EARLY LITERATURE OF THE ICELANDERS—EDDAS AND SAGAS—MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
OF THE PERIOD—EXTRACTS FROM THE POETIC EDDA.
ACCORDING to the system of the Northmen, man and woman were the last
and most perfect productions of the creative power. After the Æsir,
the Jötuns and the Dwarfs had a being. Odin and two other deities were
walking on the sea-shore, and came to two trees, and from them they
made the first man, ASK, and the first woman, EMBLA. They had allotted
to them, for a residence, Midgard, which, from being the home of man,
was called Mannheim; and from these two, Ask and Embla, are descended
the whole human race. Some time after this, Heimdal, the warder and
trumpeter of the gods, wandered over the earth under the name of
Rigr. He was received and hospitably entertained by the descendants
of Ask and Embla; first by Ai—Great Grandfather,—and Edda—Great
Grandmother,—who dwelt in a lowly hut; next by Afi—Grandfather,—and
Amma—Grandmother,—living in a comfortable habitation; and, lastly, by
Father and Mother,[33] who occupied a splendid mansion. The deity,
by his beneficent presence, infuses a vital energy into his hosts;
and, in due time after his departure, Edda, Amma, and Mother, each
give birth to a son. The infants are sprinkled with water at the
moment of their birth: Edda’s son is called Thræll—_Thrall_; Amma’s,
Karl—_Churl_; and Mother’s, Jarl, or _Noble_; and these three,
Thrall, Churl, and Noble, have each a numerous offspring. Here is an
aristocratic explanation of the three castes that appear, at an early
period, to have formed the frame-work of Scandinavian society,—the
thralls, or slaves; the churls, or free peasants—odalsmen, as they were
afterwards termed; and the nobles. The poet, in his Edda,[34] describes
the thralls as having black hair, an unsightly countenance, uncouth
appearance, and of low and deformed stature; physiological traits
characteristic of the Lapps, who were probably reduced to a state of
vassalage by their Scandinavian conquerors. The destiny of the thralls
is to toil incessantly, in order that by their labor the churls may
obtain sufficient produce from the earth to enable the nobles to live
with becoming splendor. The poet shows his contempt for this class, by
giving Thrall’s sons such names as Frousy, Stumpy, Plumpy, Sootyface,
Slowpace, Homespun, &c., and calling his daughters Lazybody, Cranefoot,
Smokynose, and Tearclout. Among the churls, sons of Karl, we find
such names as Stiffbeard, Husbandman, Holder (of land), and Smith;
the daughters being designated Prettyface, Swanlike, Blithespeech,
Chatterbox, &c. The poet, though, reserves the most of his eloquence
for the nobles, who, he says, have fair hair, a clear complexion, and
fine piercing eyes; their sole avocations being to wield the sword,
dart the javelin, rein the fiery steed, chase the deer, and other
elegant amusements, which Jarl’s descendants still delight to astonish
the churls with. Jarl—equivalent to Earl—marries Erna—Lively—the
daughter of Hersir—Baron; but the poet only gives the names of the
sons; names that usually designate relationship, as Cousin, Nephew, &c.
The literary history of Iceland, in the early ages of the republic, is
of a most interesting character. When we consider the limited population
of the country, and the many disadvantages under which they labored,
their literature is the most remarkable on record. The old Icelanders,
from the tenth to the sixteenth century, through a period in the history
of the world when little intellectual light beamed from the surrounding
nations, were as devoted and ardent workers in the fields of history and
poetry as any community in the world, under the most favorable
circumstances. Previous to the present century, the learned world seemed
to consider the writings of the Icelanders as almost unworthy of notice.
With the discovery through old manuscripts that the early voyages of the
Icelanders extended to the American coast, there was an interest
aroused, and curiosity was excited to learn the entire history of this
energetic and intellectual race. Springing from the old Norse, or
Norwegian stock, they carried the language and habits of their ancestors
with them to their island home. During a period of nearly one thousand
years, since the first settlement of the country, the Icelandic has
undergone less change—with perhaps one exception—than any language now
spoken. Though a very large number of our English words are derived
direct from the Icelandic, yet the most learned and indefatigable of our
lexicographers, both in England and America, have acknowledged their
ignorance of this language. Through the labors of Professors Rask, Rafn,
and Müller, M. Mallett, Mr. Finn Magnusen, and others, the language and
literature of this country is now open to us.
The writings of the early Icelanders are principally Eddas and Sagas.
The Eddas are the heroic poems of the day, and describe the deeds and
prowess of heroes and warriors; and some of them abound in mythological
machinery to an extent quite equal to the writings of Homer and Virgil.
The two principal Eddas are known as the Poetic, or _Elder_ Edda, and
the _Younger_, or Prose Edda. The Sagas are historical writings, give a
picture of the public and private life of the Icelanders, their manners
and customs, feuds, combats, voyages, and discoveries, biography of
eminent persons, and such a description of their national and social
state, as enables us to see the character and habits of the people
during the early years of the Icelandic Republic.
The ELDER EDDA consists of thirty-nine poems, and is ascribed to SÆMUND
SIGFUSSON, surnamed FRODE, or, “the _learned_.” He flourished at the
close of the eleventh, and beginning of the twelfth century; was
educated at the Universities of France and Germany, and returned to
Iceland, and became the parish priest of Oddi, a village near the foot
of Mt. Hekla. He devoted himself to the education of youth, deciphering
Runic manuscripts, and the cultivation of letters. Some suppose that he
was only the author of one of these poems; that he found the others in
manuscript, or obtained them from oral tradition. In proof of this, one
only—the Sólar-ljóth—Lay of the Sun—contains the least allusion to
Christianity. All the others bear marks of greater antiquity than the
eleventh century.
The PROSE, or YOUNGER EDDA, was written many years subsequent to the
Elder Edda. It contains a complete system of Scandinavian Mythology,
all, or nearly all, derived from the Elder.
The account of the Mythology of the Northmen in the former chapters, is
principally from Mallett’s account of the younger Edda,—Bishop Percy’s
translation. Snorri Sturlason, one of the most remarkable men in the
annals of Iceland, is said to be the writer and compiler of the younger
Edda. The prominent incidents of his life give a striking picture of
the manners of the age in which he lived. This was several generations
later than the time of Sæmund Frode. Snorri was born at Hvam, in Myra
Sysla, in the year 1178. He was a historian and poet, as well as a
powerful political chieftain, and at one time the wealthiest man in
Iceland. During his life he was twice elected Supreme Magistrate, or
President of the Republic. At three years of age, he was taken into
the care of John Lopston, of Oddi, grandson of Sæmund Frode, and
lived with him till he was twenty years of age. He flourished in a
stormy period, and led a turbulent and ambitious life. He received an
excellent education from his foster-father, and turned every favorable
circumstance to his own advantage. Appreciating the adage, that “money
is power,” he married Herdisa, the daughter of a priest called Bersi
the Rich—a very enviable surname, which, no doubt, enabled the reverend
gentleman to brave the bulls and decrees of popes and councils, and
take to himself a wife—who brought him a very considerable fortune.
If we judge by the career of Snorri, Christianity had not, at this
period, much improved the character of the Icelanders. We have the
same turbulent and sanguinary scenes, the same loose conduct of the
women, and the perfidy and remorseless cruelty of the men, as in Pagan
times. Snorri lived twenty-five years with Herdisa, obtained a divorce,
married a rich heiress, quarreled with a son and daughter of his first
wife respecting pecuniary matters, had a number of illegitimate, or,
rather, adulterine children, and was finally murdered by three of his
sons-in-law and a step-son. Three of his illegitimate daughters were
married to men of rank, and in more respects than one, were like the
daughters of Lear. Their husbands were obliged to get rid of them by
suing for legal divorces, on account of their loose conduct. One of
them, Ingjibjörg, married a second time, but was again divorced, and
became notorious, even in Iceland, for her debaucheries.[35] By his
marriages, his learning, shrewdness, and ambition, Snorri became the
most wealthy and powerful man in the country, and, for some time the
political head of the state. We are told that sometimes he made his
appearance at the national assembly with eight or nine hundred men
in his train. His ambition was literary, as well as political, and
his celebrity was not confined to his own country. He visited Norway,
composed and recited a poem in praise of Hacon, a powerful jarl; and
strengthened his position at home by an alliance with neighboring
chiefs on the continent. Like the emperors of Rome, he constructed a
sumptuous bath of cut stone and cement, which, to this day, is called
_Snorri-laug_, or Snorri’s Bath. It is circular, and spacious enough
to swim in. It is supplied with hot water from a spouting fountain or
geyser, by a conduit over five hundred feet in length. Though more than
six hundred years have passed since it was built, it is in good repair
at the present day, and has been used as a temporary bathing-place by
some modern travelers.
After a period of unexampled prosperity, Snorri began to experience the
frowns of fortune. His avarice, ambition, and turbulent disposition,
made him unpopular at home, and embroiled him in quarrels with
neighboring chiefs and rulers. Gissur Thorvaldsen, formerly his
son-in-law, was ordered by Hacon, king of Norway, to make him a
prisoner, and bring him before the king; and if he could not take him
alive, to bring him dead. Having an eye on his estates, Thorvaldsen
assassinated him, on the night of the 22d of September, 1241, and
immediately took possession of his property. Snorri fell in the 63d
year of his age. A letter in the Runic character, was sent to him, a
few hours before his death, warning him of his danger; but we are told,
notwithstanding his great learning and extensive acquaintance with the
antiquities and literature of the country, that he could not decipher
it. In addition to his poetical and other works, he was author and
compiler of the HEIMSKRINGLA, or “Chronicle of the Kings of Norway,” a
historical work of great interest and celebrity.
A bare recital of the titles of the different poems forming the Eddas,
would be of little interest. One was entitled the VÖLUSPA—_Völu-spá, The
Song of the Prophetess_. Another is the _Háva-mál_,[36] and contains a
complete code of Odinic morality; and, as will be seen by the following
extracts, translated by Bishop Percy, are, many of them, worthy of a
christian age and a christian people. We will close this chapter, and
our account of the Literature and Mythology of the early Icelanders, by
the following quotations from the Old Eddaic poem, the HÁVAMÁL:
1. Consider and examine well all your doors before you venture to stir
abroad; for he is exposed to continual danger, whose enemies lie in
ambush, concealed in his court.
3. To the guest who enters your dwelling with frozen knees, give the
warmth of your fire; he who hath traveled over the mountains, hath need
of food and well-dried garments.
4. Offer water to him who sits down at your table; for he hath occasion
to cleanse his hands; and entertain him honorably and kindly, if you
would win from him friendly words, and a grateful return.
5. He who traveleth hath need of wisdom. One may do at home whatsoever
one will; but he who is ignorant of good manners, will only draw
contempt upon himself when he comes to sit down with men well
instructed.
7. He who goes to a feast where he is not expected, either speaks with a
lowly voice, or is silent; he listens with his ears, and is attentive
with his eyes; by this he acquires knowledge and wisdom.
8. Happy he who draws upon himself the applause and benevolence of men!
for whatever depends upon the will of others, is hazardous and
uncertain.
10. A man can carry with him no better provision for his journey, than
the strength of understanding. In a foreign country, this will be of
more use to him than treasures; and will introduce him to the table of
strangers.
12-13. A man cannot carry a worse custom with him to a banquet, than
that of drinking too much; the more the drunkard swallows the less is
his wisdom, till he loses his reason. The bird of oblivion sings before
those who inebriate themselves, and steals away their souls.
16. A coward thinks he shall live forever, if he can but keep out of the
reach of arms; but though he should escape every weapon, old age, that
spares none, will give him no quarter.
17. The gluttonous man, if he is not upon his guard, eats his own death;
and the gluttony of a fool makes the wise man laugh.
21. The flocks know when to return to the fold, and to quit the pasture;
but the worthless and the slothful know not how to restrain their
gluttony.
22. The lewd and dissolute man makes a mock of every thing; not
considering how much he himself is the object of derision. No one ought
to laugh at another until he is free from faults himself.
23. A man void of sense ponders all night long, and his mind wanders
without ceasing; but when he is weary at the point of day, he is nothing
wiser than he was over night.
32. Many are thought to be knit in the ties of sincere kindness; but
when it comes to the proof, how much are they deceived! Slander is the
common vice of the age. Even the host backbites his guest.
37. One’s own home is the best home, though never so small. Every thing
one eats at home is sweet. He who lives at another man’s table, is often
obliged to wrong his palate.
41. Let friends pleasure each other reciprocally with presents of arms
and habits. Those who give and those who receive, continue a long time
friends, and often give feasts to each other.
43. Love both your friends and your friends’ friends; but do not favor
the friend of your enemies.
45. Hast thou a friend whom thou canst not well trust, but wouldst make
him useful to thee; speak to him with bland words, but think craftily,
and thus render him levity for lies.
47. When I was young, I wandered about alone; I thought myself rich if I
chanced to light upon a companion. A man gives pleasure to another man.
51. Peace, among the perfidious, continues for five nights to shine
bright as a flame; but when the sixth night approaches, the flame waxes
dim, and is quite extinguished; then all their amity turns to hatred.
55. Let not a man be over wise; neither let him be more curious than he
ought. Let him not seek to know his destiny, if he would sleep secure
and quiet.
67. They invite me up and down to feasts, if I have only need of a
slight breakfast: my faithful friend is he who will give me one loaf
when he has but two.
70. Whilst we live, let us live well; for be a man never so rich when he
lights his fire, death may perhaps enter his door before it be burnt
out.
72. It is better to have a son late than never. One seldom sees
sepulchral stones raised over the graves of the dead by any other hands
but those of their own offspring.
77. Riches pass away like the twinkling of an eye; of all friends, they
are the most inconstant. Flocks perish; relations die; friends are not
immortal; you will die yourself; but I know one thing alone that is out
of the reach of fate; and that is the judgment which is passed upon the
dead.
81. Praise the fineness of the day when it is ended; praise a woman when
she is buried; a sword when you have proved it; a maiden after she is
married; the ice when once you have crossed it; and the liquor after it
is drunk.
84. Trust not to the words of a girl, neither to those which a woman
utters; for their hearts have been made like the wheel that turns round;
levity was put into their bosoms.
86-87. Trust not to the ice of one day’s freezing; neither to the
serpent that lies asleep; nor to the caresses of her you are going to
marry; nor to a sword that is cracked or broken; nor to the son of a
powerful man; nor to a field that is newly sown.
90. Peace between malicious women is compared to a horse that is made to
walk over the ice not properly shod; or to a vessel in a storm without a
rudder; or to a lame man who should attempt to follow the mountain goats
with a young foal, or yearling mule.
92. He who would make himself beloved by a maiden, must entertain her
with fine discourses, and offer her engaging presents; he must also
incessantly praise her beauty. It requires good sense to be a skillful
lover.
95. The heart alone knows what passes within the heart, and that which
betrays the soul, is the soul itself. There is no malady or sickness
more severe than not to be content with one’s lot.
119. Never discover your uneasiness to an evil person, for he will
afford you no comfort.
121. Know that if you have a friend, you ought to visit him often. The
road is grown over with grass, the bushes quickly spread over it, if it
is not constantly traveled.
123. Be not the first to break with your friend. Sorrow gnaws the heart
of him who has no one to advise with but himself.
130. I advise you to be circumspect, but not too much: be so, however,
when you have drunk to excess, when you are near the wife of another,
and when you find yourself among robbers.
131. Do not accustom yourself to mocking; neither laugh at your guest
nor a stranger: they who remain at home often know not who the stranger
is that cometh to their gate.
136. Laugh not at the gray-headed declaimer, nor at the aged grandsire.
There often come forth from the wrinkles of the skin, words full of
wisdom.
140. The fire drives away diseases; Runic characters destroy the effect
of imprecations; the earth swallows up inundations; and death
extinguishes hatred and quarrels.
FOOTNOTES:
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Footnote 33:
Faðir and Moðir.
Footnote 34:
The _Rigsmál_, a poem of the Mythic-ethnologic class.
Footnote 35:
Mallet.
Footnote 36:
_Mál_, song, discourse, speech, a word cognate with the Anglo-Saxon
_mal_, _mæl_, the Greek μέλος, &c. Háva-mál signifies the discourse or
canticle of the sublime; _i. e._ deity. Odin himself was supposed to
have given these precepts of wisdom to mankind.