_Gymnastics._
§ 65. Gymnastics is the art of cultivating in a rational manner the
muscular system. The activity of the voluntary muscles, which are under
the control of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary, which are
under the control of the spinal cord, renders possible the connection of
man with the external world, and acts in a reflex manner back upon the
involuntary or automatic muscles for the purposes of repair and
sensation. Because the activity of muscle-fibre consists in the change
from contraction to expansion, and the reverse, gymnastics must use a
constant change of movements which shall not only make tense, but relax
the muscles that are to be exercised.
§ 66. The gymnastic art among any people will always bear a certain
relation to its art of war. So long as fighting consists mainly of
personal, hand-to-hand encounters of two combatants, so long will
gymnastics turn its chief effort towards the development of the greatest
possible amount of individual strength and dexterity. But after the
invention of fire-arms of long range has changed the whole idea of war,
the individual becomes only one member of a body, the army, the
division, or the regiment, and emerges from this position into his
individuality again only occasionally, as in sharpshooting, in the
onset, or in the retreat. Modern gymnastics, as an art, can never be the
same as the ancient art, for this very reason: that because of the loss
of the individual man in the general mass of combatants, the matter of
personal bravery is not of so much importance as formerly. The same
essential difference between ancient and modern gymnastics, would result
from the subjective, or internal character of the modern spirit. It is
impossible for us, in modern times, to devote so much thought to the
care of the body and to the reverential admiration of its beauty as did
the Greeks.
The Turners' Unions and Turners' Halls in Germany belonged to the period
of intense political enthusiasm in the German youth, and had a political
significance. Now they have come back again to their place as an
instrument of education, and seem in great cities to be of much
importance. In mountainous countries, and in country life generally, a
definite gymnastic drill is of much less importance, for much and varied
exercise is of necessity a constant part of the daily life of every one.
The constant opportunity and the impulse to recreation helps in the same
direction. In cities, on the contrary, there is not free space enough
either in houses or yards for children to romp to their heart's and
body's content. For this reason a gymnasium is here useful, so that they
may have companionship in their plays. For girls this exercise is less
necessary. Dancing may take its place, and systematic exercise should be
used only where there is a tendency to some weakness or deformity. They
are not to become Amazons. On the other hand, boys need the feeling of
comradeship. It is true they find this in some measure in school, but
they are not there perfectly on an equality, because the standing is
determined to some extent by his intellectual ability. The academic
youth cannot hope to win any great preëminence in the gymnastic hall,
and running, climbing, leaping, and lifting do not interest him very
much as he grows older. He takes a far more lively interest in exercises
which have a military character. In Germany the gymnastic art is very
closely united with the art of war.
(The German idea of a woman's whole duty--to knit, to sew, and to obey
implicitly--is perhaps accountable for what Rosenkranz here says of
exercise as regards girls. We, however, who know that the most frequent
direct cause of debility and suffering in our young women is simply and
solely a want of muscular strength, may be pardoned for dissenting from
his opinion, and for suggesting that dancing is not a sufficient
equivalent for the more violent games of their brothers. We do not fear
to render them Amazons by giving them more genuine and systematic
exercise, both physically and intellectually.)
§ 67. The main idea of gymnastics, and indeed of all exercise, is to
give the mind control over its natural impulses, to make it master of
the body which it inhabits, and of itself. Strength and dexterity must
combine to give us a sense of mastership. Strength by itself produces
the athlete, dexterity by itself the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both
these extremes. Neither must it base its teaching of gymnastics on the
idea of utility--as, _e.g._, that man might save his life by swimming,
should he fall into the water, and hence swimming should be taught, etc.
The main thought must be always to enable the soul to take full and
perfect possession of the organism, so as not to have the body form a
limit or fetter to its action in its dealings with the external world.
We are to give it a perfect instrument in the body, in so far as our
care may do so. Then we are to teach it to use that instrument, and
exercise it in that use till it is complete master thereof.
(What is said about the impropriety of making athletes and acrobats may
with justice be also applied to what is called "vocal gymnastics;"
whence it comes that we have too often vocal athletes and acrobats in
our graduates, and few readers who can read at sight, without difficulty
or hesitation, and with appreciation or enjoyment, one page of good
English.)
§ 68. There are all grades of gymnastic exercises, from the simple to
the most complex, constituting a system. At first sight, there seems to
be so much arbitrariness in these things that it is always very
satisfactory to the mind to detect some rational system in them. Thus we
have movements (_a_) of the lower extremities, (_b_) of the upper, (_c_)
of the whole body, with corresponding movements, alternately, of the
upper and of the lower extremities. We thus have leg, arm, and trunk
movements.
§ 69. (1) The first set of movements, those of the legs and feet, are of
prime importance, because upon them depends the carriage of the whole
body. They are (_a_) walking, (_b_) running, (_c_) leaping; and each of
these, also, may have varieties. We may have high and low leaping, and
running may be distinguished as to whether it is to be a short and
rapid, or a slow and long-continued movement. We may also walk on
stilts, or run on skates. We may leap with a pole, or without one.
Dancing is only an artistic and graceful combination of these movements.
§ 70. (2) The second set comprises the arm movements, which are about
the same as the preceding, being (_a_) lifting, (_b_) swinging; (_c_)
throwing. The use of horizontal poles and bars, as well as climbing and
dragging, belong to lifting. Under throwing, come quoit and ball-playing
and bowling. These movements are distinguished from each other not only
quantitatively, but qualitatively; as, for instance, running is not
merely rapid walking; it is a different kind of movement from walking,
as the position of the extended and contracted muscles is different.
§ 71. (3) The third set of exercises, those of the trunk, differ from
the other two, which should precede it, in that they bring the body into
contact with an object in itself capable of active resistance, which it
has to subdue. This object may be an element (water), an animal, or a
human being; and thus we have (_a_) swimming, (_b_) riding, (_c_)
fighting in single combat. In swimming we have the elastic fluid, water,
to overcome by means of arm and leg movements. This may be made very
difficult by a strong current, or by rough water, and yet we always have
here to strive against an inanimate object. On the contrary, in
horseback riding we have to deal with something that has a self of its
own, and the contest challenges not our strength alone, but also our
skill and courage. The motion is therefore very complex, and the rider
must be able to exercise either or all of these qualities at need. But
his attention must not be wholly given to his horse, for he has to
observe also the road, and indeed every thing around him. One of the
greatest advantages of horseback riding to the overworked student or the
business man lies doubtlessly in the mental effort. It is impossible for
him to go on revolving in his mind the problems or the thoughts which
have so wearied or perplexed him. His whole attention is incessantly
demanded for the management of his horse, for the observation of the
road, which changes its character with every step, and with the objects,
far or near, which are likely to attract the attention of the animal he
rides. Much good, doubtless, results from the exercise of the muscles of
the trunk, which are not in any other motion called into such active
play, but much also from the unavoidable distraction of the mind from
the ordinary routine of thought, which is the thing most needed. When
the object which we are to subdue, instead of being an animal, is a man
like ourselves, as in single combat, we have exercise both of body and
mind pushed to its highest power. We have then to oppose an intelligence
which is equal to our own, and no longer the intelligence of an
unreasoning animal. Single combat is the truly chivalrous exercise; and
this also, as in the old chivalry time, may be combined with
horsemanship.
In single combat we find also a qualitative distinction, and this of
three kinds: (_a_) boxing and wrestling, (_b_) fighting with canes or
clubs, and (_c_) rapier and sword fencing. The Greeks carried wrestling
to its highest pitch of excellence. Among the British, a nation of
sailors, boxing is still retained as a national custom. Fencing with a
cane or stick is much in use among the French artisan class. The cane is
a sort of refined club. When the sword or rapier makes its appearance,
we come to mortal combat. The southern European excels in the use of the
rapier; the Germans in that of the sword. The appearance of the pistol
marks the degeneracy of the art of single combat, as it makes the weak
man equal to the strong, and there is therefore no more incentive to
train the body to strength in order to overcome an enemy. (The trained
intelligence, the quick eye, the steady hand, the wary thought to
perceive and to take advantage of an opportunity--these are the
qualities which the invention of gunpowder set up above strength and
brute force. The Greek nation, and we may say Greek mythology and art,
would have been impossible with gunpowder; the American nation
impossible without it.)