birds, which range over the temperate and tropical portions of the Old
World, being especially plentiful in the Ethiopian Region, and somewhat
less so in the Indian. The Palaearctic countries possess only four species,
but Celebes alone has three, one of which (_Merops ornatus_) extends
through the Moluccas to Papuasia and Australia.
The bill is long and gradually curved, with a culminar ridge and deflected
mandible, the maxilla being grooved and more arched in _Nyctiornis_. The
short, stout metatarsus, which is weaker in _Merops_, is scutellated
anteriorly and reticulated posteriorly; the abbreviated toes–rather longer
in _Nyctiornis_–have slender curved claws, and are united in the case of
the third and fourth to the last joint, in the second and third to a less
extent. The usually short and rounded wings are long and pointed in
_Merops_ and _Dicrocercus_; the primaries number eleven, or ten in
_Nyctiornis_, and the secondaries twelve or thirteen. The tail of twelve
rectrices is even in _Melittophagus_ and _Nyctiornis_, deeply forked in
_Dicrocercus_, and square with two elongated and tapering median feathers
in _Merops_ and _Meropogon_. The furcula is U-shaped, the tongue is
lanceolate, the nostrils are concealed by dense feathers in _Nyctiornis_
and _Meropogon_; {388}the syrinx is tracheo-bronchial, the aftershaft is
rudimentary; while there is no down in adults or nestlings.
The flight of Bee-eaters is rapid and Swallow-like, and they have a habit
of sitting on dead branches or even upright sticks, from which they dart in
pursuit of their prey, to return again promptly after the manner of
Flycatchers. They skim actively over the surface of the earth, sail aloft
in circles, or float with slightly upturned wings in the air; while they
rest among the foliage at mid-day, and not uncommonly roost in a row on
some branch at night. Occasionally they may be seen dusting themselves like
Larks. _Nyctiornis_ is less energetic, and loves dense forest-shades or
woods of lofty trees, as does _Meropogon_; but the other forms prefer more
open country, and frequent the neighbourhood of swamps or rivers, as well
as arid districts. _Merops_ is constantly seen in flocks, _Melittophagus_
less often; _Nyctiornis_, with rare exceptions, lives singly or in pairs.
The last-named sometimes will not stir even when shot at, and none of the
Family are by nature shy. The note is, according to circumstances, a loud
harsh whistle or a soft flute-like sound; but _Nyctiornis_ utters a deep
croak, ending in a churring noise, puffing out the gular plumes meanwhile
and nodding the head up and down. The birds are not ordinarily noisy. It is
when hawking in the air that the brilliant colours are most strikingly
displayed, the snap of the bill being at such times distinctly audible;
insects are also picked off the backs of cattle, and, more rarely, captured
on the ground; while _Merops philippinus_, and no doubt other species,
bruise their prey against their perch. The name Bee-eater is well deserved,
for in Spain _Merops apiaster_ is a perfect pest to the bee-keeper,
catching the workers as they enter and leave the hives. The indigestible
portions of the food are cast up as pellets, often found in the nest. The
four to six round, glossy white eggs are deposited in holes in banks, or
even in tunnels bored vertically downwards in level ground, which extend to
a depth of from three to ten feet. _Merops superciliosus_ and _M. nubicus_
alone are said to make a slight nest of straw and feathers, the members of
this genus and of _Melittophagus_ often forming large colonies. The flesh
is palatable, while the plumage is in great request for decorative
purposes.
The sexes are similar, the young duller, with the rectrices {389}never much
elongated; _Meropogon_ and _Nyctiornis_ have the gular feathers broad and
lengthened into a tuft.
[Illustration: FIG. 81.–Bee-eater. _Merops apiaster._ × 3/7.]
The Family contains five genera with some thirty-five species, varying in
size from fourteen inches in _Merops natalensis_ to about six and half in
several forms of _Melittophagus_. _Nyctiornis amictus_, of the Malay
countries, is green, with lilac forehead and crown, scarlet cheeks and
throat-tuft, and a few greenish-blue plumes at the base of the bill.
_Meropogon forsteri_ of Celebes is also green, but has the crown, gular
plumes and breast cobalt-blue, the occiput and nape brown, the abdomen
dusky, and the lateral tail-feathers reddish-brown margined with green.
_Merops apiaster_ has ruddy-brown head, neck, upper back, and broad alar
bar, buff lower back, green wings and tail with black tips to the long
median rectrices, light blue upper tail-coverts, pale green and white
forehead, black ear-coverts, and bright yellow throat, divided from the
greenish-blue under parts by a black band. It not unfrequently visits
Britain–as the Blue-tailed Bee-eater, _M. philippinus_, is said to have
done once–and ranges from South Europe to Central Asia and North Africa,
wintering in North-West India and South Africa. _M. viridis_, extending
from Senegambia to North-East Africa and Cochin China, is yellowish-green,
with a rufous tint on the hind-neck, much buff on the wing- and
tail-quills, a black band washed with blue on the fore-neck, and some blue
and black on the face. _M. nubicus_ of the northern half of the Ethiopian
Region has crimson-pink upper parts, blue-green head and throat, light blue
rump and abdomen, {390}rose-pink breast, black markings on the sides of the
head, and black tips to the remiges and rectrices. _Melittophagus gularis_
of West Africa is glossy black above, with bright blue on the forehead,
rump, wings and median tail-feathers; the throat is crimson, the lower
surface black with blue streaks; the wing-quills are for the most part
rufous margined with black.
The Old World Families Bucerotidae and Upupidae are united under the latter
appellation by Dr. Gadow,[227] who recognises the Sub-families
_Bucerotinae_ or Hornbills, _Upupinae_ or Hoopoes, and _Irrisorinae_ or
Wood-Hoopoes; but the two aforesaid groups should decidedly be kept
separate.
Fam. V. BUCEROTIDAE.–The Hornbills derive their name from the immensely
developed bill and casque, or helmet, found in such forms as _Buceros_
(p. 395), though the excrescence in _Aceros_ and some species of
_Lophoceros_ is rudimentary. It may be mentioned that the huge beak of the
Toucans denotes no affinity to this group. The casque–open in front in
_Bucorvus_–is more or less filled with cellular bony tissue, or with an
almost solid mass of bony columns in _Rhinoplax_; the mandibles are
occasionally serrated. The metatarsi are short, save in the terrestrial
_Bucorvus_, and are rough and scaly; the toes have broad flat soles, the
second and third being united for one phalanx, the third and fourth still
further. The powerful wings have eleven primaries, and from ten to sixteen
secondaries, while the under coverts do not perfectly cover the base of the
quills. The tail has ten rectrices and is usually long, though shorter in
_Bucorvus_; it is either square or graduated, and has the two median
feathers much elongated in _Rhinoplax_ and _Ortholophus_. The furcula is
U-shaped, the tongue rudimentary; the aftershaft is wanting; there is no
down on the adults or callow young; and the eyelashes are prominent, a rare
feature among birds. In most forms the atlas (p. 5) fuses with the axis.
These arboreal birds, termed "Calaos" in French, frequent deep tall jungle
or cultivated districts near rivers, up to five thousand feet; most, if not
all, of the species descending from the trees in the morning and evening,
when they have been observed bathing in streams, and digging up loose soil
with their beaks. _Bucorvus_ spends much of the day upon the ground
searching for food.
{391}[Illustration: FIG. 82.–Hornbill. _Dichoceros bicornis._ Female and
young. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]
The flight, often prolonged to considerable distances, is heavy and slow,
the unwieldy body acting as a great drag, though counterbalanced by the
pneumaticity, or air-containing nature of the bones, which is perhaps
greater in Hornbills than in any other birds. On the wing a sound is
generally produced like that of a steam-engine, possibly due to the open
nature of the quills; but _Rhinoplax_, _Berenicornis_, _Anorhinus_, and
_Anthracoceros malabaricus_ are said to fly noiselessly. In some species
the wing-action is regular; in others, rapid strokes alternate with sailing
movements on outspread pinions; the head is usually drawn in and the tail
depressed; while flocks proceed in single file. Individuals alight heavily,
and {392}from their bulk are restricted to the stronger branches, along
which they shuffle awkwardly, even assisting themselves with their beak.
Hornbills may be met with singly or in pairs, but ordinarily form parties
of five or six, if not of larger numbers, gathering together to feed or to
roost at fixed spots, which they leave before sunrise. They are not
naturally shy, and if disturbed only resort to some neighbouring tree,
where they may be often observed sitting on the boughs during the mid-day
hours, with puffed out plumage, open bill, and head sunk upon the back as
if overcome by the heat. From time to time while perched they elevate or
depress the crest and utter loud yelping cries, not uncommonly flapping
their wings and bowing their heads; when feeding they constantly chatter in
chorus like Parrots, and vanish with shrill screams if intruders appear.
The characteristic note, however, is a harsh, continuous sound,
intermediate between the bray of an ass and the shriek of a railway engine;
that of _Bucorvus abyssinicus_ has been syllabled "hūm-hūm," and that of
_B. cafer_, the "Bromvogel" of South Africa, has been said to resemble a
lion's roar, and to be audible for a mile. All the species are apparently
most noisy in the morning and evening, or before rain.
Fruits and insects–the latter occasionally hawked for in the air–constitute
the normal food, but the larger forms devour small mammals, birds, eggs and
reptiles, with grubs, flowers, and young shoots; while _Bucorvus_, which
feeds chiefly upon the ground, and hops rapidly, will eat tortoises,
mandioc-roots, and so forth. Berries of _Strychnos_ and figs seem greatly
in favour. Nearly everything is swallowed entire, with a backward jerk of
the head, animals having the life beaten out of them previously, and most
substances being tossed up into the air. The male has a most curious habit
of casting up the lining of the gizzard with its contents enclosed,
possibly to feed the female or young.[228]
A hole in a tree or a cavity at the junction of two branches serves for the
nest, wherein the hen is enclosed by a plaster of dung or like material;
there, under penalty of death, she remains until she emerges dirty, wasted
and enfeebled, when the brood is hatched. From one to four dingy white eggs
with coarse pores are deposited upon the débris or a few feathers. Contrary
to expectation, observations seem to shew that the female walls herself in;
but, however that may be, the cock feeds her through {393}the small opening
left, and is even said to knock with his bill to attract her attention as
he clings to the bark. He shews great anxiety about his charge, and the hen
screams and bites if molested. Various members of the Family expand the
tail and inflate the throat when courting; some thrive fairly well as pets;
while _Aceros nipalensis_ of India, and _Dichoceros bicornis_, the Homrai,
ranging thence to the Malay countries, are said to be excellent eating. The
latter is sacred to Vishnu; the immured female of _Rhytidoceros
subruficollis_ serves as a type of virtue to the Burmese; and natives
believe that the plaster for the holes is composed of gum and earth from
the four quarters of the globe. In South Africa the Fingoes think that
their cattle will contract disease if Hornbills are shot; Kafirs consider
that drought will cease if one of them is sunk under water and drowned;
Ovampos pretend that the eggs are too brittle to be handled.
Some nineteen genera may be admitted, from the Ethiopian, Indian, and
Australian Regions, with about seventy species, more than thirty of which
occur in each of the first two areas; a couple inhabit Celebes, and one
ranges over the Moluccas and Papuasia to the Solomon Islands. None inhabit
Australia.
The somewhat scanty plumage is usually black, white, and grey; but a
greenish or bluish tinge, or rufous heads and lower parts are not
unfrequent. Crests are present, except in _Bucorvus_; _Ceratogymna_ has a
gular wattle; _Berenicornis_ and _Ortholophus_ exhibit long upcurved loral
plumes; while the orbits and throat are more or less naked, and usually of
brilliant colours, these with the bill and casque being often a
distinguishing mark between the sexes. The last develops gradually in the
duller young.
_Rhinoplax vigil_ of the Malay countries, termed the Helmet Hornbill, has a
line down the back and the neck naked and red. The casque is yellow in
front and red behind, and is much used by Eastern artists for carving and
making brooches. _Berenicornis comatus_, of the same districts, has a
moderate black keeled casque, and bare blue orbits and throat. The female
exhibits less white. _Bycanistes buccinator_ of East Africa has a large
blackish furrowed casque and purple naked areas. _Lophoceros nasutus_ of
North-East and West Africa, has the bill and rudimentary casque black, with
a yellow streak on the maxilla and several oblique yellow ridges on the
mandible, the bare orbits apparently grey. In the female the bill shews red
in place of black.
{394}[Illustration: FIG. 83.–Plait-billed Hornbill. _Rhytidoceros
undulatus._ × ⅕-⅙. (From _Nature_.)]
_Ceratogymna elata_ of West Africa has the gular wattle, orbits, and bare
throat blue, with red on the first and a median line of feathers on the
last, and an abrupt, high whitish casque, which is black at the base in the
male. The hen has a rufous head and neck. _Rhytidoceros plicatus_ of
Papuasia and the Moluccas has a reddish and white casque with obliquely
overlapping plates, pale blue naked orbits and throat. The head and neck
are chestnut in the male, black in the female. _Cranorhinus cassidix_ of
Celebes has a red casque, high in front and rounded posteriorly over the
skull; both mandibles are yellow with red bases, and exhibit grooved
plates, the bare parts being chiefly blue with a black bar on the throat.
{395}The head and nape are chestnut and black in the respective sexes, the
hen having the casque yellower. _Penelopides manillae_ of the Philippines
has the moderate, compressed casque transparent brown, and the naked areas
white, becoming purplish in the female. _Anthracoceros coronatus_ of India
and Ceylon has a large yellow subcrescentic casque blotched with black, a
bare white throat and blackish orbits, the latter being white in the hen.
_Dichoceros bicornis_ (Fig. 82) of India and the Malay countries has a
large yellowish-red casque, hollowed and ending in two points anteriorly,
which shews black markings in the male; the naked orbits are pinkish.
_Buceros rhinoceros_ of the Malay Peninsula and Indo-Malay Islands has a
large red, orange, and black casque, curved up in front, and red orbits;
the female having less black on the former. _Bucorvus_ (_Bucorax_) has a
large black casque, nearly or quite closed in _B. cafer_ of South and East
Africa, but open anteriorly and ridged in _B. abyssinicus_ of North-East
and West Africa. In the respective species the naked parts are red and blue
in the male, blue and purple in the female. Some writers adopt a Sub-family
_Bucorvinae_ for this genus.
The fossil _Cryptornis_ of the Upper Eocene of France is referred to the
Hornbills.
Fam. VI. UPUPIDAE.–Sub-Fam. 1. _Upupinae._–This consists of a single genus
with five similarly-coloured graceful species, which have the beak long and
slightly arched, the metatarsi short and scutellated throughout, the toes
rather long and the claws curved. The third and fourth digits only are
joined at the base. The broad wing has ten primaries and an equal number of
secondaries, the short, square tail has ten rectrices, the nestlings
possess a little down. Otherwise the structure resembles that of Hornbills.
Generally found solitary or in pairs, Hoopoes stalk proudly along the
ground, nodding their heads, expanding and contracting their crests, and
uttering the soft reiterated "hoop" or "hoo," from which is derived their
name. Besides probing the soil, the bird taps the ground with its bill or
foot, and some persons think that worms are brought to the surface by the
vibration; but it will also tap any perch, whether on branch, stump, or
wall. The food consists of flies taken on the wing, insects generally, and
worms; individuals being frequently observed climbing rocks or branches of
trees in search of prey, and carefully examining heaps of refuse. Before
being swallowed the larger objects are {396}smartly rapped on some hard
surface, and most are tossed into the air. The flight is strong,
undulating, and seldom protracted, though Hoopoes often escape from Hawks;
they can also run rapidly. The nest, placed in holes in trees, walls, or
rocks, consists of a little straw or a few twigs, with some feathers or
hair; it is always, however, marked by the addition of ordure to the
lining, and sites are on record in coffins or decaying bodies.[229] During
incubation the cock feeds the hen, who hardly stirs from her post; the eggs
number from four to seven, and are pale greenish-blue with distinct pores.
These birds are fond of dusting themselves in loose soil; the male is
decidedly pugnacious, except in captivity; and the flesh is considered a
delicacy in Southern Europe. Arabs venerate them and ascribe to them
medicinal properties. Most persons are familiar with the story of Allah
granting to Epops a golden crest, exchanged afterwards at the bird's
request for one of feathers.
[Illustration: FIG. 84.–Hoopoe. _Upupa epops._ × ¼. (From _Natural History
of Selborne_.)]
_Upupa epops_ not unfrequently visits Britain, where it has nested on
several occasions; it breeds from Southern Scandinavia to Northern Africa
and the Atlantic Islands, migrating a little {397}further south; while it
extends through most of Asia and reaches Japan. The fine erectile crest,
the head, neck, and lower parts are cinnamon-coloured; the remaining
plumage is black, varied with buff and white; a band of the latter crosses
the tail; and the head plumes are tipped with black and white. _U.
marginata_ of Madagascar has a larger outer primary and a narrower
tail-band; _U. indica_, with darker cinnamon tints, extends from India to
Hainan, and intergrades with _U. epops_; _U. somalensis_ of Somali-Land is
intermediate between the last and _U. africana_ of South Africa, which
exhibits no white on the primaries or crest. Females and young are duller
and less crested.
A fossil form, _Limnatornis_, occurs in the Lower French Miocene.
Sub-fam. 2. _Irrisorinae._–The Wood-Hoopoes, differing from their allies in
the longer and more decurved bill, especially noticeable in
_Rhinopomastus_, the long wedge-shaped tail, and the absence of a crest,
are commonly seen in flocks of from six to eight; they are shy, restless
and noisy, flitting from bush to bush with undulating motion and expanded
rectrices, while they also creep about probing the crannies of the highest
trees–to the great detriment of the tail–or search the ground for grubs and
insects generally. The note is harsh and chattering; the nest, said to be
foul like that of their allies, is placed in holes in trees, the eggs being
apparently white. The plumage is metallic purple, blue or greenish, with
white wing-patch and tail-markings, the females and young being less
bright, with shorter beaks.
_Irrisor_ occupies the Ethiopian Region, _I. viridis_ and _I.
erythrorhynchus_ having the head and throat bluish-green, _I. bollii_ those
parts buff, _I. jacksoni_ nearly white. Three species of _Scoptelus_
inhabit North-East and West Africa, three of _Rhinopomastus_ extend from
the former country and the Congo to South Africa.
* * * * *
The Sub-Order STRIGES, containing the natural and well-marked group of the
Owls, was until lately usually treated as a mere Family situated next to
the diurnal Birds of Prey (_Accipitres_ of this work), whatever name or
rank may have been given to the combined assemblage. Gradually, however, a
conviction has arisen that these nocturnal–or chiefly nocturnal–Birds of
Prey deserve a higher position than that of a Family, while Dr. Gadow, in
the classification here mainly adopted, agrees with those who would
separate them widely from their former associates, and places {398}them in
close proximity to the Nightjar alliance (_Caprimulgi_), the members of
which they certainly resemble in their soft plumage, large eyes, and
crepuscular tendencies.
Fam. VII. STRIGIDAE.–This, which contains all the Owls, may be divided into
two Sub-families, (1) _Striginae_ and (2) _Buboninae_.[230] In the former,
or Screech-Owl section,[231] the sternum has its broad keel joined to the
furcula, and exhibits no notches behind; in the latter, containing the
remaining genera, the clavicles do not always form a furcula, nor do they
meet the sternum, which shews one or two pairs of projections posteriorly.
In this section, moreover, there is a bony loop bridging the channel in the
metatarsus which contains the common extensor tendon of the toes, as is the
case in the Osprey. Pterylography would lead to the same subdivisions.
Between the two groups lie _Photodilus_ of the Indian Region, now referred
to the Buboninae, and _Heliodilus_ of Madagascar, which is classed with the
Striginae.
The head is large; the neck short and thin; the bill moderate in length,
but stout, with a sharp hook at the tip; the culmen is usually curved, but
is straighter in _Strix_, while the basal cere is more or less covered by
feathering, especially in _Nyctea_. The short, strong metatarsi–somewhat
longer in _Speotyto_ and _Sceloglaux_–are flattened in front and covered
with small scales. They are usually feathered, though in _Ketupa_ and
_Scotopelia_ they are all but bare, while they are partly so in _Scops
gymnopus_ and _S. nudipes_, the two former having the toes provided with
spicules below, as in _Pandion_. Many forms have the plumage extended as a
thick covering of soft feathers or bristles to the claws, which are
normally long, sharp, and curved, that of the middle toe having a serrated
margin in the Striginae. The digits are padded beneath, and the fourth of
them is reversible at will, enabling Owls to perch with either one or two
toes behind. The wings are long, or fairly so, very broad, and more or less
rounded, _Scops_ and _Strix_ being instances of greater length, _Bubo_,
_Sceloglaux_, _Speotyto_, and _Photodilus_ of shortness; the primaries
number eleven and the secondaries from eleven to eighteen. The tail of
twelve rectrices is generally short and somewhat rounded, though longer in
_Surnia_. The large {399}eyes are directed obliquely forwards, but those of
_Ninox_ are said to have a less staring look; Owls, moreover, have little
power of turning the eye-ball, and consequently add to their grotesque
appearance by constantly moving the head from side to side. The upper
eye-lid shuts over the eye, and not the lower, as in birds generally; the
iris is extremely sensitive, contracting and expanding continually. The
external ear varies in an extraordinary way, the "conch," or large
shell-like aperture, often having its ample membranous margin developed
into an elevated operculum or flap which stretches partially or entirely
down the anterior side. In _Asio_ and _Syrnium_ the ear-openings are
asymmetrical, those of the former reaching nearly the whole height of the
skull and being directed respectively upwards and downwards; in _Nyctala_
this asymmetry extends to the bones of the skull itself. The large ear is
apparently correlated with a keen sense of hearing in some cases, but not
in all.
The furcula, when complete, is U-shaped; the tongue is fleshy, and somewhat
horny below; the nostrils, placed towards the front of the cere, are rather
large, and usually concealed by bristles; the syrinx is bronchial; the
after-shaft is absent or rudimentary; down occurs in the adults only on the
unfeathered spaces, but in the nestlings forms a woolly coating, which may
be brown or dusky, as in the Snowy Owl, white as in the Screech-Owl,
yellowish or grey, as in many species.
The sexes are alike, the female being larger than the male. The young
resemble the adults, but, at least in certain cases, are more rufous or
buff; further information is, however, needed as to the successive stages.
All Owls exhibit a certain similarity, while their ample plumage creates an
erroneous impression of bulk; the feathers–most compact in _Surnia_–are
soft, with an admixture of hairs and with weak, brittle shafts, to which
facts the noiseless flight is largely due. An erectile tuft decorates each
side of the crown in _Bubo_, _Asio_, _Scops_, and _Ketupa_; but the most
striking outward characteristic is the ruff of several series of small,
stiff-shafted, recurved feathers, originating from a fold of the skin round
the cheek, which support the larger feathers of the overlying disc around
the eye. The latter is very complete in _Strix_, _Syrnium_, and _Asio_,
being in the first-named rather triangular than circular; but in _Surnia_,
_Speotyto_, _Bubo_, and _Scops_, not to mention other cases, it is far less
perfect.
{400}_Syrnium cinereum_, one of the largest members of the Family, is
thirty inches long, though _Bubo_ possesses species that are perhaps more
powerful; on the other hand, _Micrathene whitneyi_ and _Glaucidium
cobanense_ measure about five inches. Omitting the white or yellowish-white
forms, the coloration of Owls may be stated to be a mixture of black,
brown, rufous, grey, yellow, and white, while barring is frequent on the
wings and tail. The pattern is always difficult to describe, nor can more
than an indication of it be given in the space available below. Permanent
rusty-red and grey phases occur in many species, or more rarely a brown
phase; such species as exhibit two of these being termed dimorphic, though
dichromatic would better express the meaning. The bill is blackish, dusky,
or yellowish. The moult in the Strigidae appears to be very gradual.
Owls are an exceptionally cosmopolitan group of birds, a large proportion
of the genera being common to both hemispheres; _Ketupa_, _Scotopelia_,
_Ninox_, _Heteroglaux_, _Sceloglaux_, _Carine_, _Photodilus_ and
_Heliodilus_ are, however, peculiar to the Old World, _Speotyto_,
_Gymnasio_ and _Micrathene_ to the New. The Short-eared Owl (_Asio
accipitrinus_) is found at various seasons throughout the globe, except, it
would seem, in West Africa, Australia, the Moluccas, Papuasia, and Oceania;
it occurs even in the Sandwich, Galápagos, and Falkland Islands. The
Screech-Owl (_Strix flammea_) has an even wider range, but is not met with
in Norway, the north of North America, or New Zealand. Authorities differ
as to the genera and species to be recognised, but certainly many more of
the latter are now known than the one hundred and ninety at which Dr.
Sharpe put the total in 1875.[232]
The members of this Family frequent districts of the most varied
description, whether they be wooded highlands, rocky ravines, or cultivated
lowlands; the Snowy Owl (_Nyctea scandiaca_) nests chiefly on the fjelds
and barren lands towards the North Pole; while the Burrowing Owl (_Speotyto
cunicularia_), which is equally at home on the sandy plains of North or
South America, is exceptional as an instance of gregarious habits in the
group. The majority, being nocturnal, are ill at ease in sunlight, a fact
which may explain the apparent discrepancy between their habitual shyness
and their bold conduct at the nest or when wounded; many are then
positively dangerous, and prove worse adversaries {401}than Falcons or
Eagles. In the perpetual day of the Arctic summer the Snowy Owl and the
Hawk-Owl (_Surnia ulula_) cannot of course be nocturnal, while to a limited
extent various species of _Bubo_, _Scops_, _Ninox_, _Glaucidium_, _Carine_,
_Nyctala_, and _Asio_ may be seen abroad in the hours of light; so that in
many cases sight may aid in the capture of prey as much as hearing.
The noiseless flight is buoyant, but usually slow and somewhat wavering,
with frequent beats of the wing; occasionally it is more direct, and in
_Surnia ulula_ almost Hawk-like. Owls apparently prefer to perch with the
first and fourth toes behind, and on a level surface to stand with three
toes in front; their gait on the ground is awkward, and being arboreal
birds–with the exception of _Speotyto_ and _Sceloglaux_–they rarely walk to
any extent.
The food consists of small mammals, such as lemmings, rats, voles, and
mice; of insects, with perhaps beetles in especial; and to a less degree of
birds, reptiles, bats, worms, slugs, and snails. The stronger forms even
capture young fawns, rabbits, hares, large grouse, and so forth, _Ninox
connivens_ being a great enemy of the young of the Koala (an Australian
marsupial); while the Snowy, Mottled, Screech-, and Wood-Owls occasionally
take fish, which, with crabs, constitutes the chief diet of _Ketupa_. The
manner of procuring sustenance varies with the object sought. Insects are
frequently caught upon the wing, but ordinarily the ground is quartered
after the manner of Harriers, and a pounce made upon the prey, which is
secured in the long curved talons. The smaller creatures are swallowed
entire or carried in the bill; the bigger are conveyed, hanging between the
feet, to some convenient spot, where they are torn to pieces and sometimes
plucked. Bones, fur, feathers, beetles' elytra, and the like are ejected as
round or cylindrical pellets, which commonly lie thickly around the nests
or feeding-places, and clearly shew the nature of the food.
The note varies from a loud hoot to a low, muffled sound or a clear,
musical cry; the utterance of both young and adults being in some cases a
cat-like mew, while the Screech-Owl snores when stationary. The "hoot" is
said to be produced by closing the bill, puffing out the throat, and then
liberating the air, a proceeding comparable to that of the Bitterns
(p. 88). On the whole the voice is mournful and monotonous, but
occasionally it resembles a shrill laugh. If a nest be made, it is commonly
placed in a hole in a tree or on a ledge of rock, but many species
{402}simply deposit their eggs on the débris naturally found in cavities.
To descend to a few particulars, the Snowy and Short-eared Owls, certain
other species of _Asio_, and in some cases the Eagle-Owls (_Bubo_) breed
upon the ground, often near some sheltering tuft, and use little or no
bedding; _Speotyto_ collects a mass of grass, dry leaves, feathers, and
rubbish in burrows; the Wood-Owls (_Syrnium_), the Long-eared Owl (_Asio
otus_), and several other forms utilize deserted nests of Pies, Crows,
Squirrels, and the like, commonly adding a fresh lining; the first-named
alternatively choose holes in trees or in the ground; while _Carine glaux_
has been known to breed in ant-hills. The Screech-Owl (_Strix_) and most of
the smaller members of the Family deposit their eggs in crevices in rocks
or banks, in natural cavities in trees, or even at the junction of two
large branches; towers, lofts, dovecots, and belfries being well-known
sites for the former. Apparently none of the above excavate their own holes
in the wood, or do more than clear them out; a few, however, decorate the
nests they usurp with green foliage, as do so many Buzzards and Eagles. The
habits sometimes undergo a decided change, as when the Short-eared Owl in
the Aleutian Islands, and the Screech-Owl in Texas and India take to fairly
deep burrows.
The Strigidae are exceptionally early breeders; for instance, Long-eared
Owls' eggs have been found in England at the end of February, and those of
_Bubo virginianus_ in that month in the United States; it is true the
Screech-Owl is later in this country, but this does not seem to be the case
with its American race. Where fresh sets are found late in the year, the
first have generally been destroyed, and a second brood is uncommon, though
the contrary holds true during vole- or lemming-plagues, when food is
unusually abundant; at such times, moreover, the number of eggs is
abnormally large for the species. The usual tale varies from two to ten,
while the bigger forms as a rule do not deposit so many. Much has been made
of the fact that the Screech-Owl (with the Eagle-Owl and other forms) lays
at considerable intervals of time; but this is certainly not always true,
and in many cases the varying size of the embryo is easily accounted for by
supposing the parent to sit as soon as the first egg is deposited. On the
other hand, occasional breaks certainly occur in the laying, and pairs of
eggs are often produced almost simultaneously; yet the bird has {403}no
regular habit of allowing the subsequent eggs to be hatched by the warmth
of the oldest nestlings; and the reader may be reminded that in other
groups, such as the Harriers and Divers, a very similar inequality in the
development of the eggs may be observed. Exceptionally the white shell is
said to be tinted with blue or yellow, or to be even marked with lilac and
brown in _Bubo coromandus_.[233] The shape is normally oval or nearly
spherical, but longer or even pointed specimens are not uncommon, while the
larger the size the less glossy is the texture. The male is generally to be
found near at hand if the nest is disturbed, and undoubtedly assists in
some cases in incubation, which lasts about four weeks. The hen hisses when
caught in a hole, and invariably sits closely; while both parents
frequently remain near an intruder, and "click" their beaks at him in
exactly the same manner as the pugnacious nestlings do.
Owls are constantly mobbed by other birds, especially when dazed by
sunlight, the Little Owl being used as a lure on the Continent. They
migrate to a greater or less extent, the autumnal visits of the Short-eared
Owl being especially well-known in Britain; yet the Snowy Owl often remains
in the far north in winter. The flesh is not generally reckoned palatable,
but _Bubo_, _Asio_, _Nyctea_, _Carine_ and _Scops_ at least are eaten by
the natives of various countries; superstition, however, usually prevents
the murder of an Owl, which is usually supposed to entail evil, though in a
few places good luck. In Andalucia the Scops- and Screech-Owls are believed
to be the devil's birds, and to drink the oil from the lamps in saints'
shrines; the Malagasy consider the members of the Family embodiments of the
spirits of the wicked; and country folks' belief in their connection with
death and the churchyard dates back at least to the time of Shakespeare,
who makes one of his characters call the owl's hoot or screech a "song of
death." Many species are well-adapted for aviaries, and breed freely; and
the Little Owl (_Carine noctua_) has done so when liberated in Britain.
Sub-fam. 1. _Striginae._–_Strix flammea_, the nocturnal White, Screech-, or
Barn-Owl, is orange-buff above, with brown, grey and white markings, but is
white below and on the complete facial discs. The dark grey phase has the
white parts tinged with orange and a few distinct blackish spots beneath.
The legs are entirely, and the toes partially, covered with bristly
{404}feathers. As mentioned above (p. 400), the bird is almost
cosmopolitan, if we disregard the sub-species proposed. It is rare in
northern Scotland. It lays its four to six dull white eggs, without any
nest, in hollow trees, crevices in masonry or rocks, towers, belfries,
lofts, and so forth, and has been known to breed in holes in banks or
cliffs in America, between forking branches in the Philippines, and on the
ground in Madagascar. The eggs are not uncommonly deposited at considerable
intervals. The food consists chiefly of small rodents, though birds, bats,
insects, and even small fish are eaten; the note is a weird screech, while
young and old make a snoring noise at the nesting place. When this bird
frequents dovecotes it destroys the rats which prey upon the eggs and young
of pigeons, and is itself practically harmless. According to Dr.
Sharpe[234] the following may also be admitted as valid species: _S. novae
hollandiae_ of Australia, _S. tenebricosa_ of that country and New Guinea,
_S. capensis_ of South Africa, and _S. candida_, the Grass Owl, ranging
from India to China, Formosa, North Australia, and Fiji. _S. castanops_ of
Tasmania may perhaps be added, and _S. aurantiaca_ of New Britain is
certainly distinct, but may not belong to this genus.
[Illustration: FIG. 85.–Screech-Owl. _Strix flammea._ × ⅖.]
_Heliodilus soumagnii_ of Madagascar is cinnamon-rufous above, with a few
black spots on the head, and bars on the wing and tail; it is lighter below
and pinker on the face. The toes are bare.
Sub-fam. 2. _Buboninae._–_Photodilus badius_, found from the Eastern
Himalayas to Ceylon, the Burmese Countries, Borneo, {405}and Java, is a
somewhat similarly coloured bird to the last-named, and utters a single
reiterated note. The habits are unknown.
_Nyctala tengmalmi_, Tengmalm's Owl, inhabits the forests of Northern and
Central Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America; it has brown upper parts
barred and mottled with white, and whitish lower surface banded and
streaked with brown; the facial discs are fairly complete, the legs
feathered to the end of the toes. Only partially nocturnal, it utters a
soft whistle or bell-like note, feeds on small rodents, birds, and beetles,
and lays from four to six, or exceptionally ten, eggs in holes in trees.
Its only congener, _N. acadica_, called the Saw-whet Owl from its grating
cry, occurs in America from Mexico northwards.
_Syrnium aluco_, the Tawny, Brown, or Wood-Owl of Great Britain–not found
in Ireland–ranges through most of Europe and Northern Africa to Palestine,
and it is said to Tibet; the colour above is grey and brown, with white
spots on the wing-coverts and tip to the tail; the lower parts being
rufous-white, mottled and streaked with brown. The perfect facial discs are
greyish, the legs are feathered to the claws. A rufous phase is even more
common in this country. It is an arboreal and entirely nocturnal species,
which makes the woodlands ring with its note in the autumn gloaming, and
less frequently in the morning; the sound resembling hŏo-hŏo-hŏo-hōo once
or twice repeated, rather than the Shakespearean tu-whit, to-who.
Surface-swimming fish vary the usual diet. From the middle of March onwards
three or four large oval eggs are deposited in hollow trees or deserted
nests of other birds; or even in caves, lofts, and rabbit-burrows, though
trees may be near to hand; sometimes a scanty lining of twigs, grass, down,
feathers, or fur is added. This genus, with about thirty species, extends
over nearly the whole globe, except Madagascar and the Australian Region;
some of the best known members being the northern _S. lapponicum_, the Lapp
Owl, and its American race _S. cinereum_–much larger and greyer birds than
_S. aluco_, with curious concentrically marked facial disks–and the whiter
broadly streaked _S. uralense_ of Northern and Central Europe and Siberia,
which is said at times to bleat like a goat. India furnishes _S. nivicola_
and _S. newarense_ of the Himalayas, _S. ocellatum_ and _S. indranee_, the
last-named extending to the Malay Peninsula; _S. sinense_ occurs in that
district Burma, Cochin China and Java, _S. leptogrammicum_ in Borneo.
{406}_S. nebulosum_ of eastern and _S. occidentale_ of southern North
America extend to Mexico; whence _S. virgatum_, _S. perspicillatum_, _S.
albigulare_ and other species range to the middle of South America. _S.
rufipes_ is a native of Chili and Patagonia. Finally, _S. nuchale_ inhabits
Western, _S. woodfordi_ Southern and North-Eastern Africa.
_Asio otus_, the Long-eared Owl, is buff, streaked, mottled and
vermiculated with brown and grey, especially on the upper parts, which
appear almost brown. The buff facial discs are complete; the feathering of
the legs extends more or less over the toes; the two long head-tufts are
erectile. It occurs throughout Europe, in Asia ordinarily north of the
Himalayas, in China, Japan, the Atlantic Islands, and North Africa, being
replaced in America southwards to Mexico by the sub-species _A. americanus_
(_wilsonianus_). _A. accipitrinus_, the Short-eared Owl, one of the most
widely distributed of birds, inhabits or visits nearly the whole globe
(p. 400). It is lighter and less streaky than the last form, with much
shorter tufts. _A. mexicanus_, ranging from Mexico to Brazil, _A.
madagascariensis_, peculiar to Madagascar, _A. capensis_ of that island and
most of Africa, which strays to Spain and Arabia, _A. stygius_, found from
Mexico and Cuba to Brazil, and its Jamaican representative, _A. grammicus_,
complete the genus. The last three have comparatively bare toes. The
Long-eared Owl resembles the Wood-Owl in general habits, and even, it is
said, breeds at times upon the earth; but it almost invariably relines
deserted habitations of other birds or of squirrels with a scanty supply of
twigs, grass, fur, down, or feathers, and lays from four to six oval eggs
from the end of February onwards. Pies' nests are in great request,
especially those of the preceding season. This somewhat silent species
utters a single hoot, or else a mewing cry, often erroneously attributed to
the young alone; the parents sit on the tops of trees when the nursery is
disturbed, and click their beaks, just as the nestlings do. The Short-eared
or Marsh-Owl makes a nest of the surrounding substances, with a few
feathers, among heather, sedge, or marshy herbage, sometimes sheltered by
some tussock or bush, and normally deposits from four to eight eggs; but
during the vole plague on the Scottish Borders in 1890-92, when these birds
abounded, they produced as many as thirteen each. In Unalashka a similar
structure is made in holes in banks. Should the sitting parent be
disturbed, it commonly utters a harsh scream, and hovers or circles around
{407}with continued cries, which summon its mate, if near; at other times
little noise is made, though this species is unusually diurnal. If
quartering the flats for food its flight is sufficiently powerful; but if
suddenly flushed it is wavering or zig-zag, as is well seen in autumn, when
the bird is named "Woodcock-Owl" in Britain, from its arriving at the same
time as Woodcocks.
_Micrathene whitneyi_, of the South-Western United States and Mexico, is
grey, mottled with brown and a little rufous; the lower parts being whiter,
and some white also shewing on the nape, wing-coverts, and throat. It
breeds in holes in cacti and the like. The genus _Glaucidium_, or
Pigmy-Owl, comprises some twenty members, distributed over most of the
globe, except the Australian Region, while one inhabits Europe. The
coloration is blackish- or ashy-brown, greyish, or rufous; browner and
redder phases often occurring in the same species. The upper parts exhibit
the usual dark mottlings, and yellowish or white markings; the under
surface is lighter; a whitish collar sometimes occurs above, or a dusky
gorget below. The facial discs are rather imperfect, the toes may be
thickly feathered or only hairy. The habits of _G. passerinum_ of Northern
and Central Europe are apparently representative of these forms, which are,
according to circumstances, shy or fearless, though strong and rapacious
for their size; they capture birds bigger than themselves, bats, rodents,
moths, and large insects generally. By preference arboreal, and denizens of
hilly woodlands, gardens, and orchards, they doze in trees during the day;
yet they are not entirely nocturnal, and may be seen after sunrise pursuing
their prey with rapid, jerky flight, very different to that of the more
slowly-flapping crepuscular species. The note varies from a loud clear
whistle to a short hissing or longer gurgling sound; the three to five
roundish eggs are laid in hollow trees. The largest form, _G. cuculoïdes_,
found from the Himalayas to Siam, does not attain twelve inches (_G.
whitelyi_ of China and Japan being barely separable), while _G. cobanense_
of Guatemala is only five inches long, and is the smallest Owl known. _G.
radiatum_ inhabits India, _G. brodiei_ the Himalayas, _G. castanonotum_
Ceylon, _G. sylvaticum_ Sumatra, _G. castanopterum_ Java, _G. pardalotum_
Formosa, _G. perlatum_ most of the Ethiopian Region, _G. capense_ South
Africa; _G. gnoma_ ranges from British Columbia to Guatemala, _G. ferox_
(with its races) from Texas to Bolivia and Brazil; _G. siju_ occupies Cuba,
_G. jardinii_ New {408}Granada and Venezuela, _G. pumilum_ Brazil, _G.
nanum_ Chili and Patagonia.
_Sceloglaux albifacies_, the Laughing Owl of New Zealand, is rufous-brown,
with the middle of the feathers dark, and a few marks of white and buff
above; the tail is barred with fulvous, the fairly perfect facial discs
exhibit radiating brown streaks; the toes are hairy. For an Owl this
peculiar species has the head small, the wings short, and the metatarsi
long; it strides along or hops at a considerable rate on the ground, and
flies only at night, uttering a peculiar shrill laugh or a loud barking
call-note. It is fast becoming extinct in its bleak mountain-haunts, where
it conceals itself by day–and also nests–in dry crevices of rocky gullies;
it lays from one to three eggs at considerable intervals, if we may judge
from captive specimens. The female is smaller than the male, who
occasionally incubates. As the Maori rat of New Zealand is extinct, the
food now consists of the introduced _Mus decumanus_, with insects, birds,
and so forth.
In the genus _Ninox_ the prevailing colours are grey, brown, and rufous,
relieved by a little black and white, the question of dichromatism not
being yet settled. The facial discs are somewhat imperfect. The thirty or
more species extend from Madagascar, India, and Ceylon to Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, and the Solomon Islands, having their headquarters in the
Moluccas and Papuasia; but, with the exception of _Scops_, there is perhaps
no group in the Family where the status of the members is more doubtful.
They are sometimes termed Hairy or Hawk-Owls, though the true Hawk-Owl is
_Surnia ulula_. _N. scutulata_, ranging from India to Japan, Formosa,
Ternate and Flores, frequents forests and gardens, sallying forth at dusk,
darting upon insects from its perch on some dead branch, uttering a
reiterated double note, and laying its eggs on dried leaves in hollow
trees. _N. strenua_, _N. connivens_, and _N. boobook_ are Australian
species, of which the first is a powerful bird with a hoarse, mournful
voice, mainly nocturnal, but wakeful and speedy in the daytime. It
frequents lonely forests and thick "brushes" on hills, being less widely
distributed than the more diurnal _N. connivens_ and _N. boobook_. The
latter may be seen in sunlight capturing birds or insects in the woods, but
the note of "boobook," or "buck-buck," from which it gets its native name,
is only heard at night. The colonists compare the cry with "cuckoo," and
believe that the {409}Cuckoo visits Australia and there assumes nocturnal
habits. The flight is rapid and Woodcock-like, the three eggs are deposited
in holes in trees, with no nest. _N._ (_Spiloglaux_) _novae zealandiae_, of
New Zealand, called from its cry "More-pork,"[235] is dark brown above with
white spots on the scapulars and wing-coverts, and is tawny with brown
streaks below. By day it hides in trees or crevices of rocks, and appears
at dusk to prey on rats, mice, birds, lepidoptera, beetles, and crickets.
Besides the usual note, a shrill scream or croak is not unfrequently heard;
the young make a snoring noise, and adults click the beak when angry. Two
or three eggs are laid in hollow trees or under boulders. Of other species
_N. maculata_ is restricted to Tasmania and Norfolk Island, _N. albaria_ to
Lord Howe Island, _N. obscura_ and _N. affinis_ to the Andamans and perhaps
the Nicobars, and _N. natalis_ to Christmas Island, Indian Ocean; while
from the Philippines and Celebes to the Solomons the numbers increase
greatly, and many islands have their own peculiar forms.
_Gymnoglaux nudipes_ of the Antilles, remarkable for its unusually bare
metatarsi, is brown above and white below, with rufous barring throughout;
_G. lawrencii_ of Cuba having the leg-feathers less extended, and being
spotted with white on the more uniform upper surface. _Speotyto
cunicularia_, the Burrowing Owl, a comparatively long-legged and
short-winged bird with incomplete facial discs and unfeathered toes, is
umber-brown varied with yellowish and white, the lower parts becoming
lighter. From the confines of British Columbia it extends through the
Western and Southern United States, a few of the Antilles, and the greater
part of the Neotropical Region, several fairly distinct races having been
described. Large communities in North America occupy the burrows of
prairie-dogs, rats, ground-squirrels, or badgers; in South America those of
the biscacha, the Patagonian hare, and even of armadillos and large
lizards; but they are said to make their own holes, if necessary. The homes
seem usually to be shared by the separate pairs with the original owners,
and sometimes with intruders such as rattlesnakes; while a nest of grass,
feathers, and rubbish is made at the further end, where from five to ten
eggs may be found, surrounded by castings. Mainly diurnal and generally
fearless, these birds fly strongly for short distances, and procure their
food of small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects, {410}chiefly on the
ground, where they are quite at ease. A croaking sound is made while
courting, but the ordinary cry is long and shrill; both parents, moreover,
fly chattering over an intruder at the breeding colonies, while individuals
often sit bowing or twisting their heads about on the roofs of houses.
[Illustration: FIG. 86.–Burrowing Owl. _Speotyto cunicularia._ × ½. (From
_Nature_.)]
_Carine noctua_, the Little Owl of British authors, is greyish-brown above
with white markings, and white with brown streaks below. The facial discs
are imperfect; the toes are bristly–or {411}feathered in the race from
Northern and Central Asia (_C. plumipes_ or _bactriana_). Another race (_C.
glaux_), of a more sandy colour, occupies North Africa, whence the species
ranges to Denmark, the Baltic and the Urals, and through Palestine and
Afghanistan to East Siberia and North China. It occurs in England, where
liberated specimens breed, but possibly diminish in numbers. _C.
spilogastra_ is found in Abyssinia, _C. superciliaris_ in Madagascar, _C.
brama_ in India and Baluchistan. The Little Owl is semi-diurnal, and haunts
wooded country and orchards; the flight in the day is undulating and slow
with many flaps; the note is a muffled monosyllabic or disyllabic cry, a
noisy bark, a mew, or a wail; the food consists of rodents, birds,
reptiles, frogs, insects, snails, and worms. From three to five eggs are
deposited on débris in crevices of rocks or masonry, in buildings, hollow
trees, or even ant-hills. Of old the European form was the bird of Pallas
Athene and the emblem of wisdom, but whether from its grave appearance when
quiescent, or–sarcastically–from its buffoon-like contortions and bowings
must remain doubtful; we may, however, compare the Malagasy name of _Scops
magicus_, "atoroko," which means "I am going to say," and the similarly
philosophic look that it can put on.
_Surnia ulula_ or _funerea_, the Hawk-Owl, ranges from Scandinavia and
North Russia to Kamtschatka or even Alaska, whence a race with a blacker
head, and broader, redder bands below, stretches through Arctic America,
and visits Britain more commonly than the typical form. This is dark brown
above, freely marked with white, and white below, with distinct but narrow
brown bars; the facial disks are very imperfect, the toes are feathered to
the claws. The exceptionally compact and firm plumage, the short, acuminate
wings, and the long tail conduce to its Hawk-like appearance, heightened
still more by the quick flight, the fierce manners, and the shrill
Kestrel-like cry. From their native pine-forests a few individuals wander
southwards towards winter; while at home they feed on lemmings and rodents
generally, Willow Grouse and other birds, and insects. They sit watching
for prey on bare branches or stumps in the sunlight, occasionally dashing
after a Jay or the like; not unfrequently they quarter the ground like a
Harrier, and of course hunt at night also. From three to eight eggs are
deposited on a few chips in hollow stumps, in boxes set up by the Lapps, or
in a relined nest of some other species; the parents being perfectly
fearless in their attacks on an intruder.
{412}_Nyctea scandiaca_, the white Snowy Owl, occasionally exhibiting spots
or broken bars of black, has ill-developed facial discs and hardly visible
tufts, but very thickly feathered feet. It inhabits the circumpolar fjelds,
tundras, and barren grounds, straying as far as Britain, France, Lower
Austria, the Indus Valley and the Bermudas in winter; but when rodents
abound on the fells of Norway and Sweden a greater number remain there to
breed. The flight is strong and easy; the habits are diurnal; the food
consists of lemmings, rats, mice, squirrels, hares, birds large or small,
fishes, and doubtless insects. It is called Harfäng (hare-catcher) in
Scandinavia. This Owl either catches the fishes in one claw as it skims
over the water, or crouches on some stone or piece of ice till the moment
comes to strike; at times, moreover, it will follow sportsmen in the field.
The cry, seldom heard, is wild and wailing. The large, oval eggs, numbering
from three to five, or even ten when food is plentiful, are deposited in
holes scraped in the soil on ledges of rocks or other eminences, sometimes
lined with moss and feathers; they appear occasionally to be laid in pairs
at intervals. The parents, though usually wary, will attack a man at the
nest.
The cosmopolitan genus _Scops_, found almost everywhere except in the
extreme north, Australia, Oceania, and the southern portion of South
America, contains some fifty so-called species which it would be useless to
discuss in the present state of our information, though certain of them are
mentioned below. Rufous, brown, and grey phases undoubtedly occur, but the
various plumages are still very imperfectly understood. Perhaps two-thirds
of the forms occur in the Old World, yet only one (_S. giu_) inhabits the
Palaearctic Region west of Japan, though there we find _S. semitorques_.
The general coloration is a mixture of grey, brown, chocolate or rufous,
with a less amount of black, yellowish, and white; some species are finely
vermiculated, others hardly at all, while several are almost barred below
and many are distinctly banded on the tail. The facial discs are
incomplete, but the head-tufts are well developed; the metatarsi and toes
are feathered, or bristly, or the latter are occasionally bare. _Scops
giu_, the Petit Duc of France, which visits Britain and Holland, extends
over Central and Southern Europe, Asia Minor, Palestine, Persia, and
Turkestan, occurring in North Africa, and migrating as far southwards as
Abyssinia and Senegal. Sub-species occupy the Ethiopian Region, and Asia to
Japan and {413}Siam; _S. brucii_, ranging from Transcaspia to India being
possibly separable. The type species is grey above with the middle of the
feathers dark, the back being vermiculated with brown and the wings spotted
with white; the whitish lower parts are more streaky and the toes bare. It
feeds by night on mice, small birds, grasshoppers, moths, and beetles; and
utters a melancholy metallic single note, which rings monotonously through
the woods it haunts; in the day it hides in thick cypresses and the like.
Five or six roundish eggs are deposited in holes in trees, rocks, and
buildings, or rarely in deserted birds' nests; no bedding being added,
though the opposite is the case in some Indian species. _S. asio_, the
Mottled or American Screech-Owl, reaches with its different races from
Alaska and Canada to Guatemala, and is said to have a wailing cry, varied
by deep guttural trills. _S. flammeola_ occurs from Colorado and California
to Guatemala; and thence various species carry the range to Brazil. The
Ethiopian Region generally is tenanted by _S. leucotis_, the Gold Coast by
_S. icterorhynchus_, Anjuan in the Comoros by _S. capnodes_, Madagascar by
_S. rutilus_–though this is said to be a form of _S. magicus_, extending
from Celebes to about New Guinea; the Indian Region and the Moluccas
possess a large number of species, among which _S. gymnopus_ of India (with
half-naked metatarsi like _S. nudipes_ of Veragua) may be mentioned.
_Bubo ignavus_, the Eagle-Owl, which visits Britain, and is the Grand Duc
of the French, is blackish-brown above, with yellowish-rufous mottlings and
interrupted wing- and tail-bars; it is yellowish-buff below with blackish
streaks and indistinct transverse markings. The facial discs are fairly
distinct, the head-tufts are long, and the toes thickly feathered. This
fierce species, one of the largest of the Family, inhabits rugged mountains
and forests throughout Europe, Asia north of the Himalayas to Japan, and
North Africa; it is partly diurnal, and preys chiefly upon hares, rabbits,
large game birds, and rodents, being said moreover to attack fawns. The
flight is powerful, though undulating and flapping; the cry is a deep "hoo,
hoo," occasionally sounding like a laugh or neigh. Two, or rarely three,
roundish eggs are deposited in holes scraped in the soil on rocky ledges or
on banks, in disused birds' nests, in hollow trees, or even between their
branches or roots; little lining, if any, being added. Nearly allied forms
are _B. turcomanus_ of South-West Siberia and Turkestan, {414}_B.
blakistoni_ of Japan, and _B. dorriesi_ of East Siberia; _B. milesi_ is
found at Muscat, _B. abyssinicus_ in Somali-Land, _B. bengalensis_–which
eats reptiles and crabs–in India, _B. nipalensis_ and _B. coromandus_–which
occasionally lays eggs spotted with lilac and brown–in the same country and
Burma, _B. orientalis_ in Malacca and the Great Sunda Islands, _B.
philippensis_ in the Philippines. _B. lacteus_ covers all the Ethiopian
Region, except the west, where _B. shelleyi_, _B. lettii_, _B.
leucostictus_ and _B. poënsis_ occur, the last being also met with in
Fernando Po. _B. ascalaphus_ inhabits North Africa and Palestine, _B.
cinerascens_ North-East and _B. maculosus_ South Africa, _B. capensis_
extending from the South to the East. All North America is occupied by _B.
virginianus_, barred instead of streaked below; the species or sub-species
_B. nigrescens_ and _B. magellanicus_ coming respectively from Ecuador and
the districts from Peru and Brazil to the extreme south. Some forms have
more white in the plumage than the British Eagle-Owl, or bare toes. All
seem destructive to game and often to poultry. _B. ignavus_ and _B.
virginianus_ have been kept in confinement in England, and the former has
propagated freely.
_Scotopelia peli_, of West Africa and the Zambesi Region, has rufous upper
parts with black bars, and fawn-coloured lower surface with the bars less
regular; it feeds on reptiles and fish as well as small animals. This fine
large bird has two congeners, _S. ussheri_ of Fantee and _S. bouvieri_ of
the Gaboon. _Ketupa ceylonensis_, a still bigger species, ranging from
India and Ceylon to Hong-Kong, is buffish-brown above, with the middle of
the feathers blackish, and fulvous below with dark streaks and closely set
brown bands, the throat being white. _K. flavipes_, of the Himalayas and
China, and the smaller _K. javanensis_ of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and
the Great Sunda Islands, have no bands below; but all have fine head-tufts
and naked legs. They frequent coasts or wooded streams, where they can
easily procure their main diet of fish, crabs, and insects; they remain
under cover in the day, and the last-named at least utters a soft, low
whistle. The two roundish eggs, which have the surface pitted like those of
the Eagle-Owl, are often laid on ledges or in recesses of rocks, in hollow
trees, or at the junction of the larger branches, but more commonly a
deserted nest is relined for the purpose.
Of fossil forms referred to the Family, _Necrobyas harpax_ and _N.
rossignoli_ are described from the Eocene of France, together {415}with
_Otus_ (i.e. _Asio_) and _Bubo_; the latter genus and _Strix_ occur in the
Lower Miocene of the same country, _Strix_ also in the Malta caverns and in
the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius, _Nyctea_ at Torquay and in France, _Bubo_
in Wyoming, _Badiostes_ in Patagonia.
* * * * *
The Sub-Order CAPRIMULGI consists of the Nightjar or Goat-sucker group,
with the Families _Caprimulgidae_, _Podargidae_, and _Steatornithidae_, of
which the latter contains only the remarkable Guácharo. The _Caprimulgidae_
may be divided into the Sub-families (1) _Caprimulginae_ and (2)
_Nyctibiinae_. Authorities disagree as to the exact relationship of these
birds to their allies, here classified as Coraciiformes; but that all are
allies is certain, while both in appearance and habits Nightjars are
decidedly Owl-like.
Apart from the Steatornithidae, the skull is flattened, the eyes are large,
the beak is short and extremely broad, being hooked and toothed in the
Nyctibiinae and occasionally decurved in the Caprimulginae and Podargidae;
the gape is enormously wide, and is in many cases provided with stiff
bristles, which in _Aegotheles_ have long lateral filaments. An appearance
of great size is given to the head by the loose plumage. The feet are
fairly strong, with the digits somewhat united basally; the anteriorly
scutellated metatarsi vary from comparatively long and bare in
_Nyctidromus_ and the Podargidae to very short and feathered in
_Nyctibius_. The outer toe of the Caprimulginae has only four joints, and
the mid-toe has a pectinated claw, while in the Podargidae and some
Caprimulginae the hallux is partially reversible. The pointed wing has ten
primaries, sometimes much elongated (p. 418), and eleven or twelve
secondaries; the tail may be square, rounded, graduated, or forked, and has
ten rectrices, occasionally lengthened or even racquet-tipped (_loc.
cit._). The furcula is U-shaped, the tongue short; the slit-like nostrils
are basal and overhung by a membrane and feathers in _Podargus_ and
_Batrachostomus_, whereas they are open and near the tip of the bill in
_Aegotheles_, but soft, tubular, and often elongated in the Caprimulginae.
The syrinx is bronchial, sometimes tending to tracheo-bronchial; the
aftershaft is rudimentary; the adults have down only on the unfeathered
tracts, while the nestlings have a thick covering of it, which is generally
buff or grey, but white in _Podargus_ and _Batrachostomus_.
The length varies from about twenty inches in _Nyctibius_ and _Podargus_ to
seven or eight in _Caprimulgus parvulus_ and {416}_Phalaenoptilus
nuttalli_. The characteristically soft plumage shews an intricate mixture
of brown, grey, fawn, black, and white, and is ordinarily barred and
minutely freckled, but frequently patched or spotted with white; it is,
however, impossible in a limited space to describe the species in detail,
though it may be noticed that several have reddish nuchal collars; and some
exhibit rufous and grey phases–unless, as may be the case, the rufous forms
are females–while others from arid districts have a protective coloration
of a more or less sandy hue. In the Podargidae large powder-down patches
occur laterally on the rump, in the Nyctibiinae on the breast and sides.
The sexes are often alike, the young either resembling the female, or
assuming the full plumage at once. _Lyncornis_, _Otophanes_, and
_Batrachostomus_ have head-tufts like those of some Owls, the constituent
feathers in the last genus being bristle-pointed.
Nightjars are found in most parts of the world, while the northern species
habitually move southwards for the winter, _Podager_ and _Chordiles_, at
least, flocking in August and September. The most typical forms are
distinctly crepuscular, and pass the day–as our British bird does–quiescent
on the soil, or upon some post or fence, often concealing themselves below
shrubs or herbage, or in hollow stumps. At such times they will almost
permit themselves to be trodden upon before rising from the ground, and sit
with their eyes closed; on branches the body is ordinarily placed
lengthwise, but on thin palings or wire this is of course impossible.
_Nyctidromus_ exhibits more terrestrial habits, and walks instead of
shuffling; the American Bull-bat (_Chordiles virginianus_) hawks in the
full glare of the sun. The more diurnal species frequently rise to a
considerable height in the air, sailing backwards and forwards with an
easy, flapping motion, descending with undulating swoops, or remaining
momentarily poised aloft, and then darting suddenly upon their prey; the
flight of their nocturnal allies is weaker and more lowly, being jerky,
twisting, and erratic. Some forms, if not all, when inspecting an intruder
turn the head almost completely round. The vibrating sound often
accompanying the passage through the air may be produced by the wings
coming into contact, as is the clapping noise occasionally heard; but the
cause is not certainly ascertained, nor is that of the far-resounding churr
uttered by the male of the Common Nightjar while stationary. The birds are,
however, often quiet on the {417}wing, and steal upon the listener
noiselessly with the mouth widely opened. The voice is generally hollow,
but is described in various cases as a "croak," a "loud shrill cry," a "sad
whistle," a "jarring note," or a "moan"; while the American Whip-poor-Will
(_Antrostomus vociferus_), Chuck-Will's-widow (_A. carolinensis_), and
Poor-Will (_Phalaenoptilus_), as well as the Tasmanian More-pork (_Podargus
cuvieri_), are so called from the sounds they rapidly utter. The second of
these is said to be silent when breeding, contrary to the habit of our
Nightjar. The food consists as a rule of insects, and especially beetles,
captured in the air; but the Podargidae are asserted to pick Phasmidae and
Cicadidae off the trees, and even to eat fruit–as _Steatornis_ does–or
mice.[236]
Most Nightjars make no nest, but lay one or two white, yellowish, or
pinkish eggs, beautifully marbled or scrawled with black, gray, brown, or
violet, on the ground in open spots, frequently shaded by trees, ferns, or
gorse. More rarely lichen-covered rocks or flat house-tops are chosen.
_Phalaenoptilus_ has white eggs, like those of the Podargidae, among which
_Podargus_ makes a flat, loose structure of twigs and grass upon some
branch to contain its complement of three, and _Batrachostomus_ deposits
one on a peculiar pad of brown or greyish down, which is fixed to a bough
and is at times based on a little bark, lichen, moss, or leaf-refuse.[237]
_Aegotheles_ lays from three to five in hollow trees, the parent hissing if
caught upon them. Eggs of _Ae. wallacii_ are stated to shew pale streaks.
_Nyctibius_ appears to breed in hollows of branches or stumps, and not on
the ground.[238] Nightjars sit very closely, and are said to remove the
contents of the nest if disturbed; the young, though hatched helpless,
quickly learn to escape from danger; while the parents occasionally feign
lameness to divert attention from them. The males sometimes incubate.
The superstitious of all classes are inclined to view these birds with
dread, a fact due to their nocturnal habits and Owl-like aspect, coupled
with their strange utterances and sudden apparitions. The Indians of
Central and South America think that they portend serious evil, but refuse
to kill them; while in England gamekeepers and others are only too ready to
shoot them under the unfair designation of "Night-hawk."
Fam. VIII. CAPRIMULGIDAE.–Of this group some eighty species {418}occupy
nearly the whole globe, except the coldest parts, the Eastern Pacific
Islands and New Zealand.
Sub-fam. 1. _Caprimulginae._–_Caprimulgus europaeus_, the Nightjar,
Goatsucker, or Fern-Owl, visits Britain for the summer, and extends from
Europe and North Africa to South Mongolia in Asia, reaching North-West
India and South Africa in winter. _C. ruficollis_ of South-West Europe and
the neighbouring portions of Africa has once occurred in England, as has
_C. aegyptius_ of North-East Africa and West Asia. The genera
_Heleothreptus_ of Brazil and Argentina, and _Macrodipteryx_ of Tropical
Africa, contain respectively one and two members, remarkable for the
extraordinary elongation of the remiges in the male. _H. anomalus_ has the
first six primaries curved inwards, the seventh, eighth, and ninth
prolonged–especially the eighth; _M. vexillarius_, the Pennant-winged
Nightjar, has the same three feathers produced, but the ninth in
particular; _M. macrodipterus_ has the ninth alone extended, with long bare
shaft and racquet-like tip: and this is at times erected when the bird is
sitting on the ground. _Scotornis climacurus_ of the north of Tropical
Africa, the four species of _Hydropsalis_, inhabiting South America
southwards to Argentina, and the three of _Macropsalis_, ranging from
Panama to Bolivia and South-East Brazil, have enormously elongated
rectrices, the median pair being highly developed in the first-named, the
whole number in the second, and the lateral pair in the last. These long
feathers seem to impede the flight but little, though _Hydropsalis_
constantly opens and shuts its tail in the air.
[Illustration: FIG. 87.–Nightjar or Goatsucker. _Caprimulgus europaeus._ ×
⅓.]
Sub-fam. 2. _Nyctibiinae._–Six species of _Nyctibius_ occur in Tropical
America, including Jamaica, and utter wailing cries.
{419}Fam. IX. PODARGIDAE.–This group includes some five and twenty members
of the genera _Podargus_, _Batrachostomus_[239] (Frog-mouth), and
_Aegotheles_. The first and last occupy Papuasia, Tasmania, and Australia,
the second ranges from the Himalayas to Ceylon, the Philippines, and Malay
Islands.
Fam. X. STEATORNITHIDAE.–This contains only the curious Guácharo, or
Oil-bird (_Steatornis caripensis_) discovered in 1799 by Humboldt and
Bonpland at Caripé in Venezuela, but now known to breed also in Colombia,
Ecuador, and Peru, as well as in Guiana and Trinidad. Somewhat intermediate
between the Owls and the Nightjars, this species is about the size of a
Crow, with a similar hard beak, hooked and deeply notched, while it has
twelve long stiff bristles on each side of the gape. The tibiae and
metatarsi are covered with smooth, flesh-coloured skin, the toes being
deeply cleft, and not basally united. The tongue is thin and triangular,
the nostrils have a horny covering, the after-shaft is fairly large, while
the rest of the structure is mainly Caprimulgine. The acuminate and not
particularly soft feathers are chocolate and grey, with darker barring
above, and shew white spots, often surrounded by black, in various parts.
This bird inhabits sea-side or mountain-caverns, only issuing forth at dusk
to traverse considerable distances in search of its food, which consists
mainly, if not wholly, of fruits. The flight is noiseless, and occasionally
high in the air. Visitors to the breeding caves are suddenly surrounded by
a circling crowd of Oil-birds uttering loud croaking or rasping cries, the
effect being enhanced by the rush of multitudinous wings. A more plaintive
note is uttered by individuals at rest. The numerous nests, each containing
from two to four white or dirt-begrimed eggs, are flat circular masses of a
clay-like substance, placed on ledges or in holes; while the nestlings are
considered a table delicacy, though said to be scented like cockroaches.
The natives systematically kill large numbers at certain seasons by
knocking them down with poles when scared by torchlight, and melt out the
abundant fat to procure the oil, which gives the bird its name. This oil is
used for illumination or cooking, and keeps admirably.
* * * * *
The Sub-Order CYPSELI consists of the Families _Cypselidae_ or Swifts, and
_Trochilidae_ or Humming-birds,[240] which were first {420}grouped together
by Nitzsch as _Macrochires_ (long-handed forms) from the length of their
manual bones, though really the parts of the wing nearer the body are
proportionally most elongated.
Swifts certainly differ from Humming-birds in the broad, flat skull, the
short curved bill, and the extremely wide gape, besides their comparatively
sombre coloration; but these facts cannot be allowed to militate against an
alliance so strongly confirmed by many points of structure, while nothing
but the pardonable ignorance of former times caused the Family to be united
with their Passerine analogues, the Swallows. The _Cypselidae_ agree with
the _Trochilidae_ in the number and colour of their eggs, and the
extraordinarily deep keel of the sternum, which, with the long wings, gives
so great a power of flight.
Fam. XI. CYPSELIDAE.–Of this group three Sub-families may be recognised,
(1) _Macropteryginae_, (2) _Chaeturinae_, and (3) _Cypselinae_.
The short but robust metatarsi are scutellated anteriorly, the scales being
nearly obsolete in the Chaeturinae; fairly powerful claws terminate the
free toes, which are all directed forwards in the Cypselinae, though the
hallux is somewhat laterally inclined in _Panyptila_, and is said to be
occasionally versatile in the other Sub-families. The middle and outer
digits in the Cypselinae have the further peculiarity of possessing only
three joints, while the metatarsi or even the toes are feathered. The ten
primaries, and especially the exterior, are extremely long, with thick
narrow outer webs; the short secondaries vary from six to eight. The square
or forked tail has ten rectrices–not uncommonly rigid and pointed–as
against twelve in Swallows. The furcula is U-shaped; the tongue sagittate;
the syrinx tracheo-bronchial (the muscles not being inserted on the
bronchial rings); the aftershaft is large or small; the adults have a
little blackish down on the unfeathered spaces; the nestlings are blind and
naked.
The coloration is usually greenish-black or mouse-brown, occasionally with
a white chin, breast, or rump; a rufous collar or chestnut ear-coverts
occur in _Macropteryx_ and _Cypseloïdes_, where alone the males differ from
the females, and the young from both. The Family ranges over the whole
world, with the exception of the extreme north and south, New Zealand and
some other islands; the six genera containing about eighty species varying
in size from about four to fourteen inches.
{421}Swifts are essentially aërial, seldom alighting upon the ground, or
perching except at night,[241] though they will cling to the entrance of
their breeding quarters for a few seconds before entering. From a smooth
flat surface they can hardly rise, but in the air they are perfectly at
home, whether wheeling and circling at great altitudes, chasing each other
aloft, consummating their love affairs, or sweeping over the earth's
surface in pursuit of insects attracted by the damp. The exceptionally
rapid flight is strong and practically unlimited in duration, two or three
quick movements of the wings being repeatedly succeeded by a gliding
motion. Though not gregarious in the ordinary sense, they habitually breed
in company, and _Collocalia_ nests in vast colonies; a solitary bird,
moreover, is comparatively seldom seen, and both before and during
incubation our Common Swift flies in screaming flocks around the chosen
sites. This species will pass and re-pass close to a pedestrian's head with
noisy and apparently vicious rush, even when far from the nest; yet it is
not really the intruder but insects that are the attraction, the food being
entirely of that nature, and invariably captured in the air, while the beak
may be seen filled to repletion when nestlings require to be supported. The
voice is a shrill scream, constantly repeated. The districts frequented are
of every description, _Cypselus andicola_ and _C. horus_ being particularly
alpine; the nest varies to a considerable extent, though a glutinous
substance secreted by the highly developed salivary glands is a constant,
or frequently almost the sole, material. The situation may be a hole under
thatch, slates or tiles; a crevice in a building, cliff, or tree; the
perpendicular wall of a cave; the upper side of a branch, palm-leaf, or
broad stalk; the lower surface of a rock, and so forth. The shape of the
structure is tubular in _Panyptila_, where it is composed of seeds of
plants; but generally it is saucer-like, the materials being straw,
feathers, twigs, moss, or cottony vegetable matter, the first two of which
have been stated to be caught floating in the air. The American
Chimney-Swift plucks off branchlets as it flies. _Cypselus affinis_ and the
species of _Collocalia_ commonly join their nests together in masses; Palm
Swifts do so more rarely; _Cypselus caffer_ even utilizes those of other
birds. The dull white eggs are oval and almost uniform at each end;
{422}two or four being the usual complement, though three are exceptionally
found, and _Macropteryx_ lays only one.
Sub-fam. 1. _Macropteryginae._–The Tree-Swifts, as they are called, have
very soft plumage, a long, deeply-forked tail, a patch of downy feathers on
the flanks, and elongated plumage on the top or sides of the head. They
range from India and Ceylon through the Burmese and Malay countries, and
the islands thence to the Solomon Group. _Macropteryx coronata_ of India,
Ceylon, Burma, and Siam has bluish ash-coloured upper parts, glossed with
metallic green, especially on the crested head, wings, and tail; the under
surface is greyish and white, the chin and ear-coverts are rufous. The
female lacks the chestnut. The nest is a half saucer of bits of bark and
feathers, gummed by saliva to a branch some twenty feet from the ground,
trees being usually selected in rough jungle on low hills. It contains one
egg, and is so small that the sitting bird quite conceals it. Other species
are _M. longipennis_, _M. wallacii_, _M. comata_, and the larger and most
eastern _M. mystacea_.
Sub-fam. 2. _Chaeturinae._–Of the three genera, _Chaetura_, _Cypseloïdes_,
and _Collocalia_, the first occurs from Central Asia and India to Japan,
New Guinea and Australia; in Tropical Africa; and in the Nearctic and
Neotropical Regions, except the extreme north and south. All the species,
numbering about fifty, have rigid tail-feathers with more or less
projecting spiny shafts, save in _Collocalia_.
_Chaetura caudacuta_, which has strayed to Britain and New Zealand, ranges
from Mongolia and Japan to China and the Eastern Himalayas, wintering
southwards to Australia and Tasmania. It is dusky-brown with greenish-black
head, wings, and tail, white forehead and breast. The nest, placed on
cliffs or in hollow trees, is probably similar to that of the next species,
several pairs nidificating together. _C. pelagica_, the "Chimney Swallow"
of the United States, chiefly found in the east, but extending to the Fur
Countries and the Great Plains, and in winter at least to Mexico and
Yucatan, is dark grey, with lighter lower surface, blackish head and wings.
It has almost ceased to breed in trees, but fastens its semicircular nest
of small twigs, glued together with salivary secretion, to the inside of
chimneys, laying from four to six white eggs. _C. zonaris_, extending from
the West Indies and Mexico to Argentina, is uniform blackish-brown with
white collar and breast; _C. novae guineae_ of Papua is glossy
greenish-blue above, and grey below, with an {423}exceptionally short tail;
_C. ussheri_ of the Gold Coast is dark brown, varied with a good deal of
white; _C. cassini_ of the Congo and Gaboon, and _C. boehmi_ of East
Equatorial Africa, are glossy black with less white. _C. acuta_ of the West
Indies, _C. grandidieri_ of Madagascar, and other forms, complete the
genus.
In _Cypseloïdes_ the shafts of the rectrices scarcely project perceptibly;
while the tail is emarginate in _C. niger_ of western North America, the
Antilles, and Guiana. The coloration is plain black or brown, with a
reddish collar round the neck in the males of _C. rutilus_ and _C.
brunneitorques_. The genus ranges to Peru and Brazil. The nest, placed in
holes in houses and so forth, is made of straw, leaves, and rubbish; the
eggs are four or five.
_Collocalia_ is an especially interesting section of the Family, on account
of the nests furnishing the birds'-nest soup of the Chinese. Being formed
of the dried secretions of the salivary glands,[242] these are almost
entirely glutinous, and when newly built are termed white or "first
quality." The thirteen diminutive species are black or brown above,
occasionally with a blue gloss, and white on the rump or tail; the under
parts being whitish or grey. They are not migratory, but extend over most
of the Indian and Australian regions, except the northernmost portions,
being found as far south as North Australia. One form reaches the Mascarene
Islands. Huge numbers breed in company in dark caves, sticking their nests
close together upon the rocky walls, or even joining them in masses; the
materials may include moss, straw, lichen, and so forth, but inspissated
saliva is the chief, and often the only, constituent, especially in _C.
fuciphaga_. Brown nests are those discoloured by use, or spoilt by an
admixture of foreign substances, and are considered hardly worth
collecting. Two eggs are the usual complement. The caverns are entered from
boats below, or by ladders from above, other ladders or poles notched for
the feet being fixed in the rocky flooring of the interior. These are
ascended by natives armed with long-pronged forks, who obtain hundreds of
nests at one gathering. Bats occupy the caves by day, the birds by night or
when incubating; while at any time the noise of the escaping denizens is
almost deafening. The breeding sites are a very lucrative property. The
especially valuable _C. fuciphaga_, which obtained its specific name from
the erroneous idea that it built {424}with partly digested sea-weed,
extends (if we include several more or less distinct races) from the Duke
of York Island and the Ladrones in the east to the hills of India, Ceylon,
and the Mascarene Group in the west, a small species of slightly more
eastern range with whitish band on the rump being known as _C. francica_.
Sub-fam. 3. _Cypselinae._–This contains only the genera _Panyptila_ and
_Cypselus_, granted that the latter is not further divided. The former has
feathered toes, a deeply forked tail with pointed outer feathers, and soft,
silky black plumage, varied with white. The very remarkable architecture of
_P. sancti hieronymi_ of Guatemala is described as follows by Mr.
Salvin:[243] "The nest of this species is composed entirely of the seeds of
a plant, secured together and hung from the under surface of an overhanging
rock by the saliva of the bird. The whole structure measures 2 feet 2
inches in length, and is about 6 inches in diameter. The entrance is at the
[lower] end, and the hollow for the eggs at the top." The cavity in the
above case was in the shape of a walking-stick, with its knob bent
laterally at the top, while a false entrance shewed at one side. _P.
cayennensis_, ranging from Nicaragua to Brazil, makes a similar nest on
trees.
The coloration of the twenty or more species of _Cypselus_ is sooty-black
or mouse-brown, frequently exhibiting a metallic gloss, while the collar,
rump, abdomen, or edges of the feathers may be white. A forked tail is not
uncommon, and the strong toes are feathered in _C. melanoleucus_ and _C.
squamatus_. _C. apus_, the Common Swift or Deviling of Britain, is found
through Europe, North Africa, and Asia southward to the Himalayas,
migrating to South Africa, Madagascar, and Southern Asia. A paler race (_C.
pallidus_ or _murinus_) extends from the Atlantic Islands and the
Mediterranean basin to Bogos Land and Sind. The habits are well-known; but
it may be observed that in flying the wings take the form of a bent bow,
and that on the Continent it builds in hollow trees instead of in holes
under eaves, in walls or cliffs. Few individuals remain with us after early
September. _C. unicolor_ is peculiar to Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape
Verd Islands; _C. affinis_ reaches from Africa and Palestine to India; _C.
melba_, the "Alpine Swift," inhabits the same Asiatic countries, extending
westward to South Europe and North Africa, and wandering north to Britain
and Heligoland.
{425}[Illustration: FIG. 88.–Swift. _Cypselus apus._ × ⅓. (From _Natural
History of Selborne_.)]
_C. caffer_ occurs in South Africa, Abyssinia, and Uganda, and
exceptionally on the Congo; _C. horus_ across Tropical Africa; _C.
andicola_ in Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia: _C. montivagus_ in the last two
countries. _C. pacificus_ of East Asia, with Japan and the Burmese
countries, reaches Australia in winter. Some species lay four or five eggs,
and _C. melanoleucus_ of western North America utters a peculiar twitter in
its nest, placed in clefts of rocks.[244] Five species of _Tachornis_, or
Palm-Swift, here included under _Cypselus_, are found throughout the
Ethiopian Region, from India and the Malay countries to China, and in the
West Indies; _T._ (_Claudia_) _squamata_ occupying Guiana, Brazil, and East
Peru. The toes point forward in two pairs, the tail is forked. These birds
usually attach their nests {426}of cottony down and feathers to the leaves
or spathes of palms with their saliva, but also breed on native huts.
Fossils referred to _Cypselus_ and _Collocalia_ occur in the Lower Miocene
of France, while _Aegialornis_ of the Eocene (p. 315) is placed here by M.
Milne-Edwards and re-named _Tachyornis_.
Fam. XII. The TROCHILIDAE, or Humming-birds, so called from the sound often
made by the vibrating wings, are New World forms noted for their grace and
beauty. The English name dates back to at least 1632, while one species
from Hispaniola is mentioned as "paxaro mosquito" by Oviedo in his
_Hystoria general de las Indias_, as early as 1525. This appellation still
remains as the French "Oiseau-mouche," that of _Trochilus_ having been
borrowed from Pliny by Barrère, who believed Humming-birds to be allied to
the Wren, the _Trochilus_ in part of the Latin author. Τροχίλος, however,
was applied by the Greeks to the smaller Plovers (p. 295), and apparently
ὄρχιλος to the Wren, so that Pliny or his copyists originated a chain of
errors. From native sources we have the names Guainumbi, Ourissia, and
Colibri, from the Spanish "Picaflor" and Tominejo (atom); from Mexico
"Chupa-rosa" and "Chupa-myrta" (Rose-sucker and Myrtle-sucker); from the
West Indies "Murmures" and "Bourdons."[245]
The sternum is enormously developed both in length and depth of keel, thus
furnishing a wide base for the attachment of the particularly strong
wing-muscles, which support the untiring flight. Herein Humming-birds
resemble Swifts, but the head is much more compressed, and the bill is
slender and elongated, except in nestlings; they are in fact the longest
billed members of the Class _Aves_ in proportion to their size, which in
this Family reaches the minimum. Both mandibles may be serrated, and the
maxilla is hooked in _Androdon_ and _Rhamphodon_; but for details of the
variable beak, remiges and rectrices, reference must be made to the species
described below. The metatarsus, feathered in such genera as _Eriocnemis_
and _Loddigesia_, is short; the toes being usually diminutive, but
sometimes stronger, and the claws either small and rounded, or elongated,
curved, and sharp. The ten primaries, of which the outermost is the
longest, except in _Aithurus_–where it is shorter than the next–are
frequently rigid; in the male "Sabre-wings" (p. 435) the shafts of two or
three are extraordinarily dilated and curved; while the tenth is
occasionally {427}filiform at the tip or narrowed throughout. The
secondaries are only six, or rarely seven. The tail of ten feathers may be
long or short, but differs profoundly in shape, texture, and colour; being
for example cuneate in _Phaëthornis_ and _Sphenoproctus_, nearly square in
_Urosticte_ and _Hylocharis_, rounded in _Adelomyia_ and _Polytmus_, deeply
forked in _Sappho_, _Lesbia_, and the four genera next named, of which
_Prymnacantha_ has the outer pair of rectrices very narrow and pointed,
_Loddigesia_, _Spathura_, and _Discura_ spatulate.
The very characteristic tongue consists of a double tube, tapering and
separating into two externally lacerated sheaths at the tip, which contain
the extensile portion. The "horns" of the hyoid apparatus are greatly
elongated, and pass round and over the back of the head, meeting near the
top, and thence stretching in an ample groove to terminate in front of the
eyes. This arrangement, analogous to that found in Woodpeckers, allows the
tongue to be suddenly protruded to a considerable distance, and withdrawn
again in an instant. The furcula is U-shaped; the syrinx has one or two
pairs of tracheo-bronchial muscles; the aftershaft is very small; a crop is
present; while down is absent from both nestlings and adults.
Except in the "Hermits" (p. 435), the brilliant coloration almost defies
description, the most exquisite metallic[246] or jewel-like hues glorifying
a background of green, blue, or brown; while crests, ear-tufts,
neck-frills, and pendent beards ending in points or forks, add to the
effect. Only among the Passerine Sun-birds (Nectariniidae) of the Indian
and Ethiopian Regions can a fitting parallel be found; but these, though
often erroneously termed Humming-birds, have no connexion with our New
World group. _Eulampis_ and _Pterophanes_ are exceptional in not having
dusky remiges. The females are usually sombre in comparison, and lack the
ornaments of their consorts, which are said to be occasionally smaller. The
statement that young males have no distinctive plumage seems incorrect.
These gems of Ornithology extend from the north to the extreme south of
America, the habits differing slightly with the climate; _Selasphorus
rufus_ of the Western United States reaches Mt. St. Elias in Alaska,
_Trochilus colubris_ occurs in the east up to lat. 57° N., _Eustephanus
galeritus_ frequents Tierra del Fuego {428}even in snowy weather, while
_Oreotrochilus chimborazo_ and _O. pichincha_ brave the storms of the
volcanic regions of the Andes of Ecuador, close to the perpetual snow at a
height of sixteen thousand feet. The forms found in the furthest north and
south are few, and draw towards the equator at the cold time of year; while
the successional flowering of insect-attracting plants, and the seasonal
alteration of the snow-line, cause latitudinal or altitudinal movements of
the same nature. Only eighteen species are recognised as occurring north of
Mexico by New World ornithologists, but many more inhabit Central America,
which are either peculiar to that region and even its elevated tablelands,
or range into South America; none, however, being migrants in the strict
sense of the word. The headquarters of the Family lie in Colombia and
Guiana, though Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil claim many, and some of
the finest, forms: on the other hand, the dry Peruvian plains and the
Argentine Pampas lack sufficient insect-food to be favourite residences.
With regard to the West Indies the numbers increase from the Bahamas to
Trinidad, each island often having its own species; _Eustephanus
galeritus_, _E. fernandensis_ and _E. leyboldi_ occupy the Juan Fernandez
group, and the first-named Chili and the Straits of Magellan also.
Humming-birds may be roughly divided as alpine, sub-alpine, and lowland,
while it may be noticed that comparatively few inhabit the great
forest-clad delta of the Amazon, the congenial centre of so much bird-life.
The Trochilidae live almost entirely in the air, and fly powerfully, though
seldom to great distances; they will flit from flower to flower for hours,
darting off to each new blossom with arrow-like speed, and remaining
suspended before it, with the body vertical and the wings in a state of
tremulous motion, while probing the inmost recesses. This is commonly
accompanied by a vibratory movement of the tail, which in some cases opens
and shuts like a fan. The humming sound, produced at each new departure or
change of course, and audible for several yards, is due to a pulsation of
the wings, so rapid that little can be seen of the bird but an indistinct
misty outline. Messrs. A. and E. Newton give the following charming account
of _Eulampis holosericeus_[247]:–"One is admiring the clustering stars of a
Scarlet _Cordia_, the snowy cornucopias of a _Portlandia_, or some other
{429}brilliant and beautiful flower, when between the blossom and one's eye
suddenly appears a small dark object, suspended as it were between four
short black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows
in front of the flower; an instant more, it steadies itself, and one
perceives the space between each pair of threads occupied by a grey film;
again another instant, and emitting a momentary flash of emerald and
sapphire light it is vanishing, lessening in the distance, as it shoots
away, to a speck that the eye cannot take note of,-–and all this so rapidly
that the word on one's lips is still unspoken, scarcely the thought in
one's mind changed. It was a bold man or an ignorant one who first ventured
to depict Humming-birds flying; but it cannot be denied that
representations of them in that attitude are often of special use to the
ornithologist. The peculiar action of this, and probably many or all other
species of the Family, is such, that at times, in flying, it makes the
wings almost meet both in front and behind at each vibration. Thus, when a
bird chances to enter a room, it will generally go buzzing along the
cornice; standing beneath where it is, one will find that the axis of the
body is vertical, and each wing is describing a nearly perfect semicircle.
As might be expected, the pectoral muscles are very large, indeed the
sternum of this bird is a good deal bigger than that of the common Chimney
Swallow (_Hirundo rustica_, L.). But the extraordinary rapidity with which
the vibrations are effected seems to be chiefly caused by these powerful
muscles acting on the very short wing-bones, which are not half the length
of the same parts in the Swallow; and accordingly, great as this alar
action is, and in spite of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr. Gosse
(_Nat. Sojourn in Jamaica_, 240), it is yet sometimes wanting in power,
owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage thus obtained; and the
old authors must be credited who speak of cobwebs catching Humming-birds."
[Illustration: FIG. 89.–Humming-bird. _Eulampis jugularus._ × ⅔.]
{430}Darwin[248] writes of _Patagona gigas_: "Like others of the genus, it
moves from place to place, with a rapidity which may be compared to that of
_Syrphus_ among diptera and _Sphinx_ [especially the Humming-bird Sphinx
(_Macroglossa stellatarum_)] among moths, but whilst hovering over a
flower, it flaps its wings with a very slow and powerful movement, totally
different from that vibratory one, common to most of the species, which
produces the humming noise." This slower movement has been observed also in
_Pterophanes temmincki_, and no doubt in other large forms, of which the
aerial course is perhaps more zigzag and jerky than elsewhere. Certain
species habitually sit with puffed out plumage and somewhat elevated bills;
others soar, or skim the surface of water like Bats; the tail-feathers,
moreover, are often moved sideways or twisted during flight, especially
when they are elongated or spatulate; and _Loddigesia_ constantly extends
them perpendicularly to the body, if not further forward, though the
racquet-tips may at other times be almost in contact.
The food consists almost entirely of insects, while the alimentary canal
shews but little trace of honey, which the birds nevertheless seem to
enjoy, when swallowed with the creatures which it allures; and as these
appear on the lips of flowers chiefly after wet, or in the morning and
evening, their feathered foes are naturally then most active. Cacti,
alstroemeriae, orchids, and composites seem particularly attractive, and
tubular blossoms to the long-billed species especially. Those with shorter
beaks, being unable to penetrate the deepest tubes, are said to pierce the
hinder portions, while it is asserted that those with extremely curved
mandibles even make use of a twofold process, first inserting the tips, and
then raising themselves slightly so as to penetrate the recesses.
_Rhamphodon_, _Phaëthornis_, _Eutoxeres_, and _Chlorostilbon_ examine the
crevices of trees and walls for spiders, which they habitually eat; while
the "Hermits," balanced in the air, pass the bill carefully though quickly
over the lower surface of leaves in search of insect-diet. _Oreotrochilus
pichincha_ has been observed clinging to rocks and feeding upon the ground;
_Aithurus_, _Petasophora_, _Pygmornis_, _Lampornis_, _Patagona_ and other
species, take up posts on dead branches or twigs, thence darting upon their
prey in Fly-catcher-like style. Gould once managed to reach the shores of
England with two examples, kept alive on sweetened water and yolk of egg.
{431}The males are extraordinarily pugnacious, and one will furiously set
upon another who interferes in the least with his comfort, the pair
circling around with reiterated, high-pitched notes, attacking and
withdrawing in turn, almost heedless of a fall or collision; finally, beak
grasps beak, and the struggle grows more intense, until the defeated
combatant retreats to some friendly tree, only to renew the fight with
vigour unimpaired should his defiant note exasperate his rival beyond
control. Or again, should a prowling hawk, an inoffensive heron or thrush,
or even a human being, pass perilously near a nest, the cock will make a
determined onslaught, often with complete success; the hen following his
example, if she feels called upon to protect her charge. These tiny
creatures seem absolutely fearless, and frequently feed at once from the
hand when caught.
The twittering voice is variously described as a chirp, a squeak, a
querulous warble, a whistle, a loud clear piping cry, or a shrill screech,
while the absence of proper song-muscles makes it difficult to credit
Gosse's statement that _Mellisuga minima_ utters a weak, sweet warble,
lasting for ten minutes.[249]
The nest is usually a moderately deep, round or oval cup-like structure,
which may be no larger than a walnut-shell; this is formed of the cottony
down of plants, moss, wool, or like materials, felted into an extremely
light and spongy mass, and often decorated externally with lichens,
cobwebs, shreds of bark, or even feathers and dry leaves. It is placed in a
small fork, saddled upon a bough, hung from creepers, laced among
branchlets, or exceptionally fastened to thatch. In _Rhamphodon_,
_Phaëthornis_, _Cephalolepis_, _Heliothrix_, and possibly elsewhere, a
fabric of very delicate twigs, fibres, and bark is attached to the lower
part of a palm or similar leaf, several rings of supporting fibre
encircling the portion near the stalk, and spiders' webs or silky threads
aiding to sustain the sides of the structure, which in depth and make
recalls that of the Reed-Warbler. _Oreotrochilus_ forms a peculiar
"hammock" of moss, grass, and so forth, attached by like contrivances to
rocks; or at times suspends a mass of wool, hair, moss, and feathers, as
large as a child's head, with a small depression above for the eggs, from
pendent roots, tendrils, or creepers. This is said to be weighted on either
side, if necessary, with small stones or morsels of earth, and is repaired
for use in {432}successive years. Humming-birds never lay more than two
eggs, and sometimes only one; these are plain dull white, and similarly
shaped at both ends. The young are hatched blind and naked, and are then
about the size of humble bees: but they leave the nest comparatively soon,
and are precocious as regards flight. The duration of incubation, which is
apparently not shared by the male, is variously stated at ten, twelve, or
even more days, and two broods are said to be reared in a season; the first
point is clearly doubtful; but, considering the extent of the season fit
for nidification, the latter is not improbable. The parents have been known
to add to a nest, as the young outgrew it. The cock courts the hen most
assiduously, circling around her with dilated throat and swelling plumage,
and searching for food to offer, while he carefully watches over her when
sitting. Humming-birds have been often said to be killed with water in
place of lead, but in truth diminutive pellets of the latter are used, as
an alternative to the blow-pipe with its clay ball, or to bird-lime.
Immense quantities are exported for decorative purposes, and the Mexicans
make pictures of the feathers.
The late Mr. Salvin, who divided the Family into groups by the serration of
the beak,[250] recognised a hundred and twenty-seven genera with some five
hundred species, while Audubon, Bates, Gosse, Gould, Mulsant, Wilson and
Waterton, Count Berlepsch, Messrs. Elliot, Hartert, Ridgway, and Wallace
may be mentioned among other Trochilidists. The largest form, _Patagona
gigas_, measures nearly nine inches, _Mellisuga minima_ and others about
two and a half.
(1) Forms with distinctly serrated beaks. _Heliothrix_ of Central and South
America southward to Brazil contains three members with wedge-shaped bills
and blue tufts behind the ears. The females differ little from the males in
colour, but have longer tails. _Augastes_ contains the two "Vizor-bearers"
of South-East Brazil, so-called from the appearance of the head and throat;
_A. lumachellus_ is bronzy green, with a very brilliant green throat
terminated by a red line, a little blue shewing between these two colours;
the crown is velvety black, the pectoral band white, the tail bright
bronzy-red. The female is less highly coloured and has a green head.
_Rhamphodon naevius_ of the same country, and _Androdon aequatorialis_ of
Colombia and Ecuador, have the bill strongly hooked; the latter is
brownish-green above and greyish below, with a blue nape and white
rump-bar.
{433}[Illustration: FIG. 90.–Long-tailed Humming-bird. _Aithurus polytmus._
× ½.]
_Chlorostilbon_, ranging from Mexico to Argentina, possesses some dozen
green species with blue or purplish tails, which are forked or rounded;
_Panychlora_ of Colombia and Venezuela is similar; _Sporadinus_, differing
in its bronzy-black rectrices, inhabits Florida, the Bahamas, and the
greater Antilles. In _Aithurus polytmus_, peculiar to Jamaica, the two
tail-feathers next to the outer pair are immensely elongated, and, after
crossing one another, bend outwards in a curve; the lateral rectrices are
bluish-black, as is the head with its divided crest; all the other parts
being luminous green, and the bill red with black tip. The female is
chiefly green above and white below, with brownish crown. The two species
of _Microchera_ of Panama, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, change with the light
from coppery-red to black, and have a greenish throat, a white crown, and a
partly white tail, except the median feathers. The hen is green above and
white below. _Lampornis_, with about ten species, ranges from South Mexico
and the West Indies to Brazil. _L. violicauda_, the South American "Mango,"
is green with velvety black abdomen and throat, the latter being edged with
blue; the lateral rectrices are violet. _Avocettula recurvirostris_ of
Guiana, with its golden green coloration, emerald breast, and tail fiery
red beneath in the male, has an upturned tip to the bill, recalling that of
the Avocet. The female is chiefly white below. _Eulampis holosericeus_,
extending from Barbados to St. Thomas, is golden-green, {434}with
glittering blue tail-coverts and chest; the rectrices are steel-blue, the
wings and abdomen blackish. _E. jugularis_, of the Windward Islands, has
green wings and red throat. _Petasophora_ contains some seven members,
ranging from South Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil, with fine blue or purple
ear-tufts, which occasionally meet in front. _Chrysolampis mosquitus_,
extending from New Granada to Guiana and Brazil, with Trinidad, is often
called the Ruby-and-Topaz Humming-bird, from its ruby-red head and nape,
and topaz-orange throat and breast; the upper surface is velvety brown, the
tail chestnut, the abdomen olive. The plumage of the male is largely used
for decoration; but the female is chiefly dull bronzy-green with whitish
lower parts.
(2) Forms with feebly serrated beaks. The large musky-scented _Pterophanes
temmincki_, of the Andes from Colombia to Bolivia, is dark green, with the
whole wing blue above and below, except for its black tip. The hen-bird is
rufous beneath and has purplish-black remiges. _Diphlogaena iris_, the
lovely fork-tailed Rainbow, has a golden-green forehead, an orange-scarlet
crown with a rich violet-blue median stripe, a black nape, a lustrous lilac
throat-spot, a chestnut rump-region, tail and abdomen, and green plumage
elsewhere. The female has little or no copper or blue tints. This species
inhabits the Andes from Ecuador to Bolivia, and has two similar congeners.
_Cyanolesbia gorgo_ of Colombia and Venezuela is green, with the throat
sapphire-blue and the tail violet-blue in the male, these parts being white
and nearly green respectively in the hen, which has the under parts
chestnut. _Sappho_, of Peru, Bolivia, Chili, and Argentina, includes two
exceptionally lovely birds with long forked tails and luminous throats. _S.
sparganura_, the "Sappho Comet," is bronzy-green with crimson back and
fiery orange rectrices, which are black at the tip and brown at the base.
_S. phaon_ has both the above parts lustrous crimson. The females have
short tails and lack the red back. The four members of _Lesbia_, another
genus with a long forked tail, occupy the Andes from Colombia and Venezuela
to Bolivia; _L. victoriae_, the "Train-bearer" of Bogota, being golden
green with glittering throat and purplish-black tail tipped with green; the
hen is green and white below, and has the narrow rectrices shorter.
_Metallura_, with about nine species, is found in the same countries.
_Eustephanus galeritus_ of Chili, the Straits of Magellan, {435}and Juan
Fernandez, which haunts damp shady spots, is bronzy-green, with fiery red
crown, and greyish-white under parts spotted with green. The female has the
crown green. _E. fernandensis_ inhabits Juan Fernandez, and _E. leyboldi_
Masafuera. _Panterpe insignis_ of Costa Rica is bluish-green, with
glittering blue crown and breast, blue-black tail, and bright scarlet
throat shading into orange laterally. _Cyanomyia verticalis_ of Mexico is
brownish-green above and white below, with shining cobalt head and sides of
the neck, and a reddish bill. The hen has a duller crown. _Amazilia_
contains some thirty diverse members ranging from North Mexico to Peru,
Guiana, Trinidad, and Tobago. _A. pristina_ of Peru is greenish-bronze,
with chestnut sides, rump, and tail, emerald throat, and white middle to
the breast and abdomen. _A. cyanura_ of Guatemala and Nicaragua is entirely
green, though bluer towards the tail, and shining below. _Cyanophaea
caeruleigularis_ of Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia is bright green, with
glittering violet-blue chest. _Hylocharis_ ranges from Guiana to South
Brazil, _H. sapphirina_ being deep green, with bronzy rump and tail,
chestnut chin, sapphire-blue throat and breast. The female is whitish below
with little blue.
(3) Forms with smooth beaks. _Eutoxeres_, which has the bill curved almost
into a semi-circle, was placed by Gould with _Rhamphodon_ and _Phaëthornis_
in a Sub-family _Phaëthornithinae_, as opposed to _Trochilinae_, but this
has not been generally accepted. The sixteen or more species of
_Phaëthornis_, extending from South Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil, are often
termed "Hermits" from their sombre tints of dull green, grey, and brown, or
from their habit of frequenting dark forest-recesses. The tail is cuneate
and the claws rather large. _Eupetomena macrura_ of Brazil and Guiana,
termed the "Swallow-tail" from its forking rectrices, has the two outer
primaries in the male with curved and dilated shafts; the three outer
feathers being similar in _Campylopterus_ and _Sphenoproctus_, which range
through Central America, and in the last case northern South America. The
members of these three genera are denominated "Sabre-wings." The above
species is green, with deep cobalt head and throat, and steel-blue tail.
_Eugenes fulgens_ of South Arizona, Mexico, and Guatemala is bronzy-green
changing to black, the throat being lustrous green, and the crown rich
violet. The female has a brownish crown, and greyish lower surface. _E.
spectabilis_ of Costa Rica is similar. {436}_Docimastes ensifer_ of
Colombia and Ecuador, which has a straight bill, longer than the head and
body together, is coppery-green, with black cheeks and throat, and
glittering green breast; the last being green and white in the hen.
_Florisuga mellivora_, the Jacobin, occurring from South Mexico to
Amazonia, is green, with the head and entire neck blue, the base of the
hind-neck, the abdomen, and the middle of the lateral rectrices white. The
female is chiefly green, varied with white below. _Topaza pella_, the
"Crimson Topaz" or "King Humming-bird" of Guiana, is golden-red above, with
greenish-orange rump, dark purple and cinnamon wings, and rufous lateral
rectrices. The two median tail-feathers are bronzy with black tips; the
next pair, which are elongated and curve outwards, are purplish-black; the
throat is lustrous golden; the narrow pectoral band is black; the remaining
lower parts are crimson. The hen is grass-green, with crimson on the
throat, and black and cinnamon on the outer tail-feathers. The nest has
been stated to be made of a fungus, and certainly the appearance justifies
the assertion; but Dr. Paul, a great authority on Fungi, writes of an
example which he brought home for the author from the Pomeroon river:–"The
felt is formed of the fluff which clothes the young flower-spathes of the
Kokerite Palm (_Maximiliana martiana_)," and his evidence ought to settle
the question. _T. pyra_, of the Rio Negro and Eastern Ecuador, is redder
above, with no cinnamon on the wings or lateral rectrices. The genus
_Oreotrochilus_, and the four next succeeding, have particularly strong
feet. In common with some half a dozen congeners which range southwards to
Chili, _O. pichincha_ of Ecuador inhabits the cloudy regions of the Andes
near the snow-line; it is olive-green above, and has an entirely
violet-blue head and throat, the latter being followed by a black line and
white lower parts, while the lateral tail-feathers are steel-blue and
white. The female is green above, ashy and white below. _Oreonympha
nobilis_ of Peru, which has a peculiar habit of suddenly stopping in its
flight, is a large bird with somewhat forking rectrices. The main colour is
bronzy-brown, with a blue crown divided in the centre by a brown bar; the
black of the cheeks runs to a point below; the chin is green and the beard
crimson; the lower parts are greyish-white; the tail has the external pair
of feathers white. The hen has a brown and greenish crown and a black
throat. _Oxypogon guerini_ of {437}Colombia, the "Warrior" or
"Helmet-crest," is dark green, with blackish sides to the head, a black and
white crest, a green and white chin margined with black, a white beard, a
greyish abdomen, and purplish and white lateral rectrices. The female lacks
the elongated feathers, and has white under parts spotted with dusky.
_Rhamphomicron heteropogon_ of Colombia, one of the sharp-beaked
"Thornbills," is greenish-bronze, with browner tail and abdomen, and a long
amethystine beard surrounded by bronzy-black. _R. microrhynchum_, having
rich purple upper parts and a lustrous green throat, extends to Ecuador,
while other members of the genus range to Bolivia. The hens are
comparatively dull. _Opisthoprora euryptera_ of Colombia, which is
bronzy-green with a little rufous and white below, has an upcurved bill,
like _Avocettula_. _Patagona gigas_, the largest Humming-bird known,
inhabits the Andes from Ecuador to Chili; it is greenish-brown, with white
rump and rufous under parts. In _Aglaeactis_, of the Andes from Colombia to
Bolivia, the coloration is brown, dark buff, or black, with glittering
amethystine or green lower back, and a white or buff pectoral tuft. The
chief marvel of the Family is, however, _Loddigesia mirabilis_, originally
found in Northern Peru by a botanist named Matthews, and rediscovered by M.
Stolzmann[251] in almost the same locality. It is shining bronzy-green,
with whitish under parts surrounding a black central area; the head and its
crest are lustrous cobalt-blue, the throat is emerald-green with black
margin, the metatarsi are covered with white feathers. The two lateral
rectrices are extraordinarily prolonged, and resemble black wires with
large steel-blue terminal discs; the shafts normally cross each other at
their bases and again near their tips, but the discs are frequently brought
together in flight, or extended horizontally, if not turned above the head.
The median tail-feathers are much reduced. The female is green, varied with
white below; the external pair of steel-blue lateral rectrices shewing
small spatules. _Cephalolepis delalandi_, of South-East Brazil, is
bronzy-green above, and fine violet-blue bordered with grey below, while
the long glittering green crest terminates in a single black plume. The
crestless hen is grey below. _Eriocnemis_, of the Andes from Colombia and
Venezuela to Bolivia, shares with _Panoplites_ and the spatulate-tailed
_Spathura_ of the same regions the characteristic of possessing
{438}muff-like tufts of black, white, or buff, which cover the metatarsi.
To take an example of the twenty or more species, where the sexes are
fairly similar, _E. cupreiventris_ is bronzy-green, with brighter under
surface, purplish-black tail, reddish abdomen, and lustrous blue under
tail-coverts. _Calothorax lucifer_, the "Mexican Star," is golden-green
above and white below, with shining lilac-red throat; it has purplish-black
lateral rectrices tipped with white, of which the outer is filiform, as are
the external four in _Acestrura_ of northern South America. _Selasphorus
rufus_, of western North America, from Alaska to Mexico, is cinnamon above
and white below, with golden-green crown and glittering red throat; the
head-feathers are bordered with rufous, and the sub-median tail-feathers
are emarginate. The female has chiefly green upper and white under parts.
_S. platycercus_, resembling the next species, but with a rosy-red throat,
occupies the Rocky Mountains and extends to Guatemala, the genus reaching
Panama. They constantly have the outer primary or outer rectrix attenuated.
_Trochilus colubris_, found at different seasons from the Fur Countries and
the Great Plains to Guatemala, is green above and whitish below, the chin
being black, the throat glittering ruby-red, and the forked tail chiefly
bluish-black. The hen lacks the red colour. _T. alexandri_ of western North
America differs in its violet-purple throat. _Calypte annae_ and _C.
costae_ of the South-West United States are green birds with mainly whitish
lower surface, and have the crown and throat rosy and lilac respectively.
The latter form has elongated gular plumes, as has the bluer Cuban _C.
helenae_, where they are crimson. The minute _Mellisuga minima_, or "Bee
Humming-bird," of Jamaica and San Domingo is green above and white below,
with dusky throat-spots in the male. The equally small _Chaetocercus
bombus_ of Ecuador is green, with rosy throat, buff breast, and chiefly
purplish-black rectrices, of which the outer four are short and spiny; the
female is green above and cinnamon below.
_Thaumastura cora_, the "Peruvian Sheartail," is golden-green, with crimson
throat shading into blue, and white under surface; the black and white tail
has two enormously elongated sub-median feathers. The hen is white below,
with buffish throat and flanks. _Prymnacantha popelairii_, one of another
group of Thornbills (p. 437), has a yellowish-green crest with two long
black filamentous plumes; the upper parts are bronzy-green with a white
rump; the lower parts are black, with a glittering green {439}throat and
rufous tibiae. The forked tail has the pointed narrow feathers steel-blue
with white shafts. The hen has a dark green crown and black and white
throat. This genus extends from Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil.
_Lophornis_ covers the same area, but reaches Mexico. _L. ornatus_ has
beautiful fawn-coloured tufts with green terminal spots, on the sides of
the neck; and is chiefly bright green and cinnamon, with a rufous and
purplish rump and a chestnut crest; the female exhibits more white below
and lacks the crest and tufts. The remaining half score of species are
similar or even more brilliant. _Heliactin cornuta_ of Brazil alone of the
Family has resplendent purple, green, and gold tufts above and behind the
eyes. The coloration is shining green, with a bluer crown, black cheeks and
throat, and white lower parts. The hen is green above and white below, with
buff throat.
* * * * *
Fam. XIII. COLIIDAE.–This group is the only constituent of the Sub-Order
COLII or Colies, termed Mouse-birds in South Africa from their creeping
habits. They were formerly classed among the Passerine Fringillidae, to
which they bear a certain outward resemblance, while at a later date a
partial study of the anatomy seemed to point to an affinity with the
Plantain-eaters; but it is now generally recognised that they should be
placed among those Families which in this work form the Order
Coraciiformes. They are small, tough-skinned birds, which would appear
larger were it not for the short, dense feathering; the bill is stout and
Finch-like, the long metatarsus exhibits one series of scutes in front, and
reticulations behind; the toes with their slender claws are all directed
forwards, but the hallux and apparently the outer toe can be turned
backwards. The wings are weak and rounded, with ten primaries and nine
secondaries; the very long tail has ten rectrices, the outer pair not being
greatly developed. The furcula is U-shaped; the syrinx has one pair of
tracheo-bronchial muscles; the tongue is flat and cartilaginous with horny
papillae; an after-shaft is present; the adults, and probably the
nestlings, have no down.
Colies frequent forest-districts, especially where the bush is thick; they
are active, yet not very shy, and are usually found, except during the
breeding season, in flocks of some six to eight individuals. The flight is
laboured, with many a quick beat of the wings; but it is direct and fairly
rapid, though seldom sustained beyond some neighbouring tree, where the
bird may be seen stealing {440}through the foliage, and aiding its creeping
movements with its bill. The most peculiar habit, however, is that of
climbing with the whole metatarsus applied to the branch, a fact which adds
greatly to the mouse-like appearance. When roosting, Colies are said to
pack themselves together in masses, and to hang by the feet; rarely are
they seen perching or hopping, though they often cling to the boughs with
the head downwards. The note is disagreeable and harsh. The cup-shaped nest
of twigs, roots, and grass, with a lining of wool or finer grasses, is
placed in thick bushes, or near the ground in low trees; the three or four
eggs, hardly pointed at either end, are dull white, sometimes streaked with
orange or brown. Fresh leaves are not uncommonly added below them. The food
consists almost entirely of fruit, though green shoots, or even insects,
are believed to be occasionally eaten.
[Illustration: FIG. 91.–Cape Coly. _Colius capensis._ × ⅓.]
The eight or nine species of the single genus _Colius_, ranging through the
whole Ethiopian region except Madagascar, vary in coloration from brown
with darker vermiculations or bars to {441}grey or ash-colour, the abdomen
being buff. Fine crests add to the general appearance. _C. macrurus_ is
remarkable for a tuft of blue feathers on each side of the nape; _C.
leucocephalus_ has a white head; _C. leucotis_ white ear-coverts; _C.
nigricollis_ a black forehead and throat; _C. capensis_ two stripes of
black on the back enclosing one of white; while that species and _C.
castanonotus_ have maroon rumps. The bare skin surrounding the eye is
scarlet in _C. erythromelon_, _C. macrurus_, and _C. capensis_, and
apparently bluish-grey elsewhere. The legs are red in life, fading to buff
after death. _C. striatus_ is very nearly uniform brown, _C. erythromelon_
shews a greenish tinge and has some buff on the head. The sexes are
similar, nor are the young very different. The length is from eleven to
fourteen inches. Kafirs consider these birds very good eating.
Fam. XIV. TROGONIDAE.–The Trogons are the sole tenants of the Sub-Order
TROGONES, a very distinct group of birds of brilliant coloration–the
Quezal, as will be seen below, being the most splendid of all. Their
general aspect is somewhat heavy; the neck is abbreviated; the bill,
stoutest in _Pharomacrus_ and most slender in _Euptilotis_, is short and
strong, with a wide bristly gape, and a curved culmen terminating in a
hook. The maxilla in these genera, as well as in _Harpactes_ and
_Hapalarpactes_, has a terminal notch, while both mandibles are more or
less serrated in adults of _Trogon_, _Hapaloderma_, _Tmetotrogon_, and
_Prionotelus_. The foot is comparatively small and weak, with the short
metatarsus feathered and somewhat scaly; the second toe is reversed, a
heterodactylous arrangement (p. 10) unique among birds. The moderate wing
has ten primaries, and from eight to ten secondaries; the upper
wing-coverts being elongated in _Pharomacrus_, especially in the males. The
long rectrices are twelve in number, and are concave at the end with
divergent tips in _Prionotelus_; the feathers, moreover, are often square
at the extremity–a noticeable peculiarity in the Family; while in the
Quezal, _Pharomacrus mocinno_, the male has enormously developed upper
coverts to the tail, which extend far beyond it, the two median being the
longest; in its congeners and in females generally they equal the
rectrices; in _Euptilotis_ they are only half the length. The furcula is
U-shaped; the tongue flat; the syrinx tracheo-bronchial; the aftershaft
long; the nostrils are bristly; the adults have no down; and the nestlings
are said to be naked for a short period. The large soft {442}feathers are
easily detached from the delicate skin. The male of _Pharomacrus mocinno_
has a fine rounded crest, less developed in the female and in its other
congeners. _Euptilotis_, _Tmetotrogon_, and _Prionotelus_ have the
ear-coverts filamentous and hair-like. _Pharomacrus pavoninus_ has a red
bill, as has _Prionotelus_ in part; the usual colour in the former genus,
and in _Trogon_ and its allies, being yellow for the cock and more
horn-coloured or black for the hen, but in _Harpactes_ violet or bluish,
with a duller tip in the female. The orbits are partially or entirely bare
in _Hapaloderma_, _Harpactes_, and _Hapalarpactes_, the skin being, it
would seem, yellow, violet, or blue. The Family ranges through the tropical
portions of the Indian, Ethiopian, and Neotropical Regions, _Harpactes_ and
_Hapalarpactes_ being found in the first, _Hapaloderma_ in the second, and
the other five genera in the third. _Trogon ambiguus_ reaches northwards to
Arizona and Texas. The number of species is nearly fifty, of which the
largest (_Pharomacrus mocinno_) measures some fourteen inches, the smallest
(_Harpactes duvauceli_) about nine.
Trogons are usually seen singly or in pairs, though sometimes in small
flocks; they are rarely shy, and often so unsuspicious that they may be
killed with a stick. They customarily sit almost motionless in the mid-day
heat, with the head drawn in upon the shoulders and the body vertical,
every now and then opening and shutting the tail. Their haunts are in the
thickest forests, which they seldom leave for more open or sunny places;
here they creep about the trees or sit some half-way up on leafless
branches, darting off to catch a passing insect or to secure a tempting
fruit, since nearly all their food is taken on the wing. The noiseless
flight is rapid, but short and jerky, with occasional undulations. The
Quezal, at least, clings to trees like a Woodpecker, but the feet are ill
adapted to climbing, and perfectly unfit for walking. The voice of this
species consists of two plaintive sibilant notes, gradually swelling into a
loud cry, and varied by discordant sounds; many forms, however, utter a
reiterated "cou-cou," and will also cluck, whistle, or chatter, though
ordinarily silent, except when breeding. The food of the New World species
is stated to consist principally of fruit, but lizards, grasshoppers,
lepidoptera, caterpillars, ants, beetles, small crabs, and terrestrial
molluscs are eaten; while the Old World forms seem to prefer an
insect-diet. No nest is made, but a hole is usually bored or enlarged in
the top or side of a rotten stump or branch, in which {443}are deposited
from two to four roundish eggs of a white, bluish, greenish, or buff
colour. _Trogon surucura_ has been observed clinging to a tree-trunk and
excavating a cavity in an ants' nest. The male at times incubates. The
flesh is not unpalatable.
_Hapalarpactes reinwardti_ of Java is dark bluish-green above with a more
olive crown, and yellow below with orange abdomen; the primaries are black
and white, the secondaries and their coverts green with yellow bars, the
rectrices purplish as compared with the back, the lateral pair freely
marked with white. The female has brown instead of yellow on the wing. _H.
mackloti_ of Sumatra has the rump chestnut in the male. The genus
_Harpactes_ ranges from India and Ceylon to Cochin China, the Indo-Malay
Islands, and the Philippines. _H. kasumba_ has the crown, throat, and chest
black, the nuchal collar and under parts crimson, while a white band
divides the two colours below; the upper parts are orange-rufous; the two
median rectrices chestnut tipped with black; the rest of the tail and the
wings black and white. The hen is brown above, becoming rufous towards the
rump; the throat and chest are grey, the remaining lower surface and the
wing-markings buff. _H. orescius_ has an olive-yellow head, a brilliant
orange breast, and a chestnut back; the female being more sombre.
_Hapaloderma narina_, ranging from North-East Africa to Cape Colony and
thence to Angola, is brilliant bronzy-green above; the wings and tail are
black and white with a blue and green wash, the secondaries and
wing-coverts being vermiculated with white; the chest is green; the breast
and abdomen are crimson. The hen has the throat and chest brown, the breast
duller. _H. constantia_ extends from the Calabar River to Fantee, _H.
vittatum_ is East African. The genus _Trogon_ is found from South Arizona
and Texas to North Argentina. _T. mexicanus_ is bronzy-green above and on
the chest, the sides of the head and the throat being black, and the
remaining under parts crimson, surmounted by a white band; the wings are
blackish with white vermiculations on the secondaries and coverts; the two
median rectrices are green with black tips, the others black and white. The
female has the chest and upper surface, including that of the tail, brown,
the wing-vermiculations buff. _T. surucura_ has the most southerly range of
the two dozen species. _Prionotelus temnurus_, peculiar to Cuba, has the
sexes similar; the upper parts are bronzy-green, the head is black, glossed
with purple and blue, the under parts are grey with crimson abdomen.
{444}[Illustration: FIG. 92.–Quezal. _Pharomacrus mocinno_. × ¼.]
The six middle tail-feathers are bronzy-green, tinged with purple, the
remainder and the wings black and white. In _Tmetotrogon rhodogaster_,
restricted to San Domingo, the upper surface is bronzy-green, the lower
grey with crimson abdomen. The blackish wings have white-edged primaries,
the median pair of rectrices are purple and green, the others
purplish-blue. The female has white bars on the upper wing-coverts.
_Euptilotis neoxenus_ of Mexico has a greenish-black head and throat, and a
crimson breast and abdomen, while the rest of the plumage is bronzy-green,
except for the black and white wings and the six purplish-black median
rectrices. The hen has a greyish head, throat, and chest. _Pharomacrus
mocinno_, the Quezal of the higher districts from Guatemala to Veragua, is
brilliant iridescent green above, tinged with blue on the far extended
tail-coverts; the throat is green, the under parts are gorgeous crimson,
the remiges and the six median rectrices are black, the remainder chiefly
white. A full crest and elongated wing-coverts add to the bird's
appearance. The female has the long feathers less developed; the head and
under surface brownish-grey, with a {445}green tinge on the former and on
the chest; the vent crimson. Three other species range from Colombia to
Bolivia. The decorative feathers of the Quezal were reserved for chiefs in
olden times.
Trogons are ancient forms which once occurred within the Palaearctic
countries, as is shewn by the discovery of the fossil _Trogon gallicus_ in
the Lower Miocene of France.
* * * * *
The Sub-Order PICI contains, according to Dr. Gadow, the Families
_Galbulidae_, or Jacamars and Puff-birds, _Capitonidae_, or Barbets and
Honey-guides, _Rhamphastidae_ or Toucans, and _Picidae_, or Woodpeckers and
Wrynecks. All these undoubtedly belong to that author's Order
Coraciiformes, though Garrod and W. A. Forbes included the _Galbulidae_ and
several of the allied Families in their Passeriformes.
Fam. XV. GALBULIDAE.[252]–This may be divided into the Sub-families, (1)
_Galbulinae_, or Jacamars, and (2) _Bucconinae_, or Puff-birds.[253] The
former have a long straight bill, compressed and pointed, with angular
genys; _Jacamerops_, however, having it curved, ridged, and dilated
basally. The feet are weak, the metatarsi being scutellated in front and
smooth behind, with the toes zygodactylous; while _Jacamaralcyon_ alone
lacks the hallux. The rounded wings have ten primaries, with the outer much
reduced, and from ten to twelve secondaries; the tail of twelve feathers is
sometimes short and square, sometimes long and more or less graduated, the
external pair of rectrices being diminutive or absent. The furcula is
U-shaped, the tongue long, tapering, and membranous; the nostrils are
slightly bristly, with an internal membrane in _Jacamerops_; the aftershaft
is rudimentary; and there is no down on the adults or the blind nestlings.
The plumage is particularly soft.
Sub-fam. 1. _Galbulinae_.–Jacamars are ordinarily brilliant coppery- or
golden-green above, and more or less rufous below; though the upper parts
may be metallic blue, chestnut, or greyish-black. The bill and feet are
generally blackish; but in _Galbalcyrhynchus_, _Brachygalba albigularis_,
and _B. melanosterna_, the bill is white, in _Galbula albirostris_ and _G.
cyaneicollis_ it is yellow and black. The largest species (_Jacamerops
grandis_) is not eleven inches long. The females resemble the males, or are
paler below, {446}and lack the usual white throat. The Sub-family ranges
from Mexico to South Brazil.
These birds are usually found towards the outskirts of forests near water,
where they frequent lofty trees, and commonly sit crouched upon some dead
or slender branch for hours, merely moving the head from time to time. The
food consists of insects–especially flies or moths–which are often caught
upon the wing, and crushed against the boughs before they are swallowed,
the bird sallying forth and returning to its perch like a Fly-catcher. The
regular note is short and seldom heard; but _Jacamaralcyon_ has, according
to the natives, an agreeable whistling song. The flight is quick and jerky.
Generally found solitary or in pairs, the various species occasionally
bathe in small flocks. The three or more roundish white eggs are laid in
holes in banks, or possibly in old stumps. In some districts names
equivalent to "Large Humming-birds" are given to Jacamars; while early
writers confounded them with Kingfishers.
_Urogalba paradisea_ of Guiana, Peru, and Brazil, and _U. amazonum_ of
Upper Amazonia, characterized by an extremely long and tapering median pair
of tail-feathers, are dark blue, with bronzy and green reflexions, brownish
heads, and white throats. Seven out of ten members of the genus _Galbula_
are also Amazonian; the remainder reaching South Mexico, Bolivia, and
South-East Brazil, and one of them Trinidad and Tobago. _G. albirostris_ is
brilliant bronzy-green above, with rufous lower parts and white throat;
most of its congeners being fairly similar, though _G. chalcothorax_ has a
decided red and blue gloss on both surfaces and a white abdomen.
_Brachygalba_, which extends from Colombia to Amazonia, includes six
diminutive forms, with a varying admixture of green and brown above, of
black, brown, rufous and white below. _Jacamaralcyon tridactyla_ of
South-East Brazil is greenish-black, with a brown, rufous-streaked head,
and a white mid-breast and abdomen. _Galbalcyrhynchus leucotis_ of East
Ecuador and Upper Amazonia is chestnut, with white cheeks and darker head
and quills. _Jacamerops grandis_, ranging from Veragua to Amazonia and
Ecuador, is bright coppery-green, with blackish wings and tail, a white
throat-patch, and a chestnut abdomen.
{447}[Illustration: FIG. 93.–Puff-bird. _Bucco hyperrhynchus_. × ⅜.]
Sub-fam. 2. _Bucconinae._–The Puff-birds differ structurally from the
_Galbulinae_ only in having shorter and stouter beaks, with hooked or
incurved tips; stronger metatarsi, which are scaly behind; fully developed
lateral rectrices; and no aftershaft. The habits of the two groups are
similar, while the aforesaid English name probably refers to the puffy
appearance of the head while the birds are resting. They are black, brown,
or rufous in hue, relieved by white markings; the bill being red in _Bucco
chacuru_, _B. maculatus_, _B. striatipectus_, and _B. collaris_, and red or
yellow in _Monacha_. The entire range of the Family, extending from
Guatemala and Honduras to Argentina, is occupied by the twenty hook-billed
species of _Bucco_. _B. dysoni_ is blue-black, with a white under surface
crossed by a broad black band, and a white forehead and nape; _B.
hyperrhynchus_ is similar with a larger bill; _B. collaris_ differs in its
rusty-red upper parts barred with black; _B. bicinctus_ has these mottled
with brown, and two black bands on its buff breast; _B. maculatus_ has a
rufous chest and black spots on the white belly; and so forth. The
half-dozen species of _Malacoptila_, extending from Guatemala to Brazil,
are brownish birds, striated with rufous; the lower parts being more or
less fulvous, often with black and white breast-bands. The diminutive
_Micromonacha lanceolata_ of Upper Amazonia is rufescent above; the
forehead and under parts are relieved by black, while each outer rectrix
has a black bar. The Nunlets (_Nonnula rubecula_ and its congeners) are
also among the smallest of the Family, and are distributed from Panama to
Peru and Brazil; they are brown above and ferruginous beneath, with a
little white. _Hapaloptila castanea_ of Colombia and Ecuador is a
hook-billed species, with olive-grey upper and chestnut under parts, a
white forehead and throat. _Monacha_ comprises about seven large blue-black
forms, ranging from Nicaragua to South-East Brazil and Bolivia, some of
which have white on the wings {448}and round the base of the bill.
_Chelidoptera tenebrosa_, the Swallow-wing, of Venezuela, Guiana, and
Amazonia, has long wings and a short square tail; the colour being
blue-black, with a chestnut lower abdomen and white tail-coverts. The
larger _C. brasiliensis_ inhabits Brazil. This is apparently the only
member of the group of which the nest has been found; it was a mere hole in
a bank, containing two shining white eggs.
Fam. XVI. CAPITONIDAE.–This is here taken to contain the Sub-families (1)
_Capitoninae_, or Barbets, and (2) _Indicatorinae_, or Honey-guides. Much
confusion has arisen from the fact that Brisson included the former in his
genus _Bucco_, while subsequently Garrod and W. A. Forbes combined the
_Rhamphastidae_ (Toucans) with the above-mentioned groups in their
_Capitonidae_.
Sub-fam. 1. _Capitoninae._–Barbets are heavy, ungraceful birds, with large
stout bills, which are swollen at the base, occasionally sulcated, and more
or less beset with bristles. _Pogonorhynchus_ and _Tricholaema_ have the
maxilla toothed–generally strongly, while that of _Tetragonops_ fits into a
fissure in the truncated tip of the mandible. The scutellated feet are
fairly powerful, with zygodactylous toes and rather long claws; the
moderate wings have ten primaries, and ten or eleven secondaries; the tail
of ten rectrices is more usually short than long, and may be square,
rounded, or graduated. The clavicles are somewhat reduced; the tongue is
said to be thin, short, and cartilaginous; the nostrils are often bristly,
an aftershaft is present; while both adults and young lack down.
The brilliant plumage commonly exhibits vivid contrasts of scarlet, blue,
purple, or yellow on a green ground, but _Calorhamphus_ and _Gymnobucco_
are sombre in hue; different species, moreover, have crests, naked orbits,
or brightly coloured bills. The sexes are alike, except in _Capito_; the
young are duller.
The members of this Family are strictly arboreal, and inhabit forests, or
well-timbered cultivated districts and gardens; not being usually shy, or
easily disturbed while feeding in flocks. The tops of trees are their
natural resort, yet pairs frequently descend to the bushes, where they hop
from branch to branch; they also climb up and down the trunks, and some
African forms are said thus to search the cracks for insects. The flight is
powerful and undulating, but Barbets are inactive birds, and often sit
motionless for hours, their plaintive whistle, or noisy ringing note of two
or three syllables being heard at intervals {449}throughout the day or on
moonlight nights. The latter cry is variously syllabled kuttooruk, tok-tok,
or poo-poo-poop, while its likeness to the sound of striking metal has
given the name of "Copper-smith", "Tinker-bird," and "Iron-smith" to
_Xantholaema haematocephala_, _Barbatula pusilla_, and _Cyanops faber_.
While uttering their protracted notes Barbets often move their heads from
side to side, and certain American species jerk their tails over their
backs like Toucans. The food consists of fruits of every sort, buds and
petals of flowers, and even green bark, or in many cases almost entirely of
insects; in captivity pieces of meat or small birds seem acceptable, the
latter being usually battered upon some hard substance before being
swallowed. When feeding on trees these birds are so noiseless that the
falling berries alone betray their presence, while they quit the feast with
great reluctance. They cut neat circular nesting-holes, which turn
downwards and widen out below, in soft or decaying wood, generally on the
under side of a branch; and lay three, four, or even five eggs, oval,
thin-shelled, white and somewhat shining, on a few chips or sometimes other
substances. A week or two may be occupied in excavating the cavity, while
it is a moot question whether the tapping that goes on in spring is made in
finding suitable breeding quarters or in obtaining insects. Von Heuglin saw
two borings in banks. The young accompany their parents for a considerable
time. Barbets do not thrive well as cage-birds.
The range extends throughout Tropical Asia, Africa, and America, and even
slightly beyond those bounds in the two former; but America possesses only
the large genus _Capito_ and the two species of _Tetragonops_, whereas the
other regions divide the remaining groups fairly evenly between them.
Captain Shelley[254] admits nineteen genera and a hundred and ten species.
The former are difficult to diagnose, and depend largely on colour; of the
latter the subjoined are merely a few of the most typical or remarkable
forms. _Pogonorhynchus_ (including _Erythrobucco_ and _Melanobucco_) and
_Tricholaema_, including respectively some fifteen and ten species, are
exclusively African groups, noticeable for the long, black bristles before
the eye and below the beak. _P. dubius_ of West Africa has bluish-black
upper parts, with a little crimson on the wing-coverts and a white dorsal
patch; the cheeks and ear-coverts are crimson, separated by a black line;
{450}the anterior under parts are crimson, the posterior scarlet, these
being divided by a black pectoral band, and relieved by yellowish patches
on the sides; the bill is reddish-yellow, the naked orbits are orange.
_Tricholaema leucomelan_ of South Africa is blue-black above, with
plentiful yellow and scanty white markings, but white below with black
throat. The forehead is crimson, the eyebrow and orbits are yellow, the
bill is blackish. The breast-feathers have hair-like shafts. _Gymnobucco
calvus_ of West Africa is brown with paler streaks; having the bill and
chin-bristles yellowish, and browner bristles round the nostrils in at
least one sex. The naked head is blue. _Barbatula_, of the Ethiopian Region
generally, contains a dozen small species, which exhibit soft loose plumage
of black, varied with red, yellow, or white. _B. minuta_, extending from
North-East Africa to Senegambia, has the forehead scarlet, the rump and
under surface yellowish, the bill black, and somewhat scanty bristles.
_Stactolaema anchietae_ of Benguela, and _S. olivaceum_ of East Africa, are
respectively brown with yellowish head and throat, and olive-green with
those parts blackish. The bill is black. _Calorhamphus hayi_, found from
South Tenasserim to Sumatra, is yellowish-brown above and yellowish-white
below, with black-shafted spiny crown-feathers, rufous throat, black bill,
reddish orbits and no chin-bristles. _C. fuliginosus_ of Borneo is similar.
_Megalaema_, _Chotorhea_, _Cyanops_ and _Mesobucco_, with about thirty
members in all, extend from India and Ceylon to China, Formosa, Hainan, and
the Great Sunda Islands. They are soft-plumaged green birds, having
parti-coloured heads and throats tinted with blue, yellow, red, and black,
or merely brown and white; the bill and feet are yellowish, greenish, or
black. The bristles vary in their development. _Psilopogon pyrolophus_, of
the mountains of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, is green, with a black
forehead, a brownish head crossed by a greyish-white band, and a double
belt of yellow and black below the green throat. The long nasal bristles
are black, tipped with scarlet; the superciliary stripe and lower eye-lid
are green; the upper eye-lid is yellow; the bill is yellowish-green with
black central band; the legs and orbits are greenish. The unusually long
tail is much graduated, and has pointed median rectrices, while these are
square in some ten Ethiopian species of _Trachyphonus_, where the tail is
similar. _T. cafer_ of South-East Africa is bluish-black above with white
markings; {451}the rump being yellow; the upper tail-coverts scarlet; the
forehead, sides of the head and lower parts yellow, with a tinge of scarlet
on the throat, which is followed by a black and white gorget. The fine
occipital crest is black, the beak green; the feet and orbits are dusky.
_T. margaritatus_, of North-East Africa, has brown upper parts with round
white spots; the upper and lower tail-coverts are crimson; the rump, head,
neck, and under surface are yellow, except for the crown and marks on the
hind-neck and throat, which are black, and for an indistinct chest-band of
red, surmounted by one of brown. The beak is red, the feet are bluish. The
exclusively Central and South American _Capito_ is the only genus in which
the sexes differ; the dozen or more species have, moreover, few bristles
round the bill. _C. niger_ of Guiana is black above, varied with yellowish
and buff, and sulphur-yellow below with a few black spots, which become
plentiful in the female. The forehead, cheeks, and throat are
orange-scarlet, the bill is plumbeous. _C. salvini_ of Costa Rica and
Panama has green upper and yellow under parts; most of the head and the
throat being scarlet, the flanks green and white, and a whitish band
descending the sides of the neck. The female lacks the scarlet, but has a
dull golden crown and nape, pale blue cheeks, and an orange gorget below
the green throat. The bill is greenish-yellow, the orbits are yellowish.
_Tetragonops rhamphastinus_ of Ecuador, in which the nostrils lie in
grooves, has the crown black, with white sides merging gradually into a
blue-grey throat; a glossy black nuchal crest; a rufous-olive mantle;
orange lower back and upper tail-coverts; blackish-blue wings and tail;
scarlet breast with orange sides; and yellowish-green abdomen. The bill is
orange-yellow with dusky tip. _T. frantzii_ of Costa Rica, called
"Gallinita" from its chicken-like cry, has greenish-olive upper and
yellowish-green lower parts, with golden-orange forehead, cheeks and
throat, a plumbeous bill, and a similar crest to its congener. This genus
bears a certain resemblance to the Toucans.
Sub-fam. 2. _Indicatorinae._–The Honey-guides are contained in the two
genera _Indicator_ and _Prodotiscus_, with nine and two species
respectively, which were formerly placed among the Cuckoos. Their chief
interest centres in the fact that they are said to conduct travellers to
bees' nests, as will be seen below.
From the Capitoninae, _Indicator_ differs in the stout {452}Finch-like bill
with ridged and laterally swollen maxilla, while that of _Prodotiscus_ is
more slender and pointed. Moreover, the metatarsi are short; the nostrils
possess a narrow membrane and are not bristly; and the rectrices number
twelve, save in the last-named genus, which has ten. The curiously
interrupted range includes the whole Ethiopian Region, except Madagascar;
the Himalayas; and the Malayan and Bornean mountains. The sexes are
generally similar, while almost all the forms, which hardly exceed a Lark
in size, are chiefly dull brown, with a yellow wash, and some white on the
rump, tail, or wings.
_Indicator xanthonotus_ of the Himalayas is blackish above, with golden
forehead and orange rump-region, and greyish below; the latter colour
merging into yellow on the throat and black on the abdomen. _I.
archipelagicus_ of the Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and _I. sparrmani_ of
Tropical Africa, except the western forests, exhibit a yellow
shoulder-patch; while the males of the latter and of _I. major_ of the same
districts have black throats, which are whitish and yellow in the
respective females. _I. minor_, and the remaining Ethiopian species, differ
from the last two forms in having no white on the lower back. _Prodotiscus
regulus_ of Natal, and _P. insignis_, ranging from the Gaboon to East
Equatorial Africa, are particularly dull.