it was in conformity with the spirit of the time, and,
although it inspired distrust, it was regular enough in its
methods. Stories told by both Homer and Herodotus show them to
us as abductors of women and children, but in the then state
of the world even deeds like those described would soon be
forgotten, and after a time the faithless traders would be
readmitted for the sake of the wares they brought. … Seeing
how great their services were to the civilization of Greece
and Rome, and how admirable were those virtues of industry,
activity, and splendid courage that they brought to their
work, how is it that the classic writers speak of the
Phœnicians with so little sympathy? and why does the modern
historian, in spite of his breadth and freedom from bias, find
it difficult to treat them even with justice? It is because,
in spite of their long relations with them, the peoples of
Greece and Italy never learnt to really know the Phœnicians or
to understand their language, and, to answer the second
question, because our modern historians are hardly better
informed. Between Greece and Rome on the one hand and Phœnicia
and Carthage on the other, there was a barrier which was never
beaten down. They traded and fought, but they never concluded
a lasting and cordial peace; they made no effort to comprehend
each other's nature, but retained their mutual, ignorant
antipathy to the very end. … That full justice has never been
done to the Phœnicians is partly their own fault. They were
moved neither by the passion for truth nor by that for beauty;
they cared only for gain, and thanks to the condition of the
world at the time they entered upon the scene, they could
satisfy that lust to the full. In the barter trade they
carried on for so many centuries the advantage must always
have been for the more civilized, and the Phœnicians used and
abused that advantage. Tyre and Sidon acquired prodigious
wealth; the minds of their people were exclusively occupied
with the useful; they were thinking always of the immediate
profit to themselves in every transaction; and to such a
people the world readily denies justice, to say nothing of
indulgence. … No doubt it may be said that it was quite
without their goodwill that the Phœnicians helped other
nations to shake off barbarism and to supply themselves with
the material of civilized life. That, of course, is true, but
it does not diminish the importance of the results obtained
through their means. Phœnicia appropriated for herself all the
inventions and recipes of the old eastern civilizations and by
more than one happy discovery, and especially by the invention
of the alphabet, she added to the value of the treasure thus
accumulated. Whether she meant it or not, she did, as a fact,
devote her energies to the dissemination of all this precious
knowledge from the very day on which she entered into
relations with those tribes on the Grecian islands and on the
continent of Europe which were as yet strangers to political
life. …
{2534}
At the time of their greatest expansion, the true Phœnicians
numbered, at the very most, a few hundreds of thousands. It
was with such scanty numbers that they contrived to be present
everywhere, to construct ports of refuge for their ships,
factories for their merchants and warehouses for their goods.
These 'English of antiquity,' as they have been so well
called, upheld their power by means very similar to those
employed by England, who has succeeded for two centuries in
holding together her vast colonial empire by a handful of
soldiers and a huge fleet of ships. The great difference lies
in the fact that Tyre made no attempt to subjugate and govern
the nations she traded with."
_G. Perrot and C. Chipiez,
History of Art in Phœnicia,
volume 2, chapter 6._
The ascendancy among Phœnician cities passed at some early day
from Sidon to Tyre, and the decline of the former has been
ascribed to an attack from the Philistines of Ascalon, which
occurred about 1250 or 1200 B. C. But the explanation seems
questionable.
_G. Rawlinson,
History of Phœnicia,
chapter 14._
See TYRE.
PHŒNICIANS:
Coinage and Money.
See MONEY AND BANKING: PHŒNICIA.
PHŒNICIANS: B. C. 850-538.
Subjection to Assyria and Babylonia.
About 850 B. C. "the military expeditions of the Assyrians
began to reach Southern Syria, and Phœnician independence
seems to have been lost. We cannot be sure that the submission
was continuous; but from the middle of the ninth till past the
middle of the eighth century there occur in the contemporary
monuments of Assyria plain indications of Phœnician
subjection, while there is no evidence of resistance or
revolt. … About B. C. 743 the passive submission of Phœnicia
to the Assyrian yoke began to be exchanged for an impatience
of it, and frequent efforts were made, from this date till
Nineveh fell, to re-establish Phœnician independence. These
efforts for the most part failed; but it is not improbable
that finally, amid the troubles under which the Assyrian
empire succumbed, success crowned the nation's patriotic
exertions, and autonomy was recovered. … Scarcely, however,
had Assyria fallen when a new enemy appeared upon the scene.
Nechoh of Egypt, about B. C. 608, conquered the whole tract
between his own borders and the Euphrates. Phœnicia submitted
or was reduced, and remained for three years an Egyptian
dependency. Nebuchadnezzar, in B. C. 605, after his defeat of
Nechoh at Carchemish, added Phœnicia to Babylon; and, though
Tyre revolted from him eight years later, B. C. 598, and
resisted for thirteen years all his attempts to reduce her,
yet at length she was compelled to submit, and the Babylonian
yoke was firmly fixed on the entire Phœnician people. It is
not quite certain that they did not shake it off upon the
death of the great Babylonian king; but, on the whole,
probability is in favour of their having remained subject till
the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, B. C. 538."
_G. Rawlinson,
Manual of Ancient History,
book 1, part 1, section 6._
"It appears to have been only a few years after
Nebuchadnezzar's triumphant campaign against Neco that renewed
troubles broke out in Syria. Phœnicia revolted under the
leadership of Tyre; and about the same time Jehoiakim, the
Jewish king, having obtained a promise of aid from the
Egyptians, renounced his allegiance. Upon this, in his seventh
year (B. C. 598), Nebuchadnezzar proceeded once more into
Palestine at the head of a vast army, composed partly of his
allies, the Medes, partly of his own subjects. He first
invested Tyre; but finding that city too strong to be taken by
assault, he left a portion of his army to continue the siege,
while he himself pressed forward against Jerusalem. … The
siege of Tyre was still being pressed at the date of the
second investment of Jerusalem. … Tyre, if it fell at the end
of its thirteen years' siege, must have been taken in the very
year which followed the capture of Jerusalem, B. C. 585. … It
has been questioned whether the real Tyre, the island city,
actually fell on this occasion (Heeren, As. Nat. volume ii.
page 11, E. T.; Kenrick, Phœnicia, page 390), chiefly because
Ezekiel says, about B. C. 570, that Nebuchadnezzar had
'received no wages for the service that he served against it.'
(Ezekiel xxix. 18.) But this passage may be understood to mean
that he had had no sufficient wages. Berosus expressly stated
that Nebuchadnezzar reduced all Phœnicia."
_G. Rawlinson,
Five Great Monarchies: Babylonia,
chapter 8, and footnote._
PHŒNICIANS:
Later commerce.
"The commerce of Phœnicia appears to have reached its greatest
height about the time of the rise of the Chaldæan power at
Babylon. Its monopoly may have been more complete in earlier
times, but the range of its traffic was more confined.
Nebuchadnezzar was impelled to attempt its conquest by a
double motive—to possess himself of its riches and to become
master of its harbours and its navy. The prophet Ezekiel
(chapter 27), foretelling his siege of Tyre, has drawn a
picture of its commerce, which is the most valuable document
for its commercial history that has come down to us. …
Directly or indirectly, the commerce of Tyre, in the beginning
of the sixth century before Christ, thus embraced the whole
known world. By means of the Arabian and the Persian gulfs it
communicated with India and the coast of Africa towards the
equator. On the north its vessels found their way along the
Euxine to the frozen borders of Scythia. Beyond the Straits of
Gibraltar, its ships, or those of its colony of Gades, visited
the British isles for tin, if they did not penetrate into the
Baltic to bring back amber. Ezekiel says nothing of the
voyages of the Tyrians in the Atlantic ocean, which lay beyond
the limits of Jewish geography; but it is probable that they
had several centuries before passed the limits of the Desert
on the western coast of Africa, and by the discovery of one of
the Canaries had given rise to the Greek fable of the Islands
of the Blessed."
_J. Kenrick,
Phœnicia,
chapter 6._
ALSO IN:
_A. H. L. Heeren,
Historical Researches,
volume 1._
_J. Yeats,
Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce,
chapter 3._
_G. Rawlinson,
History of Phœnicia,
chapters 9, and 14, section 2._
_R. Bosworth Smith,
Carthage and the Carthaginians,
chapter 1._
PHŒNICIANS: B. C. 332, and after.
Final history.
See TYRE.
----------PHŒNICIANS: End--------
PHOENIX CLUBS.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1858-1867.
PHOENIX PARK MURDERS, The.
See IRELAND: A. D. 1882.
{2535}
PHOKIANS, The.
"The Phokians [in ancient Greece] were bounded on the north by
the little territories called Doris and Dryopis, which separated
them from the Malians,—on the northeast, east and south-west
by the different branches of Lokrians,—and on the south-east
by the Bœotians. They touched the Eubœan sea … at Daphnus, the
point where it approaches nearest to their chief town,
Elateia; their territory also comprised most part of the lofty
and bleak range of Parnassus, as far as its southerly
termination, where a lower portion of it, called Kirphis,
projects into the Corinthian Gulf, between the two bays of
Antikyra and Krissa; the latter, with its once fertile plain,
was in proximity to the sacred rock of the Delphian Apollo.
Both Delphi and Krissa originally belonged to the Phokian
race. But the sanctity of the temple, together with
Lacedæmonian aid, enabled the Delphians to set up for
themselves, disavowing their connexion with the Phokian
brotherhood. Territorially speaking, the most valuable part of
Phokis consisted in the valley of the river Kephisus. … It was
on the projecting mountain ledges and rocks on each side of
this river that the numerous little Phokian towns were
situated. Twenty-two of them were destroyed and broken up into
villages by the Amphiktyonic order, after the second Sacred
War."
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 3._
See SACRED WARS.
PHORMIO, and the sea victories of.
See GREECE: B. C. 429-427.
PHRATRIÆ.
See PHYLÆ:
also, ATHENS: B. C. 510-507.
PHRYGIAN CAP OF LIBERTY, The.
See LIBERTY CAP.
PHRYGIAN SIBYL.
See SIBYLS.
PHRYGIANS.
MYSIANS.
"When the Assyrians in the thirteenth century [B. C.] advanced
past the springs of the Euphrates into the western peninsula
[of Asia Minor], they found, on the central table-land, a
mighty body of native population—the Phrygians. The remains of
their language tend to show them to have been the central link
between the Greeks and the elder Aryans. They called their
Zeus Bagalus ('baga' in ancient Persian signifying God;
'bhaga,' in Sanscrit, fortune), or Sabazius, from a verb
common to Indian and Greek, and signifying 'to adore.' They
possessed the vowels of the Greeks, and in the terminations of
words changed the 'm' into 'n.' Kept off from the sea, they,
it is true, lagged behind the coast tribes in civilization,
and were regarded by these as men slow of understanding and
only suited for inferior duties in human society. Yet they too
had a great and independent post of their own, which is
mirrored in the native myths of their kings. The home of these
myths is especially in the northern regions of Phrygia, on the
banks of the springs which feed the Sangarius, flowing in
mighty curves through Bithynia into Pontus. Here traditions
survived of the ancient kings of the land, of Gordius and
Midas."
_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
volume 1, book 1, chapter 3._
"As far us any positive opinion can be formed respecting
nations of whom we know so little, it would appear that the
Mysians and Phrygians are a sort of connecting link between
Lydians and Karians on one side, and Thracians (European as
well as Asiatic) on the other—a remote ethnical affinity
pervading the whole. Ancient migrations are spoken of in both
directions across the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosphorus.
It was the opinion of some that Phrygians, Mysians and
Thracians had immigrated into Asia from Europe. … On the other
hand, Herodotus speaks of a vast body of Teukrians and Mysians
who, before the Trojan war, had crossed the strait from Asia
into Europe. … The Phrygians also are supposed by some to have
originally occupied an European soil on the borders of
Macedonia, … while the Mysians are said to have come from the
northeastern portions of European Thrace south of the Danube,
known under the Roman empire by the name of Mœsia. But with
respect to the Mysians there was also another story, according
to which they were described as colonists emanating from the
Lydians. … And this last opinion was supported by the
character of the Mysian language, half Lydian and half
Phrygian."
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 16._
The Mysians occupied the north-western corner of Asia Minor,
including the region of the Troad. "In the works of the great
Greek writers which have come down to us, notably, in the
histories of Herodotus and Thucydides, the Phrygians figure
but little. To the Greeks generally they were known but as the
race whence most of their slaves were drawn, as a people
branded with the qualities of slaves, idleness, cowardice,
effeminacy. … From the Phrygians came those orgiastic forms of
religious cult which were connected with the worship of
Dionysus and of the Mother of the Gods, orgies which led alike
to sensual excess and to hideous self–mutilations, to
semi-religious frenzy and bestial immoralities, against which
the strong good sense of the better Greeks set itself at all
periods, though it could not deprive them of their attractions
for the lowest of the people. And yet it was to this race sunk
in corruption, except when roused by frenzy, that the warlike
Trojan stock belonged. Hector and Aeneas were Phrygians; and
the most manly race of the ancient world, the Romans, were
proud of their supposed descent from shepherds of Phrygia."
_P. Gardner,
New Chapters in Greek History,
chapter 2._
PHUT.
See LIBYANS.
PHYLÆ.
PHRATRIÆ.
GENTES.
"In all Greek states, without exception, the people was
divided into tribes or Phylæ, and those again into the smaller
subdivisions of Phratriæ and gentes, and the distribution so
made was employed to a greater or less extent for the common
organisation of the State."
_G. F. Schömann,
Antiquities of Greece: The State,
part 2, chapter 4._
The four Attic tribes were called, during the later period of
that division, the Geleontes, Hopletes, Ægikoreis, and
Argadeis. "It is affirmed, and with some etymological
plausibility, that the denominations of these four tribes must
originally have had reference to the occupations of those who
bore them,—the Hopletes being the warriour-class, the
Ægikoreis goatherds, the Argadeis artisans, and the Geleontes
(Teleontes or Gedeontes) cultivators. Hence some authors have
ascribed to the ancient inhabitants of Attica an actual
primitive distribution into hereditary professions or castes,
similar to that which prevailed in India and Egypt. If we
should even grant that such a division into castes might
originally have prevailed, it must have grown obsolete long
before the time of Solon; but there seem no sufficient grounds
for believing that it ever did prevail. … The four tribes, and
the four names (allowing for some variations of reading), are
therefore historically verified. But neither the time of their
introduction, nor their primitive import, are ascertainable
matters. …
{2536}
These four tribes may be looked at either as religious and
social aggregates, in which capacity each of them comprised
three Phratries and ninety Gentes; or as political aggregates,
in which point of view each included three Trittyes and twelve
Naukraries. Each Phratry contained thirty Gentes; each Trittys
comprised four Naukraries: the total numbers were thus 360
Gentes and 48 Naukraries. Moreover, each gens is said to have
contained thirty heads of families, of whom therefore there
would be a total of 10,800. … That every Phratry contained an
equal number of Gentes, and every Gens an equal number of
families, is a supposition hardly admissible without better
evidence than we possess. But apart from this questionable
precision of numerical scale, the Phratries and Gentes
themselves were real, ancient and durable associations among
the Athenian people, highly important to be understood. The
basis of the whole was the house, hearth or family,—a number
of which, greater or less, composed the Gens, or Genos. This
Gens was therefore a clan, sept, or enlarged, and partly
factitious, brotherhood. … All these phratric and gentile
associations, the larger as well as the smaller, were founded
upon the same principles and tendencies of the Grecian mind—a
coalescence of the idea of worship with that of ancestry, or
of communion in certain special religious rites with communion
of blood, real or supposed. The god, or hero, to whom the
assembled members offered their sacrifices, was conceived as
the primitive ancestor, to whom they owed their origin. … The
revolution of Kleisthenes in 509 B. C. abolished the old
tribes for civil purposes, and created ten new tribes,—leaving
the Phratries and Gentes unaltered, but introducing the local
distribution according to demes or cantons, as the foundation
of his new political tribes. A certain number of demes
belonged to each of the ten Kleisthenean tribes (the demes in
the same tribes were not usually contiguous, so that the tribe
was not coincident with a definite circumscription), and the
deme, in which every individual was then registered, continued
to be that in which his descendants were also registered. …
The different Gentes were very unequal in dignity, arising
chiefly from the religious ceremonies of which each possessed
the hereditary and exclusive administration, and which, being
in some cases considered as of preeminent sanctity in
reference to the whole city, were therefore nationalized. Thus
the Eumolpidæ and Kerykes, who supplied the Hierophant and
superintended the mysteries of the Eleusinian Demeter—and the
Butadæ, who furnished the priestess of Athene Polias as well
as the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus in the acropolis—seem to
have been reverenced above all the other Gentes. When the name
Butadæ was selected in the Kleisthenean arrangement as the
name of a deme, the holy Gens so called adopted the
distinctive denomination of Eteobutadæ, or 'The true Butadæ.'"
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 10._
ALSO IN:
_Fustel de Coulanges,
The Ancient City,
book 3, chapter 1._
PHYLARCH.
See TAXIARCH.
PHYLE.
See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.
PHYSICIANS, First English College of.
See MEDICAL SCIENCE, 16TH CENTURY.
PIACENZA.
See PLACENTIA.
PIAGNONI, The.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1498.
PIANKISHAWS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.
PIASTS,
PIASSES, The.
See POLAND: BEGINNINGS, &c.
PIAVE, Battle on the.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).
PI-BESETH.
See BUBASTIS.
PICARDS, The Religions Sect of the.
"The reforming movement of Bohemia [15th century] had drawn
thither persons from other countries whose opinions were
obnoxious to the authorities of the church. Among these, the
most remarkable were known by the name of Picards,—apparently
a form of the word 'beghards' [see BEGUINES], which … was then
widely applied to sectaries. These Picards appear to have come
from the Low Countries."
_J. C. Robertson,
History of the Christian Church,
volume 8, page 24._
See, also, PAULICIANS.
PICARDY.
PICARDS.
"Whimsical enough is the origin of the name of Picards, and
from thence of Picardie, which does not date earlier than
A. D. 1200. It was an academical joke, an epithet first
applied to the quarrelsome humour of those students in the
university of Paris who came from the frontier of France and
Flanders."
_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 58, foot-note 1._
PICENIANS, The.
See SABINES.
PICHEGRU, Campaign and political intrigues of.
See FRANCE; A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY);
1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY);
1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER);
1797 (SEPTEMBER);
1804-1805.
PICHINCHA, Battle of (1822).
See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.
PICKAWILLANY.
See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1764.
PICTAVI.
See POITIERS: ORIGINAL NAMES.
PICTONES, The.
"The Pictones [of ancient Gaul], whose name is represented by
Poitou, and the Santones (Saintonge) occupied the coast
between the lower Loire and the great aestuary of the
Garonne."
_G. Long,
Decline of the Roman Republic,
volume 4, chapter 6._
PICTS AND SCOTS.
See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.
PICTURE-WRITING.
See AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING;
also HIEROGLYPHICS.
PIE-POWDER COURT, The.
"There was one special court [in London, during the Middle
Ages], which met to decide disputes arising on market-days, or
among travellers and men of business, and which reminds us of
the old English tendency to decide quickly and definitely,
without entering into any long written or verbal consideration
of the question at issue; and this was known as the Pie-powder
Court, a corruption of the old French words. 'pieds poudres,'
the Latin 'pedes pulverizati,' in which the complainant and
the accused were supposed not to have shaken the dust from off
their feet."
_R. Pauli,
Pictures of Old England,
chapter 12._
PIECES OF EIGHT.
See SPANISH COINS.
PIEDMONT: Primitive inhabitants.
See LIGURIANS.
PIEDMONT: History.
See SAVOY AND PIEDMONT.
PIEDMONT, VIRGINIA., Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA)
THE CAMPAIGNING IN THE SHENANDOAH.
{2537}
PIEGANS.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: BLACKFEET.
PIERCE, Franklin:
Presidential election and administration.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1852, to 1857.
----------PIGNEROL: Start--------
PIGNEROL: A. D. 1630-1631
Siege, capture and purchase by the French.
See ITALY: A. D. 1627-1631.
PIGNEROL: A. D. 1648.
Secured to France in the Peace of Westphalia.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.
PIGNEROL: A. D. 1659.
Ceded to France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.
PIGNEROL: A. D. 1697.
Ceded to the Duke of Savoy.
See SAVOY: A. D. 1580-1713.
----------PIGNEROL: End--------
PIGNEROL, Treaty of.
See WALDENSES: A. D. 1655.
PIKE'S PEAK MINING REGION.
See COLORADO: A. D. 1806-1876.
PILATE, Pontius.
See JEWS: B. C. 40-A. D. 44;
and A. D. 26.
PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, The.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1535-1539.
PILGRIMS.
PILGRIM FATHERS.
In American history, the familiar designation of the little
company of English colonists who sailed for the New World in
the Mayflower, A. D. 1620, seeking religious freedom, and who
landed at Plymouth Rock.
See INDEPENDENTS OR SEPARATISTS,
and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1620.
----------PILLOW, Fort: Start--------
PILLOW, Fort: A. D. 1862.
Evacuated by the Confederates.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (JUNE: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).
PILLOW, Fort: A. D. 1864.
Capture and Massacre.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (APRIL: TENNESSEE).
----------PILLOW, Fort: End--------
PILNITZ, The Declaration of.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
PILOT KNOB, Attack on.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).
PILSEN, Capture by Count Ernest of Mansfeld (1618).
See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.
PILUM, The.
The Roman spear was called the pilum. "It was, according to
[Polybius], a spear having a very large iron head or blade,
and this was carried by a socket to receive the shaft. … By
the soldiers of the legions, to whom the use of the pilum was
restricted, this weapon was both hurled from the hand as a
javelin, and grasped firmly, as well for the charge as to
resist and beat down hostile attacks."
_P. Lacombe,
Arms and Armour,
chapter 4._
PIMAN FAMILY, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PIMAN FAMILY.
PIMENTEIRAS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK on COCO GROUP.
PINDARIS,
PINDHARIES, The.
See INDIA: A. D. 1816-1819.
PINE TREE MONEY.
Between 1652 and 1684 the colony of Massachusetts coined
silver shillings and smaller coins, which bore on their faces
the rude figure of a pine tree, and are called "pine tree
money."
See MONEY AND BANKING: 17TH CENTURY.
PINEROLO.
See PIGNEROL.
PINKIE, Battle of (1547).
See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1544-1548.
PIPE ROLLS.
See EXCHEQUER.
PIPPIN, OR PEPIN, of Heristal,
Austrasian Mayor of the Palace, and Duke of the Franks,
A. D. 687-714.
Pippin, or Pepin, the Short,
Duke and Prince of the Franks, 741-752;
King, 752-768.
PIQUETS AND ZINGLINS.
See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.
PIRÆUS, The.
This was the important harbor of Athens, constructed and
fortified during and after the Persian wars; a work which the
Athenians owed to the genius and energy of Themistocles. The
name was sometimes applied to the whole peninsula in which the
Piræus is situated, and which contained two other
harbors—Munychia and Zea. Phalerum, which had previously been
the harbor of Athens, lay to the east. The walls built by
Themistocles "were carried round the whole of the peninsula in
a circumference of seven miles, following the bend of its
rocky rim, and including the three harbour-bays. At the mouths
of each of the harbours a pair of towers rose opposite to one
another at so short a distance that it was possible to connect
them by means of chains: these were the locks of the Piræus.
The walls, about 16 feet thick, were built without mortar, of
rectangular blocks throughout, and were raised to a height of
30 feet by Themistocles, who is said to have originally
intended to give them double that height."
_E. Curtius,
History of Greece,
book 3, chapter 2._
ALSO IN:
_W. M. Leake,
Topography of Athens,
section 10._
See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 489-480.
PIRATES OF CILICIA, The.
See CILICIA, PIRATES OF.
PIRMASENS, Battle of (1793).
See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER) PROGRESS OF TUE WAR.
PIRNA, Saxon Surrender at.
See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.
PIRU,
CHONTAQUIROS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:: ANDESIANS.
PISA, Greece.
See ELIS; and OLYMPIC GAMES.
----------PISA, Italy: Start--------
PISA, Italy:
Origin of the city.
Early growth of its commerce and naval power.
Conquest of Sardinia.
Strabo and others have given Pisa a Grecian origin. "Situated
near the sea upon the triangle formed in past ages, by the
confluence of the two rivers, the Arno and the Serchio; she
was highly adapted to commerce and navigation; particularly in
times when these were carried on with small vessels. We
consequently find that she was rich and mercantile in early
times, and frequented by all the barbarous nations. … Down to
the end of the fifteenth century, almost all the navigation of
the nations of Europe, as well as those of Asia and Africa,
which kept a correspondence and commerce with the former, was
limited to the Mediterranean, Adriatic, Archipelago, and
Euxine seas; and the first three Italian republics, Pisa,
Genoa, and Venice, were for a long time mistresses of it.
Pisa, as far back as the year 925, was the principal city of
Tuscany, according to Luitprand. In the beginning of the
eleventh century, that is, in the year 1004, we find in the
Pisan annals, that the latter waged war with the Lucchese and
beat them; this is the first enterprise of one Italian city
against another, which proves that she already acted for
herself, and was in great part, if not wholly, liberated from
the dominion of the Duke of Tuscany.
{2538}
In the Pisan annals, and in other authors, we meet with a
series of enterprises, many of which are obscurely related, or
perhaps exaggerated. Thus we find that in the year 1005, in an
expedition of the Pisans against the maritime city of Reggio,
Pisa being left unprovided with defenders, Musetto, king, or
head, of the Saracens, who occupied Sardinia, seized the
opportunity of making an invasion; and having sacked the city,
departed, or was driven out of it. … It was very natural for
the Pisans and Genoese, who must have been in continual fear
of the piracies and invasions of the barbarians as long as
they occupied Sardinia, to think seriously of exterminating
them from that country: the pope himself sent the Bishop of
Ostia in haste to the Pisans as legate, to encourage them to
the enterprise: who, joining with the Genoese, conquered
Sardinia [1017] by driving out the Saracens; and the pope, by
the right he thought he possessed over all the kingdoms of the
earth, invested the Pisans with the dominion; not however
without exciting the jealousy of the Genoese, who, as they
were less powerful in those times, were obliged to yield to
force. The mutual necessity of defence from the common enemy
kept them united; the barbarians having disembarked in the
year 1020 in Sardinia under the same leader, they were again
repulsed, and all their treasure which remained a booty of the
conquerors, was conceded to the Genoese as an indemnity for
the expense."
_L. Pignotti,
History of Tuscany,
volume 1, chapter 7._
PISA: A. D. 1063-1293.
Architectural development.
Disastrous war with Genoa.
The great defeat at Meloria.
Count Ugolino and his fate.
War with Florence and Lucca.
"The republic of Pisa was one of the first to make known to
the world the riches and power which a small state might
acquire by the aid of commerce and liberty. Pisa had
astonished the shores of the Mediterranean by the number of
vessels and galleys that sailed under her flag, by the succor
she had given the crusaders, by the fear she had inspired at
Constantinople, and by the conquest of Sardinia and the
Balearic Isles. Pisa was the first to introduce into Tuscany
the arts that ennoble wealth: her dome, her baptistery, her
leaning tower, and her Campo Santo, which the traveller's eye
embraces at one glance, but does not weary of beholding, had
been successively built from the year 1063 to the end of the
12th century. These chefs-d'œuvre had animated the genius of
the Pisans; the great architects of the 13th century were, for
the most part, pupils of Nicolas di Pisa. But the moment was
come in which the ruin of this glorious republic was at hand;
a deep-rooted jealousy, to be dated from the conquest of
Sardinia, had frequently, during the last two centuries, armed
against each other the republics of Genoa and Pisa: a new war
between them broke out in 1282. It is difficult to comprehend
how two simple cities could put to sea such prodigious fleets
as those of Pisa and Genoa. In 1282, Ginicel Sismondi
commanded 30 Pisan galleys, of which he lost the half in a
tempest, on the 9th of September; the following year, Rosso
Sismondi commanded 64; in 1284, Guido Jacia commanded 24, and
was vanquished. The Pisans had recourse the same year to a
Venetian admiral, Alberto Morosini, to whom they intrusted 103
galleys: but whatever efforts they made, the Genoese
constantly opposed a superior fleet. This year [1284],
however, all the male population of the two republics seemed
assembled on their vessels; they met on the 6th of August,
1284, once more before the Isle of Meloria, rendered famous 43
years before by the victory of the Pisans over the same
enemies [when the Ghibelline friendship of Pisa for the
Emperor Frederick II. induced her to intercept and attack, on
the 3d of May, 1241, a Genoese fleet which conveyed many
prelates to a great council called by Pope Gregory IX. with
hostile intentions towards the Emperor, and which the latter
desired to prevent]. Valor was still the same, but fortune had
changed sides; and a terrible disaster effaced the memory of
an ancient victory. While the two fleets, almost equal in
number, were engaged, a reinforcement of 30 Genoese galleys,
driven impetuously by the wind, struck the Pisan fleet in
flank: 7 of their vessels were instantly sunk, 28 taken. 5,000
citizens perished in the battle, and 11,000 who were taken
prisoners to Genoa preferred death in captivity rather than
their republic should ransom them, by giving up Sardinia to
the Genoese. This prodigious loss ruined the maritime power of
Pisa; the same nautical knowledge, the same spirit of
enterprise, were not transmitted to the next generation. All
the fishermen of the coast quitted the Pisan galleys for those
of Genoa. The vessels diminished in number, with the means of
manning them; and Pisa could no longer pretend to be more than
the third maritime power in Italy. While the republic was thus
exhausted by this great reverse of fortune, it was attacked by
the league of the Tuscan Guelphs; and a powerful citizen, to
whom it had intrusted itself, betrayed his country to enslave
it. Ugolino was count of the Gherardesca, a mountainous
country situated along the coast, between Leghorn and
Piombino: he was of Ghibeline origin, but had married his
sister to Giovan di Gallura, chief of the Guelphs of Pisa and
of Sardinia. From that time he artfully opposed the Guelphs to
the Ghibelines." The Pisans, thinking him to be the person
best able to reconcile Pisa with the Guelph league "named
Ugolino captain-general for ten years: and the new commander
did, indeed, obtain peace with the Guelph league; but not till
he had caused all the fortresses of the Pisan territory to be
opened by his creatures to the Lucchese and Florentines. …
From that time he sought only to strengthen his own
despotism." In July, 1288, there was a rising of the Pisans
against him; his palace was stormed and burned; and he, his
two sons and two grandsons, were dragged out of the flames, to
be locked in a tower and starved to death—as told in the verse
of Dante. "The victory over count Ugolino, achieved by the
most ardent of the Ghibelines,. redoubled the enthusiasm and
audacity of that party; and soon determined them to renew the
war with the Guelphs of Tuscany. … Guido de Montefeltro was
named captain. He had acquired a high reputation in defending
Forli against the French forces of Charles of Anjou; and the
republic had not to repent of its choice. He recovered by
force of arms all the fortresses which Ugolino had given up to
the Lucchese and Florentines. The Pisan militia, whom
Montefeltro armed with cross-bows, which he had trained them
to use with precision, became the terror of Tuscany. The
Guelphs of Florence and Lucca were glad to make peace in
1293."
_J. C. L. de Sismondi,
History of the Italian Republics,
chapter 5._
{2539}
In 1290, when Pisa was in her greatest distress, Genoa
suddenly joined again in the attack on her ancient rival. She
sent an expedition under Conrad d'Oria which entered the
harbor of Pisa, pulled down its towers, its bridge and its
forts, and carried away the chain which locked the harbor
entrance. The latter trophy was only restored to Pisa in
recent years.
_J. T. Bent,
Genoa,
chapter 4._
ALSO IN:
_H. E. Napier,
Florentine History,
book 1, chapter 12 (volume 1)._
PISA: A. D. 1100-1111.
Participation in the first Crusades.
See CRUSADES: A. D. 1104-1111.
PISA: A. D. 1135-1137.
Destruction of Amalfi.
See AMALFI.
PISA: 13th Century.
Commercial rivalry with Venice and Genoa at Constantinople.
See CONSTANTINOPLE: A. D. 1261-1453.
PISA: A. D. 1311-1313.
Welcome to the Emperor Henry VII.
Aid to his war against Florence.
See ITALY: A. D. 1310-1313.
PISA: A. D. 1313-1328.
Military successes under Uguccione della Faggiuola.
His tyranny and its overthrow.
Subjection to Castruccio Castracani and the deliverance.
See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.
PISA: A. D. 1341.
Defeat of the Florentines before Lucca.
Acquisition of that city.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1341-1343.
PISA: A. D. 1353-1364.
Dealings with the Free Companies.
War with Florence.
See ITALY: A. D. 1343-1393.
PISA: A. D. 1399-1406.
Betrayal to Visconti of Milan.
Sale to the Florentines.
Conquest by them and subsequent decline.
See ITALY: A. D. 1402-1406.
PISA: A. D. 1409.
The General Council of the Church.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1377-1417.
PISA: A. D. 1494-1509.
Delivered by the French.
The faithlessness of Charles VIII.
Thirteen years of struggle against Florence.
Final surrender.
"The Florentine conquest was the beginning of 90 years of
slavery for Pisa —a terrible slavery, heavy with exaggerated
imports, bitter with the tolerated plunder of private
Florentines, humiliating with continual espionage. … Pisa was
the Ireland of Florence, captive and yet unvanquished. … At
last a favourable chance was offered to the Pisans. … In the
autumn of 1494, the armies of Charles VIII. poured into Italy
[see ITALY: A. D. 1494-1496]. It had been the custom of the
Florentines, in times of war and danger, to call the heads of
every Pisan household into Florence, as hostages for the good
behaviour of their families and fellow citizens. But in the
autumn of 1494, Piero de' Medici who forgot everything, who
had forgotten to garrison his frontier, forgot to call the
Pisan hostages to Florence, although the French were steadily
advancing on Tuscany, and the Pisans eager to rebel. … The
French army and the hope of liberty entered the unhappy city
hand in hand [November 8, 1494]. … That night the Florentines
in Pisa—men in office, judges, merchants, and soldiers of the
garrison—were driven at the sword's point out of the
rebellious city. … Twenty-four hours after the entry of the
French, Pisa was a free republic, governed by a Gonfalonier,
six Priors, and a Balia of Ten, with a new militia of its own,
and, for the first time in eight and eighty years, a Pisan
garrison in the ancient citadel." All this was done with the
assent of the King of France and the promise of his
protection. But when he passed on to Florence, and was faced
there by the resolute Capponi, he signed a treaty in which he
promised to give back Pisa to Florence when he returned from
Naples. He returned from Naples the next summer (1495), hard
pressed and retreating from his recent triumphs, and halted
with his army at Pisa. There the tears and distress of the
friendly Pisans moved even his soldiers to cry out in
protestation against the surrender of the city to its former
bondage. Charles compromised by a new treaty with the
Florentines, again agreeing to deliver Pisa to them, but
stipulating that they should place their old rivals on equal
terms with themselves, in commerce and in civil rights. But
Entragues, the French governor whom Charles had left in
command at Pisa, with a small garrison, refused to carry out
the treaty. He assisted the Pisans in expelling a force with
which the Duke of Milan attempted to secure the city, and
then, on the 1st of January, 1496, he delivered the citadel
which he held into the hands of the Pisan signory. "During
thirteen years from this date the shifting fortunes, the
greeds and jealousies of the great Italian cities, fostered an
artificial liberty in Pisa. Thrown like a ball from Milan to
Venice, Venice to Maximilian, Max again to Venice, and thence
to Cæsar Borgia, the unhappy Republic described the whole
circle of desperate hope, agonized courage, misery, poverty,
cunning, and betrayal."
_A. M. F. Robinson,
The End of the Middle Ages: The French at Pisa._
In 1509 the Pisans, reduced to the last extremity by the
obstinate siege which the Florentines had maintained, and sold
by the French and Spaniards, who took pay from Florence (see
VENICE: A. D. 1508-1509) for abandoning their cause, opened
their gates to the Florentine army.
_H. E. Napier,
Florentine History,
book 2, chapter 8 (volume 4)._
ALSO IN:
_T. A. Trollope,
History of the Commonwealth of Florence,
book 8, chapter 6 and book 9, chapters 1-10._
PISA: A. D. 1512.
The attempted convocation of a Council by Louis XII. of France.
See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.
----------PISA: End--------
PISISTRATIDÆ, The.
See ATHENS: B. C. 560-510.
PISTICS.
See GNOSTICS.
PIT RIVER INDIANS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: MODOCS, &c.
PITHECUSA.
The ancient name of the island of Ischia.
PITHOM, the store city.
See JEWS: THE ROUTE OF THE EXODUS.
PITT, William (Lord Chatham).
The administration of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1757-1760; 1760-1763;
and 1765-1768.
PITT, William (Lord Chatham).
The American Revolution.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1775 (JANUARY-MARCH).
PITT, William (the Younger).
The Administration of.
See ENGLAND: A. D. 1783-1787, to 1801-1806.
PITTI PALACE, The building of the.
See FLORENCE: A. D. 1458-1469.
PITTSBURG LANDING, OR SHILOH, Battle of.
See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1862 (FEBRUARY-APRIL: TENNESSEE).
{2540}
----------PITTSBURGH: Start--------
PITTSBURGH: A. D. 1754.
Fort Duquesne built by the French.
See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1754.
PITTSBURGH: A. D. 1758.
Fort Duquesne abandoned by the French, occupied by the
English, and named in honor of Pitt.
See CANADA: A. D. 1758.
PITTSBURGH: A. D. 1763.
Siege of Fort Pitt by the Indians.
Bouquet's relieving expedition.
See PONTIAC'S WAR.
PITTSBURGH: A. D. 1794.
The Whiskey Insurrection.
See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1794.
----------PITTSBURGH: End--------
PIUS II., Pope, A. D. 1458-1464.
Pius III., Pope, 1503, September to October.
Pius IV., Pope, 1559-1565.
Pius V., Pope, 1566-1572.
Pius VI., Pope, 1775-1799.
Pius VII., Pope, 1800-1823.
Pius VIII., Pope, 1829-1830.
Pius IX., Pope, 1846-1878.
PIUTES, PAH UTES, &c.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.
PIZARRO, Francisco: Discovery and conquest of Peru.
See AMERICA: A. D. 1524-1528;
and PERU: A. D. 1528-1531, and 1531-1533.
PLACARDS OF CHARLES V., The.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555.
----------PLACENTIA: Start--------
PLACENTIA (modern Piacenza):
The Roman colony.
Its capture by the Gauls.
See ROME: B. C. 295-191.
PLACENTIA: B. C. 49.
Mutiny of Cæsar's Legions.
See ROME: B. C. 49.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 270.
Defeat of the Alemanni.
See ALEMANNI: A. D. 270.
PLACENTIA: 14th Century.
Under the tyranny of the Visconti.
See MILAN: A. D. 1277-1447.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1513.
Conquest by Pope Julius II.
See ITALY: A. D. 1510-1513.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1515.
Restored to the duchy of Milan,
and with it to the king of France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1515-1518.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1521.
Retaken by the Pope.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1520-1523.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1545-1592.
Union with Parma in the duchy created for the House of Farnese.
See PARMA: A. D. 1545-1592.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1725.
Reversion of the duchy pledged to the Infant of Spain.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1713-1725.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1735.
Restored to Austria.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1733-1735.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1746.
Given up by the Spaniards.
See ITALY: A. D. 1746-1747.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1805.
The duchy declared a dependency of France.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1804-1805.
PLACENTIA: A. D. 1814.
The duchy conferred on Marie Louise,
the ex-empress of Napoleon.
See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (MARCH-APRIL).
----------PLACENTIA: Start--------
PLACILLA, Battle of (1891).
See CHILE: A. D. 1885-1891.
PLACITUM.
PLAID.
See PARLIAMENT OF PARIS.
----------PLAGUE: Start--------
PLAGUE.
PESTILENCE.
EPIDEMICS:
PLAGUE: B. C. 466-463. At Rome.
See ROME: B. C. 466-463.
PLAGUE: B. C. 431-429. At Athens.
See ATHENS: B. C. 430-429.
PLAGUE: B. C. 405-375.
Among the Carthaginians.
"Within the space of less than thirty years [from B. C. 405]
we read of four distinct epidemic distempers, each of
frightful severity, as having afflicted Carthage and her
armies in Sicily, without touching either Syracuse or the
Sicilian Greeks. Such epidemics were the most irresistible of
all enemies to the Carthaginians. … Upon what physical
conditions the frequent repetition of such a calamity
depended, together with the remarkable fact that it was
confined to Carthage and her armies—we know partially in
respect to the third of the four cases [when it was
attributable in some degree to the situation of the
Carthaginian camp on low, marshy ground, at a season when hot
days alternated with chill nights] but not at all in regard to
the others."
_G. Grote,
History of Greece,
part 2, chapter 83._
PLAGUE: A. D. 78-266.
Plague after the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Plagues of Orosius, Antoninus, and Cyprian.
"On the cessation of the eruption of Vesuvius, which began on
the 23d of August, A. D. 78, and which buried Herculaneum,
Stabiæ and Pompeii in ashes, there arose … a destructive
plague, which for many days in succession slew 10,000 men
daily." The plague of Orosius (so called because Orosius, who
wrote in the 5th century, described it most fully) began in
the year A. D. 125. It was attributed to immense masses of
grasshoppers which were swept by the winds, that year, from
Africa into the Mediterranean Sea, and which were cast back by
the waves to putrefy in heaps on the shore. "'In Numidia,
where at that time Micipsa was king, 800,000 men perished,
while in the region which lies most contiguous to the
sea-shore of Carthage and Utica, more than 200,000 are said to
have been cut down. In the city of Utica itself, 80,000
soldiers, who had been ordered here for the defence of all
Africa, were destroyed.' … The plague of Antoninus (A. D.
164-180) visited the whole Roman Empire, from its most eastern
to its extreme western boundaries, beginning at the former,
and spreading thence by means of the troops who returned from
putting down a rebellion in Syria. In the year 166 it broke
out for the first time in Rome, and returned again in the year
168. … The plague depopulated entire cities and districts, so
that forests sprung up in places before inhabited. … In its
last year it appears to have raged again with especial fury,
so that in Rome … 2,000 men often died in a single day. With
regard to the character of this plague, it has been considered
sometimes smallpox, sometimes petechial typhus, and again the
bubo-plague. The third so-called plague, that of Cyprian,
raged about A. D. 251-266. … For a long time 500 died a day in
Rome. … After its disappearance Italy was almost deserted. …
It has been assumed that this plague should be considered
either a true bubo-plague, or smallpox."
_J. H. Baas,
Outlines of the History of Medicine,
pages 189-190._
"Niebuhr has expressed the opinion that 'the ancient world
never recovered from the blow inflicted upon it by the plague
which visited it in the reign of M. Aurelius.'"
_O. Merivale,
History of the Romans,
chapter 68, footnote._
ALSO IN:
_P. B. Watson,
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,
chapter 4._
{2541}
PLAGUE: A. D. 542-594.
During the reign of Justinian.
"The fatal disease which depopulated the earth in the time of
Justinian and his successors first appeared in the
neighbourhood of Pelusium, between the Serbonian bog and the
eastern channel of the Nile. From thence, tracing as it were a
double path, it spread to the east, over Syria, Persia, and
the Indies, and penetrated to the west, along the coast of
Africa, and over the continent of Europe. In the spring of the
second year, Constantinople, during three or four months, was
visited by the pestilence; and Procopius, who observed its
progress and symptoms with the eyes of a physician, has
emulated the skill and diligence of Thucydides in the
description of the plague of Athens. … The fever was often
accompanied with lethargy or delirium; the bodies of the sick
were covered with black pustules or carbuncles, the symptoms
of immediate death; and in the constitutions too feeble to
produce an eruption, the vomiting of blood was followed by a
mortification of the bowels. … Youth was the most perilous
season; and the female sex was less susceptible than the male.
… It was not till the end of a calamitous period of fifty-two
years [A. D. 542-594] that mankind recovered their health, or
the air resumed its pure and salubrious quality. … During
three months, five and at length ten thousand persons died
each day at Constantinople; … many cities of the east were
left vacant; … in several districts of Italy the harvest and
the vintage withered on the ground. The triple scourge of war,
pestilence, and famine, afflicted the subjects of Justinian;
and his reign is disgraced by a visible decrease of the human
species, which has never been repaired in some of the fairest
countries of the globe."
_E. Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
chapter 43._
ALSO IN:
_T. Hodgkin,
Italy and Her Invaders,
book 5, chapter 17._
_J. B. Bury,
History of the Later Roman Empire,
book 4, chapter 6 (volume 1)._
PLAGUE: 6-13th Centuries.
Spread of Small-pox.
"Nothing is known of the origin of small-pox; but it appears
to have come originally from the East, and to have been known
in China and Hindostan from time immemorial. … 'It seems to
have reached Constantinople by way of Egypt about the year
569.' From Constantinople it spread gradually over the whole
of Europe, reaching England about the middle of the 13th
century."
_R. Rollo,
Epidemics, Plagues, and Fevers,
page 271._
PLAGUE: A. D. 744-748.
The world-wide pestilence.
"One great calamity in the age of Constantine [the Byzantine
emperor Constantine V., called Copronymus], appears to have
travelled over the whole habitable world; this was the great
pestilence, which made its appearance in the Byzantine empire
as early as 745. It had previously carried off a considerable
portion of the population of Syria, and the Caliph Yezid III.
perished of the disease in 744. From Syria it visited Egypt
and Africa, from whence it passed into Sicily. After making
great ravages in Sicily and Calabria, it spread to Greece; and
at last, in the year 747, it broke out with terrible violence
in Constantinople, then probably the most populous city in the
universe. It was supposed to have been introduced, and
dispersed through Christian countries, by the Venetian and
Greek ships employed in carrying on a contraband trade in
slaves with the Mohammedan nations, and it spread wherever
commerce extended. … This plague threatened to exterminate the
Hellenic race." After it had disappeared, at the end of a
year, "the capital required an immense influx of new
inhabitants. To fill up the void caused by the scourge,
Constantine induced many Greek families from the continent and
the islands to emigrate to Constantinople."
_G. Finlay,
History of the Byzantine Empire, from 716 to 1057,
book 1, chapter 1, section 3._
PLAGUE: A. D. 1348-1351.
The Black Death.
See BLACK DEATH;
also, ENGLAND: A. D. 1348-1349.
PLAGUE: A. D. 1360-1363.
The Children's Plague.
"The peace of Bretigni [England and France, A. D. 1360], like
the capture of Calais, was followed by a pestilence that
turned the national rejoicings into mourning. But the
'Children's Plague,' as it was called, from the fact that it
was most deadly to the young, was fortunately not a return of
the Black Death, and did not approach it in its effects. It
numbered, however, three prelates and the Duke of Lancaster
among its victims, and caused such anxiety in London that the
courts of law were adjourned from May to October. France felt
the scourge more severely. It ravaged the country for three
years, and was especially fatal at Paris and at Avignon. In
Ireland, where the pestilence lingered on into the next year,
and proved very deadly, it was mistaken for scrofula, a
circumstance which probably shows that it attacked the glands
and the throat."
_C. H. Pearson,
English History in the 14th Century,
chapter 7._
PLAGUE: A. D. 1374.
The Dancing Mania.
"The effects of the Black Death had not yet subsided, and the
graves of millions of its victims were scarcely closed, when a
strange delusion arose in Germany. … It was a convulsion which
in the most extraordinary manner infuriated the human frame,
and excited the astonishment of contemporaries for more than
two centuries, since which time it has never reappeared. It
was called the dance of St. John or of St. Vitus, on account
of the Bacchantic leaps by which it was characterized, and
which gave to those affected, whilst performing their wild
dance, and screaming and foaming with fury, all the appearance
of persons possessed. It did not remain confined to particular
localities, but was propagated by the sight of the sufferers,
like a demoniacal epidemic, over the whole of Germany and the
neighbouring countries to the north-west, which were already
prepared for its reception by the prevailing opinions of the
times. So early as the year 1374, assemblages of men and women
were seen at Aix-la–Chapelle who had come out of Germany, and
who, united by one common delusion, exhibited to the public
both in the streets and in the churches the following strange
spectacle. They formed circles hand in hand, and appearing to
have lost all control over their senses, continued dancing,
regardless of the by-standers, for hours together in wild
delirium, until at length they fell to the ground in a state
of exhaustion. They then complained of extreme oppression, and
groaned as if in the agonies of death, until they were swathed
in cloths, bound tightly round their waists, upon which they
again recovered, and remained free from complaint until the
next attack. This practice of swathing was resorted to on
account of the tympany which followed these spasmodic ravings,
but the by-standers frequently relieved patients in a less
artificial manner, by thumping and trampling upon the parts
affected.
{2542}
While dancing they neither saw nor heard, being insensible to
external impressions through the senses, but were haunted by
visions, their fancies conjuring up spirits whose names they
shrieked out; and some of them afterwards asserted that they
felt as if they had been immersed in a stream of blood, which
obliged them to leap so high. … Where the disease was
completely developed, the attack commenced with epileptic
convulsions. Those affected fell to the ground senseless,
panting and labouring for breath. They foamed at the mouth,
and suddenly springing up began their dance amidst strange
contortions. Yet the malady doubtless made its appearance very
variously, and was modified by temporary or local
circumstances. … It was but a few months ere this demoniacal
disease had spread from Aix-Ia-Chapelle, where it appeared in
July, over the neighbouring Netherlands. In Liege, Utrecht,
Tongres, and many other towns of Belgium, the dancers appeared
with garlands in their hair, and their waists girt with
cloths, that they might, as soon as the paroxysm was over,
receive immediate relief on the attack of the tympany. This
bandage was, by the insertion of a stick, easily twisted
tight: many, however, obtained more relief from kicks and
blows, which they found numbers of persons ready to
administer. … A few months after this dancing malady had made
its appearance at Aix-la-Chapelle, it broke out at Cologne,
where the number of those possessed amounted to more than five
hundred, and about the same time at Metz, the streets of which
place are said to have been filled with eleven hundred
dancers. Peasants left their ploughs, mechanics their
workshops, housewives their domestic duties, to join the wild
revels, and this rich commercial city became the scene of the
most ruinous disorder. … The dancing mania of the year 1374
was, in fact, no new disease, but a phenomenon well known in
the middle ages, of which many wondrous stories were
traditionally current among the people."
_J. F. C. Hecker,
Epidemics of the Middle Ages: The Dancing Mania,
chapter 1._
PLAGUE: A. D. 1485-1593.
The Sweating Sickness in England.
Plague, Small-pox and Grippe in Europe.
"For centuries no infection had visited England, which in
fearful rapidity and malignancy could be compared with the
'sudor Anglicus,' as it was at first called, from the notion
that its attacks were confined to Englishmen. People sitting
at dinner, in the full enjoyment of health and spirits, were
seized with it and died before the next morning. An open
window, accidental contact in the streets, children playing
before the door, a beggar knocking at the rich man's gate,
might disseminate the infection, and a whole family would be
decimated in a few hours without hope or remedy. Houses and
villages were deserted. … Dr. Caius, a physician who had
studied the disease under its various aspects, gives the
following account of its appearance: 'In the year of our Lord
God 1485, shortly after the 7th day of August, at which time
King Henry VII. arrived at Milford in Wales out of France, and
in the first year of his reign, there chanced a disease among
the people lasting the rest of that month and all September,
which for the sudden sharpness and unwont cruelness passed the
pestilence. For this commonly giveth in four, often seven,
sometime nine, sometime eleven and sometime fourteen days,
respite to whom it vexeth. But that immediately killed some in
opening their windows, some in playing with children in their
street doors, some in one hour, many in two, it destroyed. …
This disease, because it most did stand in sweating from the
beginning until the ending, was called here The Sweating
Sickness; and because it first began in England, it was named
in other countries The English Sweat.' From the same authority
we learn that it appeared in 1506, again in 1517 from July to
the middle of December, then in 1528. It commenced with a
fever, followed by strong internal struggles of nature,
causing sweat. … It was attended with sharp pains in the back,
shoulders and extremities, and then attacked the liver. … It
never entered Scotland. In Calais, Antwerp and Brabant it
generally singled out English residents and visitors. … In
consequence of the peculiarity of the disease in thus singling
out Englishmen, and those of a richer diet and more sanguine
temperament, various speculations were set afloat as to its
origin and its best mode of cure. Erasmus attributed it to bad
houses and bad ventilation, to the clay floors, the unchanged
and festering rushes with which the rooms were strewn, and the
putrid offal, bones and filth which reeked and rotted together
in the unswept and unwashed dining halls and chambers."
_J. S. Brewer,
Reign of Henry VIII.,
volume 1, chapter 8._
See, also, SWEATING SICKNESS.
"In the middle of the 16th century the English sweating
sickness disappeared from the list of epidemic diseases. On
the other hand, the plague, during the whole 16th century,
prevailed more generally, and in places more fatally, than
ever before. … In 1500-1507 it raged in Germany, Italy, and
Holland, in 1528 in Upper Italy, 1534 in Southern France,
1562-1568 pretty generally throughout Europe. … The disease
prevailed again in 1591. It is characteristic of the
improvement in the art of observation of this century that the
plague was declared contagious and portable, and accordingly
measures of isolation and disinfection were put in force
against it, though without proving in any degree effectual.
With a view to disinfection, horn, gunpowder, arsenic with
sulphur or straw moistened with wine, etc., were burned in the
streets. … Small-pox (first observed or described in Germany
in 1493) and measles, whose specific nature was still unknown
to the physicians of the West, likewise appeared in the 16th
century. … The Grippe (influenza), for the first time
recognizable with certainty as such, showed itself in the year
1510, and spread over all Europe. A second epidemic, beginning
in 1557, was less widely extended. On the other hand, in 1580
and 1593 it became again pandemic, while in 1591 Germany alone
was visited."
_J. H. Baas,
Outlines of the History of Medicine,
pages 438-439._
ALSO IN:
_J. F. Hecker,
Epidemics of the Middle Ages._
PLAGUE: A. D. 1665.
In London.
See LONDON: A. D. 1665.
{2543}
PLAGUE: 18th Century.
The more serious epidemics.
"The bubo–plague, 'the disease of barbarism' and especially of
declining nations, in the 18th century still often reached the
north of Europe, though it maintained its chief focus and
head-quarters in the south-west [south-east?]. Thus from 1703
forward, as the result of the Russo-Swedish war, it spread
from Turkey to Sweden, Denmark, Poland and Prussia, so that in
1709, the coldest year of the 18th century, more than 300,000
human beings died in East Prussia in spite of the intense
cold, and in Dantzic alone more than 30,000. Obliquing to the
west, the plague reached Styria and Bohemia, and was carried
by a ship to Regensburg in 1714, but by means of strict
quarantine regulations was prevented from spreading to the
rest of Germany. A hurricane swept the disease, as it were,
out of all Europe. Yet six years later it appeared anew with
devastating force in southern France" and was recurrent at
intervals, in different parts of the continent, throughout the
century. "Epidemics of typhus fever … showed themselves at the
beginning of the century in small numbers, but disappeared
before the plague. … The first description of typhoid
fever—under the designation of 'Schleimfieber' (morbus
mucosus)—appeared in the 18th century. … Malaria in the last
century still gave rise to great epidemics. Of course all the
conditions of life favored its prevalence. … La Grippe
(influenza) appeared as a pandemic throughout almost all
Europe in the years 1709, 1729, 1732, 1742, and 1788; in
almost all America in 1732, 1737, 1751, 1772, 1781, and 1798;
throughout the eastern hemisphere in 1781, and in the entire
western hemisphere in 1761 and 1789; throughout Europe and
America in 1767. It prevailed as an epidemic in France in the
years 1737, 1775, and 1779; in England in 1758 and 1775, and
in Germany in 1800. … Diphtheria, which in the 17th century
had showed itself almost exclusively in Spain and Italy, was
observed during the 18th in all parts of the world. …
Small-pox had attained general diffusion. … Scarlet fever,
first observed in the 17th century, had already gained wide
diffusion. … Yellow fever, first recognized in the 16th
century, and mentioned occasionally in the 17th, appeared with
great frequency in the 18th century, but was mostly confined,
as at a later period, to America."
_J. H. Baas,
Outlines of the History of Medicine,
pages 727-730._
PLAGUE: 19th Century.
The visitations of Asiatic Cholera.