"It is characteristic of the noblest natures and the finest
imaginations," says an elegant writer[262], "to love to explore the
vestiges of antiquity, and to dwell in times that are no more. The first
is the domain of the imaginative affections alone; we can carry none of
our baser passions with us thither. The antiquary is often spoken of as
being of a peculiar construction of intellect, which makes him think and
feel differently from other people. But, in truth, the spirit of
antiquarianism is one of the most universal of human tendencies. There
is, perhaps, scarcely any person, for example, not utterly stupid or
sophisticated, who would not feel a strange thrill come over him in the
wonderful scenes these volumes describe. Looking round upon the long
ruined city, who would not, for the moment, utterly forget the seventeen
centuries that had revolved since Herculaneum and Pompeii were part and
parcel of the world, moving to and fro along its streets! It would not
be deemed a mere fever of curiosity that would occupy the mind,--an
impatience to pry into every hole and corner of a scene at once so old
and so new. Besides all that, there would be a sense of the actual
presence of those past times, almost like the illusion of a dream. There
is, in fact, perhaps no spot of interest on the globe, which would be
found to strike so deep an impression into so many minds."
Herculaneum is an ancient city of Italy, situated in the Bay of Naples,
and supposed to have been founded by Hercules, or in honour of him, 1250
years before the Christian era.[263] "This city," says Strabo, "and its
next neighbour, Pompeii, on the river Sarnus, were originally held by
the Osci, then by the Tyrrhenians and Pelasgians, then by the Samnites,
who, in their turn, took possession of it, and retained it ever after."
The adjacent country[264] was distinguished in all ages for its romantic
loveliness and beauty. The whole coast, as far as Naples, was studded
with villas, and Vesuvius, whose fires had been long quiescent, was
itself covered with them. Villages were also scattered along the shores,
and the scene presented the appearance of one vast city, cut into a
number of sections by the luxuriant vegetation of the paradise in which
it was embosomed.
The following epigram of Martial gives an animated view of the scene,
previous to the dreadful catastrophe, which so blasted this fair page of
Nature's book:--
Here verdant vines o'erspread Vesuvius' sides;
The generous grape here pour'd her purple tides.
This Bacchus loved beyond his native scene;
Here dancing satyrs joy'd to trip the green.
Far more than Sparta this in Venus' grace;
And great Alcides once renown'd the place;
Now flaming embers spread dire waste around,
And gods regret that gods can so confound.
The scene of luxurious beauty[265] and tranquillity above described was
doomed to cease, and the subterranean fire which had been from time
immemorial extinct in this quarter, again resumed its former channel of
escape. The long period of rest, which had preceded this event, seems to
have augmented the energies of the volcano, and prepared it for the
terrible explosion. The first intimation of this was the occurrence of
an earthquake, in the year 63 after Christ, which threw down a
considerable portion of Pompeii, and also did great damage to
Herculaneum. In the year following, another severe shock was felt, which
extended to Naples, where the Roman emperor Nero was at the time
exhibiting as a vocalist. The building in which he performed was
destroyed, but unfortunately the musician had left it. These presages of
the approaching catastrophe were frequently repeated, until, in A.D. 79
(Aug. 24), they ended in the great eruption. Fortunately we are in
possession of a narrative of the awful scene, by an eye-witness;--Pliny
the younger, who was at the time at Misenum, with the Roman fleet,
commanded by his uncle, Pliny the elder. The latter, in order to obtain
a nearer view of the phenomena, ventured too far, and was suffocated by
the vapours. His nephew remained at Misenum, and describes the appalling
spectacle in a very lively manner.
"You ask me the particulars of my uncle's death," says he, in a letter
to Tacitus, "in order to transmit it, you say, with all its
circumstances, to posterity. I thank you for your intention. Undoubtedly
the eternal remembrance of a calamity, by which my uncle perished with
nations, promised immortality to his name; undoubtedly his works also
flattered him with the same. But a line of Tacitus ensures it. Happy the
man to whom the gods have granted to perform things worthy of being
written, or to write what is worthy of being read. Happier still is he
who at once obtains from them both these favours. Such was my uncle's
good fortune. I willingly therefore obey your orders, which I should
have solicited. My uncle was at Misenum, where he commanded the fleet.
On the 23d of August, at one in the afternoon, as he was on his bed,
employed in studying, after having, according to his custom, slept a
moment in the sun and drunk a glass of cold water, my mother went up
into his chamber. She informed him that a cloud of an extraordinary
shape and magnitude was rising in the heavens. My uncle got up and
examined the prodigy; but without being able to distinguish, on account
of the distance, that this cloud proceeded from Vesuvius. It resembled a
large pine-tree: it had its top and its branches. It appeared sometimes
white, sometimes black, and at intervals of various colours, according
as it was more or less loaded with stones or cinders.
"My uncle was astonished; he thought such a phenomenon worthy of a
nearer examination. He ordered a galley to be immediately made ready,
and invited me to follow him; but I rather chose to stay at home and
continue my studies. My uncle therefore departed alone.
"In the interim I continued at my studies. I went to the bath; I lay
down, but I could not sleep. The earthquake, which for several days had
repeatedly shaken all the small towns, and even cities in the
neighbourhood, was increasing every moment. I rose to go and awake my
mother, and met her hastily entering my apartment to awaken me.
"We descended into the court, and sat down there. Not to lose time, I
sent for my Livy. I read, meditated, and made extracts, as I would have
done in my chamber. Was this firmness, or was it imprudence? I know not
now; but I was then very young![266] At the same instant one of my
uncle's friends, just arrived from Spain, came to visit him. He
reproached my mother with her security, and me with my audacity. The
houses, however, were shaking in so violent a manner, that we resolved
to quit Misenum. The people followed us in consternation.
"As soon as we had got out of the town we stopped. Here we found new
prodigies and new terrors. The shore, which was continually extending
itself, and covered with fishes left dry on it, was heaving every
moment, and repelling to a great distance the enraged sea which fell
back upon itself; whilst before us, from the limits of the horizon,
advanced a black cloud, loaded with dull fires, which were incessantly
rending it, and darting forth large flashes of lightning. The cloud
descended and enveloped all the sea, it was impossible any longer to
discern either the isle of Caprea, or the promontory of Misenum. 'Save
yourself, my dear son,' cried my mother; 'save yourself; it is your
duty; for you can, and you are young: but as for me, bulky as I am, and
enfeebled with years, provided I am not the cause of thy death, I die
contented.'--'Mother, there is no safety for me but with you.'--I took
my mother by the hand, and drew her along.--'O my son,' said she in
tears, 'I delay thy flight.'
"Already the ashes began to fall; I turned my head; a thick cloud was
rushing precipitately towards us.--'Mother,' said I, 'let us quit the
high road; the crowd will stifle us in that darkness which is pursuing
us.' Scarcely had we left the high road before it was night, the
blackest night. Then nothing was to be heard but the lamentations of
women, the groans of children, and the cries of men. We could
distinguish, through the confused sobs and the various accents of grief,
the words, _my father!_--_my son!_--_my wife!_--there was no knowing
each other but by the voice. One was lamenting his destiny; another the
fate of his relations: some were imploring the gods; others denying
their existence; many were invoking death to defend them from death.
Some said that they were now about to be buried with the world, in that
concluding night which was to be eternal:--and amidst all this, what
dreadful reports! Fear exaggerated and believed everything.
"In the mean time a glimmering penetrated the darkness; this was the
conflagration which was approaching; but it stopped and extinguished;
the night grew more intensely dark, and the shower of cinders and stones
more thick and heavy. We were obliged to rise from time to time to shake
our clothes. Shall I say it? Not a single complaint escaped me. I
consoled myself, amid the fears of death, with the reflection that the
world was about to expire with me.
"At length this thick and black vapour gradually vanished. The day
revived, and even the sun appeared, but dull and yellowish, such as he
usually shows himself in an eclipse. What a spectacle now offered
itself to our yet troubled and uncertain eyes! The whole country was
buried beneath the ashes, as in winter under the snow. The road was no
longer to be discerned. We sought for Misenum, and again found it; we
returned and took possession; for we had in some measure abandoned it.
Soon after, we received news of my uncle. Alas! we had but too good
reason to be uneasy for him.
"I have told you, that, after quitting Misenum, he went on board a
galley. He directed his course towards Retina, and the other towns which
were threatened. Every one was flying from it; he however entered it,
and, amidst the general confusion, remarked all the phenomena, and
dictated as he observed. But already a cloud of burning ashes beat down
on his galley; already were stones falling all around, and the shore
covered with large pieces of the mountain. My uncle hesitated whether he
should return from whence he came, or put out to sea. _Fortune favours
courage_ (exclaimed he), _let us turn towards Pomponianus_. Pomponianus
was at Stabiæ. My uncle found him all trembling: embraced and encouraged
him, and to comfort him by his security, asked for a bath, then sat down
to table and supped cheerfully; or, at least, which does not show less
fortitude, with all the appearance of cheerfulness.
"In the mean time Vesuvius was taking fire on every side, amid the thick
darkness. 'It is the villages which have been abandoned that are
burning,' said my uncle to the crowd about him, to endeavour to quiet
them. He then went to bed, and fell asleep. He was in the profoundest
sleep, when the court of the house began to fill with cinders; and all
the passages were nearly closed up. They run to him; and were obliged to
awaken him. He rises, joins Pomponianus, and deliberates with him and
his attendants what is best to be done, whether it would be safest to
remain in the house or fly into the country. They chose the latter
measure.
"They departed instantly therefore from the town, and the only
precaution they could take was to cover their heads with pillows. The
day was reviving everywhere else; but there it continued night; horrible
night! the fire from the cloud alone enlightened it. My uncle wished to
gain the shore, notwithstanding the sea was still tremendous. He
descended, drank some water, had a sheet spread, and lay down on it. On
a sudden, violent flames, preceded by a sulphureous odour, shot forth
with a prodigious brightness, and made every one take to flight. My
uncle, supported by two slaves, arose; but suddenly, suffocated by the
vapour, he fell[267],--and Pliny was no more[268]."
If this visitation affected Misenum in so terrible a manner, what must
have been the situation of the unfortunate inhabitants of Pompeii and
Herculaneum, so near its focus? The emperor Titus here found an
opportunity for the exercise of his humanity. He hastened to the scene
of affliction, appointed curatores[269], persons of consular dignity, to
set up the ruined buildings, and take charge of the effects. He
personally encouraged the desponding, and alleviated the misery of the
sufferers; whilst a calamity of an equally melancholy description
recalled him to Rome; where a most destructive fire, laying waste nearly
half the city, and raging three days without interruption, was succeeded
by a pestilence, which for some time carried off ten thousand persons
every day!
Herculaneum and Pompeii rose again from their ruins in the reign of
Titus; and they still existed with some remains of splendour under
Hadrian[270]. The beautiful characters of the inscription, traced out on
the base of the equestrian statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus, son of
Marcus, are an evident proof of its existence at that period. They were
found under the reign of the Antonines. In the geographical monument,
known under the name of Peutinger's chart, which is of a date posterior
to the reign of Constantine, that is to say in the commencement of the
4th century, Herculaneum and Pompeii were still standing, and then
inhabited; but in the Itinerary, improperly ascribed to Antoninus,
neither of these two cities is noticed; from which it may be
conjectured, that their entire ruin must have taken place in the
interval between the time when Peutinger's chart was constructed, and
that when the above Itinerary was composed.
The eruption, which took place in 471, occasioned the most dreadful
ravages. It is very probable that the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii
disappeared at that period, and that no more traces of them were left.
It appears, by the observation of Sir W. Hamilton[271], that the matter,
which covers the ancient town of Herculaneum, is not the produce of one
eruption only; but there are evident marks that the matter of six
eruptions has taken its course over that which lie immediately above the
town; and which was the cause of its destruction. These strata are
either of lava or burnt matter, with veins of good soil between them.
The stratum of erupted matter that immediately covers the town, and with
which the theatre and most of the houses were filled, is not of that
sort of vitrified matter, called lava, but of a sort of soft stone
composed of pumice, ashes, and burnt matter. It is exactly of the same
nature with what is called the Naples stone. The Italians call it tufa;
and it is in general use for building.
HERCULANEUM was covered with lava; Pompeii with pumice stone; yet the
houses of the latter were built of lava; the product of former
eruptions.
All memorials of the devoted cities were lost[272]; and discussions,
over the places they had once occupied, were excited only by some
obscure passages in the classical authors. Six successive eruptions
contributed to lay them still deeper under the surface. But after that
period had elapsed, a peasant digging a well beside his cottage in 1711,
obtained some fragments of coloured marble, which attracted attention.
Regular excavations were made, under the superintendence of Stendardo,
an architect of Naples; and a statue of Hercules, of Greek workmanship,
and also a mutilated one of Cleopatra, were drawn from what proved to be
a temple in the centre of the ancient Herculaneum.
It may be well conceived with what interest the intelligence was
received, that a Roman city had been discovered, which, safely entombed
under-ground, had thus escaped the barbarian Goths and Vandals, who
ravaged Italy, or the sacrilegious hands of modern pillagers.
The remains of several public buildings have been discovered[273], which
have possibly suffered from subsequent convulsions. Among these are two
temples; one of them one hundred and fifty feet by sixty, in which was
found a statue of Jupiter. A more extensive edifice stood opposite to
them; forming a rectangle of two hundred and twenty-eight feet by one
hundred and thirty-two, supposed to have been appropriated for the
courts of justice. The arches of a portico surrounding it were supported
by columns; within, it was paved with marble; the walls were painted in
fresco; and bronze statues stood between forty columns under the roof. A
theatre was found nearly entire; very little had been displaced; and we
see in it one of the best specimens extant of the architecture of the
ancients. The greatest diameter of the theatre is two hundred and
thirty-four feet, whence it is computed, that it could contain ten
thousand persons, which proves the great population of the city.
This theatre was rich in antiquities[274], independent of the ornamental
part. Statues, occupying niches, represented the Muses; scenic masks
were imitated on the entablatures; and inscriptions were engraven on
different places. Analogous to the last were several large alphabetical
Roman characters in bronze; and a number of smaller size, which had
probably been connected in some conspicuous situation. A metallic car
was found, with four bronze horses attached to it, nearly of the natural
size; but all in such a state of decay, that only one, and the spokes of
the wheels, also in metal, could be preserved. A beautiful white marble
statue of Venus, only eighteen inches high, in the same attitude as the
famous Venus de Medicis, was recovered; and either here, or in the
immediate vicinity, was found a colossal bronze statue of Vespasian,
filled with lead, which twelve men were unable to move.
Besides many objects entire, there were numerous fragments of others,
extremely interesting; which had been originally impaired, or were
injured by attempts to remove them.
When we reflect, that sixteen hundred years have elapsed since the
destruction of this city[275], an interval which has been marked by
numerous revolutions, both in the political and mental state of Europe,
a high degree of interest must be experienced in contemplating the
venerable remains, recovered from the subterraneous city of Herculaneum.
Pliny, the younger, in his letters, brings the Romans, their
occupations, manners, and customs, before us. He pictures in feeling
terms the death of his uncle, who perished in the same eruption as the
city we now describe; and that event is brought to our immediate notice
by those very things which it was the means of preserving. Among these
we see the various articles which administered to the necessities and
the pleasures of the inhabitants, the emblems of their religious
sentiments, and the very manners and customs of domestic life.
These curiosities consist not only of statues, busts, altars,
inscriptions, and other ornamental appendages of Grecian opulence and
luxury; but also comprehend an entire assortment of the domestic,
musical, and surgical instruments; tripods of elegant form and exquisite
execution; lamps in endless variety; vases and basins of noble
dimensions; chandeliers of the most beautiful shapes, looking-glasses of
polished metal; coloured glass, so hard, clear, and well stained, as to
appear like emeralds, sapphires, and other precious stones; a kitchen
completely fitted up with copper pans lined with silver, kettles,
cisterns for heating water, and every utensil necessary for culinary
purposes; also specimens of various sorts of combustibles, retaining
their form though burnt to a cinder. By an inscription, too, we learn
that Herculaneum contained no less than nine hundred houses of
entertainment, such as we call taverns. Articles of glass, artificial
gems, vases, tripods, candelabra, lamps, urns, dice, and dice-boxes;
various articles of dress and ornaments; surgical instruments, weights
and measures, carpenters' and masons' tools; but no musical instruments
except the sistrum, cymbals, and flutes of bone and ivory.
Fragments of columns of various coloured marble and beautiful mosaic
pavements were also found disseminated among the ruins; and numerous
sacrificial implements, such as pateræ, tripods, cups, and vases, were
recovered in excellent preservation, and even some of the knives with
which the victims are conjectured to have been slaughtered.
The ancient pictures of Herculaneum[276] are of the utmost interest; not
only from the freshness and colour, but from the nature of the subjects
they represent. All are executed in fresco; they are exclusively on the
walls, and generally on a black or red ground. Some are of animated
beings large as life; but the majority are in miniature. Every different
subject of antiquity is depicted here; deities, human figures, animals,
landscapes, foreign and domestic, and a variety of grotesque beings;
sports and pastimes, theatrical performances, sacrifices, all enter the
catalogue.
In regard to the statues found[277], some are colossal, some of the
natural size, and some in miniature; and the materials of their
formation are either clay, marble, or bronze. They represent all
different objects, divinities, heroes, or distinguished persons; and in
the same substances, especially bronze, there are the figures of many
animals.
It is not probable that the best paintings of ancient Greece and
Italy[278] were deposited in Herculaneum or Pompeii, which were towns
of the second order, and unlikely to possess the master-pieces of the
chief artists, which were usually destined to adorn the more celebrated
temples or the palaces of kings and emperors. Their best statues are
correct in their proportions, and elegant in their forms; but their
paintings are not correct in their proportions, and are, comparatively,
inelegant in their forms.
A few rare medals also have been found among these ruins, the most
curious of which is a gold medallion of Augustus, struck in Sicily in
the fifteenth year of his reign.
Nor must we omit one of the greatest curiosities, preserved at
Portici[279]. This consists of a cement of cinders, which in one of the
eruptions of Vesuvius surprised a woman, and totally enveloped her. This
cement, compressed and hardened by time around her body, has become a
complete mould of it, and in the pieces here preserved, we see a perfect
impression of the different parts to which it adhered. One represents
half a bosom, which is of exquisite beauty; another a shoulder, a third
a portion of her shape, and all concur in revealing to us that this
woman was young; that she was tall and well made, and even that she had
escaped in her chemise, for some of the linen was still adhering to the
ashes.
Though the city was destroyed[280] in the manner we have related,
remarkably few skeletons have been found, though many were discovered in
the streets of Pompeii; but one appears under the threshold of a door
with a bag of money in his hand, as if in the attitude of escaping,
leaving its impression in the surrounding volcanic matter.
These and other valuable antiquities are preserved in the museum at
Portici, which occupies the site of ancient Herculaneum, and in the
Museo Borbonico at Naples. For details in respect to which, we must
refer to the numerous books that have described them.
One of the most interesting departments of this unique collection is
that of the Papyri, or MSS., discovered in the excavation of
Herculaneum. The ancients did not bind their books (which, of course,
were all MSS.) like us, but rolled them up in scrolls. When those of
Herculaneum were discovered, they presented, as they still do, the
appearance of burnt bricks, or cylindrical pieces of charcoal, which
they had acquired from the action of the heat contained in the lava,
that buried the whole city. They seemed quite solid to the eye and
touch; yet an ingenious monk discovered a process of detaching leaf from
leaf, and unrolling them, by which they could be read without much
difficulty. It is, nevertheless, to be regretted, that so little success
has followed the labours of those who have attempted to unrol them. Some
portions, however, have been unrolled, and the titles of about 400 of
the least injured have been read. They are, for the most part, of little
importance; but all entirely new, and chiefly relating to music,
rhetoric, and cookery. The obliterations and corrections are numerous,
so that there is a probability of their being original manuscripts.
There are two volumes of Epicurus "on Virtue," and the rest are, for the
most part, productions of the same school of writers. Only a very few
are written in Latin, almost all being in Greek. All were found in the
library of one individual, and in a quarter of the town where there was
the least probability of finding anything of the kind.
The following is a list of the most important works that have been
discovered:--
1. Philodemus, on the Influence of Music on the Human Constitution.
2. Epicurus upon Nature.
3. Philomedes on Rhetoric.
4. Id. on the Vices.
5. Id. on the Affinities of the Vices and the Virtues.
6. Id. on the Poets.
7. Id. some Philosophical Fragments.
8. Id. on Providence.
9. Democritus, some Geometrical Fragments.
10. Philostratus on Unreasonable Contempt.
11. Carnisirus on Friendship.
12. Cotothes on Plato's Dialogue of Isis.
13. Chrysippus on Providence.
We shall give the reader a specimen, in a fragment of a poem on the
Actian war, copied from a manuscript taken from Herculaneum; supposed to
be written by C. Rabirius:--