WOODCRAFT
=Trees. Practical Use of Compass. Direction of Wind. Star Guiding. What
to Do When Lost in the Woods. How to Chop Wood. How to Fell Trees.=
=Trees=
While on the trail you will find a knowledge of trees most useful, and
you should be able to recognize different species by their manner of
growth, their bark and foliage.
=Balsam-Fir=
One of the most important trees for the trailer to know is the
balsam-fir, for of this the best of outdoor beds are made. In shape the
tree is like our Christmas-trees--in fact, many Christmas-trees are
balsam-fir.
The sweet, aromatic perfume of the balsam needles is a great aid in
identifying it. The branches are flat and the needles appear to grow
from the sides of the stem. The little twist at the base of the needle
causes it to seem to grow merely in the straight, outstanding row on
each side of the stem; look closely and you will see the twist.
The needles are flat and short, hardly one inch in length; they are
grooved along the top and the ends are decidedly blunt; in color they
are dark bluish-green on the upper side and silvery-white underneath.
The bark is gray, and you will find little gummy blisters on the
tree-trunk. From these the healing Canada balsam is obtained. The short
cones, often not over two inches in length, the longest seldom more than
four inches, stand erect on top of the small branches, and when young
are of a purplish color.
From Maine to Minnesota the balsam-fir grows in damp woods and mountain
bogs, and you will find it southward along the Alleghany Mountains from
Pennsylvania to North Carolina.
=Spruce=
The spruce, red, black, and white, differs in many respects from the
balsam-fir: the needles are sharp-pointed, not blunt, and instead of
being flat like the balsam-fir, they are four-sided and cover the
branchlet on all sides, causing it to appear rounded or bushy and not
flat. The spruce-gum sought by many is found in the seams of the bark,
which, unlike the smooth balsam-fir, is scaly and of a brown color.
Early spring is the time to look for spruce-gum. Spruce is a soft wood,
splits readily and is good for the frames and ribs of boats, also for
paddles and oars, and the bark makes a covering for temporary shelters.
=Hemlock=
This tree is good for thatching a lean-to when balsam-fir is not to be
found, and its bark can be used in the way of shingles.
The cones are small and hang down from the branches; they do not stand
up alert like those of the balsam-fir, nor are they purple in color,
being rather of a bright red-brown, and when very young, tan color. The
wood is not easy to split--don't try it, or your hatchet will suffer in
consequence and the pieces will be twisted as a usual thing. The
southern variety, however, often splits straight.
[Illustration: Horse-chestnut.
Sugar-maple.
Alder.
Ink impressions of leaves.]
[Illustration: Balsam-Fir.
Spruce.
Hemlock.]
[Illustration: White oak.
Linden.
Ink impressions of leaves.]
[Illustration: Pitch-pine and cone.
Sycamore leaf and fruit of sycamore.
(The buttonball.)]
=Pine=
The pine-tree accommodates itself to almost any kind of soil, high, low,
moist, or dry, often growing along the edge of the water.
The gray pine is sometimes used for making the skeleton of a canoe or
other boats, and the white pine for the skin or covering of the skeleton
boat; but for you the pine will probably be most useful in furnishing
pine-knots, and its soft wood for kindling your outdoor fire.
The trees mentioned abound in our northern forests. The birch in its
different varieties is there also, but rarely ventures into the densest
woods, preferring to remain near and on its outskirts. However, none of
these trees confine themselves strictly to one locality.
Oaks, hickory, chestnut, maples, and sycamore are among the useful woods
for campers.
Learn the quality and nature of the different trees. Each variety is
distinct from the others: some woods are easy to split, such as spruce,
chestnut, balsam-fir, etc.; some very strong, as locust, oak, hickory,
sugar-maple, etc.; then there are the hard and soft woods mentioned in
fire-making.
When you once understand the characteristics of the different woods, and
their special qualifications, becoming familiar with only two or three
varieties at a time, the trees will be able to help you according to
their special powers. You would not go to a musician to have a portrait
painted, for while the musician might give you wonderful music he would
be helpless as far as painting a picture was concerned, and so it is
with trees. They cannot all give the same thing; if you want soft wood,
it is wasting your time to go to hardwood trees; they cannot give you
what they do not possess. Know the possibilities of trees and they will
not fail you.
=How to Chop Wood=
Trailing and camping both mean wood-chopping to some extent for
shelters, fires, etc., and the girl of to-day should understand, as did
the girls of our pioneer families, how to handle properly a hatchet, or
in this case we will make it a belt axe. There is a small hatchet
modelled after the Daniel Boone tomahawk, generally known as the "camp
axe." It is thicker, narrower, and has a sharper edge than an ordinary
hatchet. It comes of a size to wear on the belt and must be securely
protected by a well-fitted strong leather sheath; otherwise it will
endanger not only the life of the girl who carries it, but also the
lives of her companions. With the camp axe (hatchet) you can cut down
small trees, chop fire-wood, blaze trees, drive down pegs or stakes, and
chop kindling-wood. Every time you want to use the hatchet take the
precaution to examine it thoroughly and reassure yourself that the tool
is in good condition and that the _head_ is _on firm_ and _tight_; be
positive of this.
Great caution must be taken when chopping kindling-wood, as often
serious accidents occur through ignorance or carelessness. Do not raise
one end of a stick up on a log with the other end down on the ground and
then strike the centre of the stick a sharp blow with the sharp edge of
your hatchet; the stick will break, but one end usually flies up with
considerable force and very often strikes the eye of the worker, ruining
the sight forever. Take the blunt end of your hatchet and do not give a
very hard blow on the stick you wish to break; exert only force
sufficient to break it partially, merely enough to enable you to finish
the work with your hands and possibly one knee. It may require a little
more time, but your eyes will be unharmed, which makes it worth while.
Often children use a heavy stone to break kindling-wood, with no
disastrous results that I know of. The heavy stone does not seem to
cause the wood to fly upward.
[Illustration: Stand on the log when you chop it.
13 14 15 16
17 For safety.
The stump will be like this on top when the tree is down.
How to use the axe.]
=How to Chop Logs=
Practise on small, slender logs, chopping them in short lengths until
you understand something of the woodsman's art of "logging up a tree";
then and not until then should you attempt to cut heavier wood.
If you are sure-footed and absolutely certain that you can stand firmly
on the log without teetering or swaying when leaning over, do so. You
can then chop one side of the log half-way through and turn around and
chop the other side until the second notch or "kerf" is cut through to
the first one on the opposite side, and the two pieces fall apart. While
working stand on the log with feet wide apart and chop the _side_ of the
log (not the top) on the space in front between your feet. Make your
first chip quite long, and have it equal in length the diameter of the
log. If the chip is short, the opening of the kerf will be narrow and
your hatchet will become wedged, obliging you to double your labor by
enlarging the kerf. Greater progress will be made by chopping diagonally
across the grain of the wood, and the work will be easier. It is
difficult to cut squarely against the grain and this is always avoided
when possible. After you have cut the first chip in logging up a tree,
chop on the base of the chip, swinging your hatchet from the opposite
direction, and the chip will fall to the ground.
Having successfully chopped off one piece of the log, it will be a
simple matter to cut off more. Chop slowly, easily, and surely. Don't be
in a hurry and exhaust yourself; only a novice overexerts and tries to
make a deep cut with the hatchet.
Be careful of the blade of your hatchet; keep it free from the ground
when chopping, to avoid striking snags, stones, or other things liable
to nick or dull the edge.
=How to Fell a Tree=
Content yourself with chopping down only slender trees, mere saplings,
at first, and as you acquire skill, slightly heavier trees can be
felled. Begin in the right way with your very first efforts and follow
the woodsman's method.
Having selected the tree you desire to cut down, determine in which
direction you want it to fall and mark that side, but first make sure
that when falling, the tree will not lodge in another one near by or
drop on one of the camp shelters. See that the way is free of hindrance
before cutting the tree, also _clear the way_ for the swing of your
extended _hatchet_. If there are obstacles, such as vines, bushes, limbs
of other trees, or rocks, which your hatchet might strike as you raise
and lower it while at work, clear them all away, making a generous open
space on all sides, overhead, on the right and left side, and below the
swing of the hatchet. Take no chance of having an accident, as would
occur should the hatchet become entangled or broken.
You may have noticed that the top surface of most stumps has a
splintered ridge across its centre, and on one side of the ridge the
wood is lower than on the other; this is because of the manner in which
a woodsman fells a tree. If he wants the tree to fall toward the west he
marks the west side of the trunk; then he marks the top and bottom of
the space he intends chopping out for the first kerf or notch (Fig. 13,
_A_ and _B_), making the length of space a trifle longer than one-half
of the tree diameter. The kerf is chopped out by cutting first from the
top _A_, then from the bottom _B_ (Fig. 14). When the first kerf is
finished and cut half-way through the tree, space for the kerf on the
opposite side of the tree is marked a few inches higher than the first
one (Fig. 15, _C_ and _D_) and then it also is cut (Fig. 16).
After you have chopped the two kerfs in a tree, you will know when it is
about to fall by the creaking and the slight movement of its top. Step
to _one side_ of the falling tree, never behind or in front of it;
either of the last two ways would probably mean death: if in front, the
tree would fall on you, and if at the back, you would probably be
terribly injured if not killed, as trees often kick backward with
tremendous force as they go down; so be on your guard, keep cool, and
deliberately step to the side of the tree and watch it fall.
Choose a quiet day, when there is no wind, for tree-felling. You cannot
control the wind, and it may control your tree.
Never allow your hatchet to lie on the ground, a menace to every one at
camp, but have a particular log or stump and always strike the blade in
this wood. Leave your hatchet there, where it will not be injured, can
do no harm, and you will always know where to find it (Fig. 17).
=Etiquette of the Wild=
Translated this means "_hands off_." The unwritten law of the woods is
that personal property cached in trees, underbrush, beneath stones, or
hidden underground must never be _taken_, _borrowed_, _used_, or
_molested_.
Canoes and oars will often be discovered left by owners, sometimes
fastened at the water's edge, again suspended from trees, and the
temptation to borrow may be strong, but remember such an act would be
dishonorable and against the rules that govern the outdoor world.
Provisions, tools, or other articles found in the forests should be
respected and allowed to remain where they are. It is customary for
campers to cache their belongings with the assurance that forest
etiquette will be held inviolate and their goods remain unmolested.
Every one has the privilege of examining and enjoying the beauties of
mosses, berries, and wild flowers, but do not take these treasures from
their homes to die and be thrown aside. Love them well enough to let
them stay where they are for others also to enjoy, unless you need
specimens for some important special study.
A man who had always lived in the Adirondack forests, and at present is
proprietor of an Adirondack hotel, recently reforested many acres of his
wooded wild lands by planting through the forests little young trees,
some not over one foot high, and his indignation was great when he
discovered that many of his guests when off on tramps returned laden
with these baby trees, which were easily pulled up by the roots because
so lately planted.
=Finding Your Way by Natural Signs and the Compass=
An important phase of woodcraft is the ability to find your way in the
wilderness by means of natural signs as well as the compass. If,
however, you do not know at what point of the compass from you the camp
lies, the signs can be of no avail. Having this knowledge, the signs
will be invaluable.
_Get your bearings before leaving camp._ Do not depend upon any member
of the party, but know for yourself.
If you have a map giving the topography of land surrounding the
camping-grounds, consult it. Burn into your memory the direction _from_
camp of outlying landmarks, those near and those as far off as you can
see in all directions. The morning you leave camp, ascertain the
direction of the wind and notice particularly the sun and shadows. If
it is early morning, face the sun and you will be looking toward the
east. Stretch out both arms at your sides and point with your
index-fingers; your right finger will point to the south, your left to
the north, and your back will be toward the west. What landmarks do you
see east of the camp? South? North? West? And from what point of the
compass does the wind blow? If it comes from the west and you trail
eastward, the wind will strike your back going away from camp and should
strike your face returning, provided its direction does not change.
Again, if you go east, your camp will lie west of you, and your homeward
path must be westward. Consult your compass and know exactly which
direction you take when leaving camp, and blaze your trail as you go,
looking backward frequently to see how landmarks should appear as you
face them returning.
With all these friends to guide you, first, the map; second, sun; third,
shadows; fourth, wind; fifth, compass; sixth, your bent-twig blazing,
there will be little, if any, danger of being lost. But you must
constantly keep on the alert and refer frequently to these guides,
especially when deflecting from the course first taken after leaving
camp. At every turning, stop and take your bearings anew; you cannot be
too careful.
These signs are for daylight; at night the North Star will be your
guide.
=Sunlight and Shadow=
Bearing in mind that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, it
will be comparatively easy to keep your right course by consulting the
sun. A fair idea may also be gained of the time of day by the length of
shadows, if you remember that shadows are long in the morning and
continue to grow shorter until midday, when they again begin to
lengthen, growing longer and longer until night.
To find the direction of the sun on a cloudy day, hold a flat splinter
or your knife blade vertically, so that it is absolutely straight up and
down. Place the point of the blade on your thumb-nail, watch-case, or
other glossy surface; then turn the knife or splinter around until the
full shadow of the flat of blade or splinter falls on the bright
surface, telling the location of the sun.
An open spot where the sun can cast a clear shadow, and an hour when the
sun is not immediately overhead, will give best results.
=Wind=
The wind generally blows in the same direction all day, and if you learn
to understand its ways, the wind will help you keep the right trail.
Make a practise of testing the direction of the wind every morning.
Notice the leaves on bush and tree, in what direction they move. Place a
few bits of paper on your open hand and watch in which way the wind
carries them; if there is no paper, try the test with dry leaves, grass,
or anything light and easily carried by the breeze. Smoke will also show
the direction of the wind.
When the wind is very faint, put your finger in your mouth, wet it on
all sides, and hold it up; the side on which the wind blows will feel
cool and tell from what quarter the wind comes: if on the east side of
your finger, the wind blows from the east, and so on. Keep testing the
direction of the wind as you trail, and if at any time it cools a
different side of the finger, you will know that you are not walking in
the same direction as when you left camp and must turn until the wet
finger tells you which way to go. The wind is a good guide so long as
it keeps blowing in the same direction as when you left camp.
=Use of Compass=
Should you be on the trail and sudden storm-clouds appear, the sun
cannot help you find your way; the shadows have gone. Moss on
tree-trunks is not an infallible guide and you must turn to the compass
to show the way, but unless you understand its language you will not
know what it is telling you. Learn the language before going to camp; it
is not difficult.
Hold the compass out in a _level position_ directly in front of you; be
_sure_ it is level; then decide to go north. Consult the compass and
ascertain in which direction the north lies. The compass needle points
directly north with the north end of the needle; this end is usually
black, sometimes pearl. Let your eye follow straight along the line
pointed out by the needle; as you look ahead select a landmark--tree,
rock, pond, or whatever may lie in that direction. Choose an object
quite a distance off on the imaginary line, go directly toward it, and
when intervening objects obscure the landmark, refer to your compass. If
you have turned from the pathway north, face around and readjust your
steps in the right direction. Do not let over two minutes pass without
making sure by the compass that you are going on the right path, going
directly north.
[Illustration: Mariner's Compass.]
[Illustration: Common Compass.]
[Illustration: Big Dipper.
Little Dipper.
The compass and the North Star.]
Practise using the compass for a guide until you understand it; have
faith in it and you may fearlessly trust to its guidance. Try going
according to various points of the compass: suppose you wish to go
southeast, the compass tells you this as plainly as the north; try it.
Naturally, if you go to the southeast away from camp, returning will
be in exactly the opposite direction, and coming back to camp you must
walk northwest. After learning to go in a straight line, guided entirely
by the compass, try a zigzag path. A group of girls will find it good
sport to practise trailing with the compass, and they will at the same
time learn how to avoid being lost and how to help others find their
way. It is possible to
=Make a Compass of Your Watch=
Besides keeping you company with its friendly nearness, its ticking and
its ready answers to your questions regarding the time, a watch in the
woods and fields has another use, for it can be used as a compass. It
will show just where the south is, then by turning your back on the
south you face the north, and on your right is the east and on your left
the west. These are the rules:
With your watch in a horizontal position point the hour-hand to the sun,
and if before noon, half-way between the hour hand and 12 is due south.
If it is afternoon calculate the opposite way. For instance, if at 8 A.
M. you point the hour-hand to the sun, 10 will point to the south, for
that is half-way between 8 and 12. If at 2 P. M. you point the hour-hand
to the sun, look back to 12, and half the distance will be at 1,
therefore 1 points to the south.
An easy way to get the direction of the sun without looking directly at
it is by means of the shadow of a straight, slender stick or grass stem
thrown on the horizontal face of your watch. Hold the stick upright with
the lower end touching the watch at the _point_ of the hour-hand, then
turn the watch until the shadow of the stick falls along the hour-hand.
This will point the hand undeviatingly toward the sun.
=Mountain Climbing=
The campers should go together to climb the mountain, never one girl
alone.
Before starting, find a strong stick to use as a staff; stow away some
luncheon in one of your pockets; see that your camera is in perfect
order, ready to use at a moment's notice; that your water-proof
match-box is in your pocket filled with safety matches, your
pocket-knife safe with you, also watch and compass, and that the tin cup
is on your belt. Your whistle being always hung around your neck will,
of course, be there as usual.
When you are ready, stand still and look about you once more to make
sure of your bearings; close your eyes and tell yourself exactly what
you have seen. After leaving camp and arriving at the foot of the
mountain, take your bearings anew; then look up ahead and select a
certain spot which you wish to reach on the upward trail. Having this
definite object in view will help in making better progress and save
your walking around in a circle, which is always the tendency when in a
strange place and intervening trees or elevations obstruct the view, or
when not sure of the way and trying to find it.
Begin blazing the trail at your first step up the mountain side. Even
though there may be a trail already, you cannot be sure that it will
continue; it is much safer to depend upon your own blazing.
Often in trailing along the mountain you will find huge rocks and steep
depressions, or small lakes which you cannot cross over but must go
around, and in so doing change your direction, perhaps strike off at an
angle. Before making the detour, search out some large landmark, readily
recognized after reaching the other side of the obstruction, a tall,
peculiarly shaped tree or other natural feature. Now is the time to try
earnestly to keep the landmark in sight as long as possible and to be
able to recognize it when you see it again. Watch your compass and the
sun that you may continue in the right direction after circling the
obstruction. Go slow in climbing, take your time and don't get out of
breath.
On many mountains the possibility of unexpected fogs exists, and safety
requires that the party be linked together with a soft rope; the same
precaution should be taken when the trail is very rough, steep, and
rocky. The camper at the head of the line should tie the rope in a
bow-line around her waist, with knot on left side, and eight or ten feet
from her the next girl should link herself to the rope in the same
manner; then another girl, and another, until the entire party is on the
rope.
The leader starts on the trail and the others, holding fast to their
staffs, carefully follow, each one cautious to keep the rope stretching
out in front of her rather taut; then if one girl stumbles the others
brace themselves and keep her from falling.
When descending the mountain, be careful to get a firm footing. Instead
of facing the trail, it is safer to turn sideways, so that you can place
the entire foot down and not risk the toes only, or the heels. Often
coming down either a steep hill or a mountain is more difficult than
going up.
=Lost in the Woods=
It is not at all probable that you will lose your way while on the
trail, but if you should find yourself lost in the woods or in the open,
the first thing to do is to remember that a brave girl does not get into
a panic and so rob herself of judgment and the power to think clearly
and act quickly. Believe firmly that you are _safe_, then sit down
quietly and think out a plan of finding your way. Try to remember from
which direction you have come and to recall landmarks. If you cannot do
this, do not be frightened and do not allow any thought of possible harm
to get a foothold in your mind. If there is a hill near, from which you
can see any distance, climb that and get an outlook. You may be able to
see the smoke of your camp-fire, which, after all, cannot be so far
away. You may find a landmark that you do remember. If you see nothing
which you can recognize, make a signal flag of your handkerchief and put
it up high, as high as you can. Your friends will be looking for that.
Then give the lost signal, one long blast with your whistle, and after a
short pause follow with two more blasts in quick succession. If you have
no whistle shout, loud and long, then wait a while, keeping eyes and
ears open to see and hear answering signals. If there is none, again
shout the lost signal and continue the calls every little while for
quite a time. Another call for help is the ascending smoke of three
fires. This, of course, is for daylight. Build your fires some distance
apart, twenty-five feet or more, that the smoke from each may be clearly
seen alone, not mingled with the rest. Aim to create _smoke_ rather than
flame; a slender column of smoke can be seen a long distance, therefore
the fire need not be large. Choose for your fires as clear a space and
as high an elevation as can be found, and in the relief and excitement
of rescue _do not forget to extinguish every spark_ before leaving the
ground.
If you decide to keep moving, blaze your trail as you go, so that it may
be followed and also that you may know if you cross it again yourself.
You can blaze the trail by breaking or bending small branches on trees
and bushes, or by small strips torn from your handkerchief and tied
conspicuously on twigs. If you are where there are no trees or
undergrowth, build small piles of stones or little hills of earth at
intervals to mark your trail.
If night overtakes you, look for the _North Star_. That will help if you
know at what point of the compass your camp lies, and if you remember
whether your course in leaving camp was to the north, south, east, or
west, you can calculate pretty accurately whether the camp is to the
north, south, east, or west of you.
In case the night must be spent where you are, go about making a
shelter, prepare as comfortable a bed as possible, and do _not_ be
afraid. You will probably be found before morning, and you must be found
in good physical condition.
If you can kindle a fire, do it; that will help to guide your friends
and will ward off wild creatures that might startle you. Keep your fire
going all night and take care that it does not spread.
It is better to remain quietly in one spot all night than to wander
about in the dark and perhaps stumble upon dangerous places. If, when
you find the points of the compass by the _North Star_, you mark them
plainly on a stone or fallen log, they will be a ready guide for you as
soon as daylight breaks.
The last word on this subject is: _Do not be afraid_.
=To Find Your Way by the North Star=
At night you will have the same reliable guide that has ever been the
mariner's friend, and if you do not know this star guide, lose no time
in finding it.
Polaris or pole-star is known generally as North Star, and this star is
most important to the outdoor girl. At all times the North Star marks
the north, its position never changes, and seeing that star and _knowing
it_, you will always know the points of the compass. Face the North
Star and you face the north. At your right hand is the east, at your
left hand is the west, and at your back is the south.
The North Star does not look very important because it is not very
bright or very large, and were it not for the help of the Big Dipper,
which every one knows, the North Star would not be easy to find. The
diagram given on page 37 shows the relative position of the stars and
will help you to find the North Star. The two stars forming the front
side of the bowl of the Great Dipper point almost in a direct line to
the North Star, which is the last one in the handle of the Little
Dipper, or the tail of the Little Bear, which means the same thing.