There is not one atom of yon earth,
But once was living man;
Nor the minutest drop of rain
That hangeth in its thinnest cloud,
But flowed in human veins;
And from the burning plains
Where Lybian monsters yell,
From the most gloomy glens
Of Greenland’s sunless clime,
To where the golden fields
Of fertile England spread
Their harvest to the day;
Thou canst not find one spot
Whereon no city stood.
SHELLEY.
AND this is Iceland!—but I see no ice. This is the island that is shown
to us in our geographical books and maps, as a small white spot on the
borders of the Arctic ocean, and described as a cold, dreary, and
uninteresting region, inhabited by a few dwarfish and ignorant people,
who have little knowledge of the world, and of whom little is known. The
names of one or two of its mountains are given, and some place is
mentioned as its capital or largest town. That the country itself, or
any thing that is to be found here, is worth a journey to see, or that
the history or habits of the people possesses any degree of interest,
has not, probably, crossed the minds of a thousand persons. There is,
however, a vague tradition, and some persons actually believe that the
Icelanders or some other people from among the northern nations, once
sailed to the American shores, prior to the voyages of Columbus. What
may be the prominent characteristics of this ULTIMA THULE—this farthest
land—what its productions are, how extensive the country, how numerous
the population, and how the people live, there have been few means of
knowing. But Iceland is not a myth, it is actual and real, a solid
portion of the earth’s surface. It is not, either, what every one
supposes, nor what we have reason to believe it is, from its name, its
location, and the meager descriptions we have had of it. But it has not
been thought advisable to leave this country entirely alone, especially
in an age of travel and discovery like the present. The Yankee is here;
his feet tread its heath-clad hills and snow-covered mountains. He has
boiled his dinner in the hot-springs, cooled his punch in snow a hundred
years old, and toasted his shins by a volcanic fire. But a “chiel” may
come and take his notes: every thing of interest, past events and
present existing things, can not be seen by one pair of eyes. Let us
draw a little from the manuscripts of the Iceland historians. We can
find as reliable and as permanent records of this people, and their
early voyages and discoveries, as we have of the voyages of Columbus,
the warlike achievements of William the Conqueror, or the campaigns of
Napoleon Bonaparte. These records are the “Sagas” or historical writings
of the Icelanders, written soon after the events transpired; and they
are now in existence in the public libraries of Iceland and Denmark.
Some of these are in Latin, some in the old Norse, and some in
Icelandic; and duplicates of some of the more important have been made
by publishing them in _facsimile_, just as they stand on the original
parchment. The most important of these record with a good deal of
minuteness the “Ante-Columbian discovery of America.” Some account of
the early history of this singular people, and particularly a notice of
the early voyages of the Northmen, which I gathered from historical
records here in Iceland, and from the Icelanders themselves while
traveling through the land, will be of interest before speaking of the
present appearance of the country.
Iceland was first discovered by Naddod, a Norwegian pirate, in the
year 860, almost one thousand years ago. He was thrown on the coast
in the winter, and from the appearance of the country, he called it
Snæland, or “Snow-land.” Four years after, Gardar Swarfarson, a Swede,
circumnavigating it, found it an island, and named it “Gardar’s Holm”
or Gardar’s Isle. His account of the country was so favorable, that
Floki, another sea-rover, went there to settle; but neglecting to cut
hay in the summer, his cattle perished in the winter. From the vast
accumulations of ice on the west coast, ice that was driven over from
Greenland, he called the country _Iceland_, a name it has ever since
borne. In 874, the first permanent settlement was made in Iceland, by
Ingolf a Norwegian chieftain. Greenland was discovered in 980, one
hundred and twenty years after the discovery of Iceland. In 982, Eric
surnamed the Red, sailed to Greenland, and, in 986, established a
settlement there which flourished for more than four hundred years.
To induce settlers to go and reside in the new country, the most
fabulous accounts were given of the climate and productions. The face
of the country was represented as clothed in green, and it was even
stated that “every plant dropped butter.” The name of _Greenland_
thus given to it, was as great a misnomer as _Iceland_ applied to
the neighboring isle. In reality, the two countries should change
names for Iceland is a country of green fields and fair flowers,
while Greenland is covered with almost perpetual ice and snow. Eric
the Red had a companion in his Greenland settlement, whose name was
Heriulf. Biarni, the son of Heriulf, sailed from Iceland to join his
father in Greenland, was driven south, and landed on the American
coast—probably Labrador. Thus, the first discovery of America by
Europeans was in the year 986, by Biarni Heriulfson, a native of
Norway, though he sailed from Iceland. He returned north, landed in
Greenland, and gave an account of his discovery. Subsequent voyages
to the American coast, were made by Leif and his two brothers, sons
of Eric the Red, who after the style of names in Iceland were called
Ericsson. I am speaking on good authority in saying that a gifted
Swede, now an American citizen, and most prominent before the world,
is a direct descendant of Eric and his son. I allude to Captain
Ericsson, the inventor of the Caloric ship, a pioneer in American
discovery, and a worthy descendant of the Ericssons, pioneers in the
discovery of America. Another interesting fact may be noted. Among
the early settlers in America—for a settlement was formed, that
continued several years—some of the men had their wives with them.
One of these, the wife of Thorfin, while in America, gave birth to
a son, who was named Snorre. This Snorre Thorfinson, was the first
native-born American of whom we have any account, and may be set down
as the first Yankee on record. From this Thorfinson was descended
Thorwaldsen, and also Finn Magnusen the historian and antiquary, so
that we can almost claim the great sculptor of the North and the
great historian, as Americans. These facts I gathered from Icelandic
genealogical tables; and all who have investigated the history of the
northern nations, know with what accuracy these tables are compiled.
To return a little in my narrative. Leif Ericsson having purchased
the ship of Biarni Heriulfson, sailed from Greenland in the year
1000. The first land he made he called _Helluland_, or “land of broad
flat stones.” This was doubtless the coast of Newfoundland. The next
coast he saw was covered with forest, and consequently he named it
_Markland_, or “Woodland.” This was probably Nova Scotia. The next
land he discovered, still farther south, produced vines and grapes,
and this he named “VINLAND,” a name the Icelanders ever afterwards
used in speaking of the American Continent. We have the best of proof
in their account of the climate and productions, in the length of the
days, as well as in their maps and drawings, that their settlement was
on some part of our New-England coast, probably Massachusetts or Rhode
Island. In subsequent voyages, these adventurous navigators sailed
farther south; and it is supposed from the account they gave, that
they proceeded as far as Virginia and the Carolinas. Timber, furs and
grapes, were the most valuable articles the country produced; and for
these, several voyages were made to Vinland, from Greenland, houses
were built, and settlers resided in the country for at least three
years; from 1011 to 1014. In their intercourse with the Indians, the
Iceland and Greenland adventurers carried on their business about
after the same political code that Raleigh, John Smith, and others,
did afterwards. They first traded with the Indians, then fought them.
They sold them red cloth in strips the width of a finger’s length, and
in return, received their furs and skins. As their cloth grew scarce,
they cut the strips narrower; and finding they could buy just as many
skins for a strip an inch wide, as if it was four inches, they cut it
narrower and narrower, till they got it down to a finger’s breadth.
The Indians bound it about their heads, and were greatly delighted
with its ornamental appearance. Finally the red cloth grew scarce,
and then the Indians gave their furs for soup and other eatables; and
thus,—to use the words of an Iceland historian, they “carried off their
bargains in their bellies.” In the first skirmish that occurred in the
new settlement, the Northmen seemed to get the worst of it, and fled
towards their boats, when Freydisa, daughter of Eric the Red, and wife
of Thorvard, caught up a spear and turned on the Indians, reproaching
her countrymen for their cowardice. By her heroic example, the Indians
were defeated, so we find that the successful issue of the first
battle between Europeans and North American Indians, was owing to
the courage of a woman. Voyages continued to be made to America, from
both Greenland and Iceland, to as late a period as the middle of the
fourteenth century. The last trip of which we have any record, is that
of a vessel sent from Greenland to Markland (Nova Scotia) for timber
and other articles. While returning, it encountered heavy storms,
and was driven into port in the west of Iceland. The old Greenland
settlements continued for a long period, the latest account we possess,
coming down to the year 1484. When they perished, or from what cause,
is unknown. Remains of churches and other buildings are found there to
this day. We now come to one of the most significant facts connected
with the discovery of the American continent. It is doubly proved in
the records of that period, THAT COLUMBUS SAILED TO ICELAND, IN THE
YEAR 1477. An account of this is given by the Iceland historians, and
published in the “Antiquitates Americanæ.” It is also recorded by
Columbus himself, in a work of his “on the five habitable zones of the
earth.” In this book, which is now extremely rare, he says, in the
month of February, 1477, he visited Iceland, “where the sea was not
at that time covered with ice, and which had been resorted to by many
traders from Bristol.” It will be remembered that John and Sebastian
Cabot were both from Bristol. Humboldt, in his “Cosmos,” speaks of this
voyage of Columbus to Iceland, and of the record of it made by the
great navigator himself in his work on the zones. Humboldt also speaks
at considerable length of the early voyages of the Icelanders and
Greenlanders to America; and of all these events he speaks as he does
of other well-established historical facts. So let us hear no more of
the “vague tradition,” the mere “thought” or “belief,” that America was
known to the early navigators of the north. Let it be spoken of as one
of the well-known, and clearly authenticated historical facts in the
history of the world. It takes nothing from the merits and reputation
of Columbus. And what if it did? The reader of history is a seeker
after truth, and most certainly the writer of history should be. During
the visit of Columbus to Iceland, he might have conversed in Latin with
the bishop of Skalholt, or other learned Icelanders, on the subject of
the early voyages of the Northmen to America, but this does not seem
at all probable. Had this been the case, some record or mention of it
would probably have been made, either in the writings of Columbus or of
contemporary historians. Then, too, in his early struggles to obtain
material aid to prosecute his geographical researches, he omitted no
facts or arguments that would be likely to convince the kings and
queens whom he applied to, that his theory of the earth was correct,
and that land would be found by sailing to the west. His first voyage,
too, was for the purpose of finding China or the Indies, and not in
the direction of the Vinland of the Northmen. When he discovered land,
he believed it to be some part of the East Indies; and, to the day of
his death, Columbus never knew that he was the discoverer of a new
continent. One of the oldest of the sagas or historical documents
from which the facts were gathered respecting the early discovery and
settlement of America, was the saga of Eric the Red. The statements
in this and other historical papers, are corroborated in old Iceland
geographies, and also by some European writers, particularly by Adam
of Bremen, a theological writer, nephew of Canute, King of England. He
says that while he was in the north, propagating Christianity, Swein
Ethrithson, King of Denmark, gave him an account of these discoveries.
This was about the year 1070.
If we trace the history of Iceland from its first settlement to
the present time, we shall find that the intelligence, activity,
prosperity, and happiness of the people, and the rise and progress of
the arts and sciences among them, has been exactly proportioned to
the liberal and republican spirit of their government. For fifty-four
years—from the first settlement of Iceland, in 874, to the year
928—it was a Norwegian colony, governed by chiefs. As the population
increased, and the infant settlement waxed strong, difficulties arose
between the rulers and the ruled; and finally the people threw off
their allegiance, framed a constitution, and set up a republican
government, which continued for 333 years. The close of this era was
in the year 1261. All the native historians agree in calling this the
Golden Age of Iceland. During this period Greenland was discovered and
settled, the continent of America was discovered, and an enterprising,
daring, and successful series of voyages was carried on, that eclipsed
the efforts of all previous navigators. Christianity was established
and bishops appointed both in Iceland and Greenland, poetry and history
were cultivated, and a degree of intellectual activity was shown,
beyond that of any country in the north of Europe. Thrown on their
own resources, in a cold and dreary climate, the same causes operated
in raising up a vigorous, moral, and intellectual people, that was
shown in the history of our own Pilgrim Fathers. It was during this
period that the most valuable and important sagas were prepared and
written; papers that show the successful enterprise of the northern
voyagers. “The wonderfully organized free state of Iceland maintained
its independence for three centuries and a half, until civil freedom
was annihilated, and the country became subject to Hakon VI. King of
Norway. The flower of Icelandic literature, its historical records,
and the collection of the sagas and eddas, appertain to the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries.”[1] During these two centuries, their
poets—skalds or minstrels—visited nearly every court in Europe, and
composed and sung their lyrical productions. They were attached to the
suites of kings and princes, attended warriors to the battle field,
and celebrated the exploits of their employers in undying verse.
Instances are recorded, where a king has died, that his praises were
sung so ably by his minstrel that he was installed in his place, and
filled the vacant throne. In the Iceland republic the chief officer
was called the “LAUGMAN,” or administrator of the laws. He was elected
by universal suffrage. Their national assembly or congress was known
as the “ALTHING,” and had both legislative and judiciary powers. The
members were elected by ballot, and when they met formed but one
body, the president, or laugman, presiding over their deliberations.
They assembled in the open air at a place called Thingvalla, and large
numbers of the people gathered round them as spectators. I walked over
the ground, where this primitive congress had met for nearly a thousand
years. It is a raised circle of earth, shaped like an amphitheater,
and now overgrown with grass. On one side was a mound, a little higher
than the rest, where the president sat. Though the powers of the
Althing were greatly abridged at the fall of the republic, yet they
have continued to meet in this house, without a roof, until the year
1800. At that time the Althing was removed to Reykjavik, and has ever
since met in a building. Their sessions are annual, and always held in
the summer. At the end of each session, a journal of their proceedings
and reports of the debates are published in a volume. The Icelanders
have ever regretted, and with good reason, the removal of their
congressional meetings from the primitive location of Thingvalla, to
the town of Reykjavik, where they are surrounded by dissipation and the
corrupting influence of foreign merchants. The scene at Thingvalla, at
the time of my visit, July, 1852, was solitary, quiet, and peaceful.
Oxen, sheep, and horses, were grazing on every side; and the mower was
whetting his scythe and cutting the grass where legislators and grave
judges had assembled and made laws for the people. The scenery is grand
and picturesque. It is directly before the Thingvalla lake, the largest
in Iceland, and surrounded, on the north and east, by lofty mountains.
Thingvalla has thus been the legislative capital of Iceland, until its
final removal to Reykjavik, in the year 1800; though Skalholt—once
the location of a church and a bishop’s see, though now nothing but a
farm—is erroneously given as the capital, in the most of our books of
geography.
Foes within, not enemies without, overthrew the Iceland republic. A
corrupt body of chiefs and rulers sold it to Norway, in the year 1261;
and, one hundred and nineteen years afterwards—in 1380—it was, with that
power, transferred to Denmark; and under the government of that country
it has ever since remained. Until about the year 1490, their maritime
trade was open to all nations, and vessels of every flag were allowed to
take cargoes to Iceland. After that, for three hundred years, the
commerce of the country was either held by the Danish crown or farmed
out to merchants and traders, and often to foreign companies. The only
rule of action in letting out the trade of the country seemed to be, to
dispose of it to the highest bidder. The most of these companies
oppressed and starved the poor Icelanders into compliance with the most
rigorous and exacting measures. As the country produced neither grain,
fruit, coal, nor wood, they were dependent on commerce with foreign
countries for all the luxuries and many of the necessaries of life.
Trade being taken entirely out of the hands of the Icelanders, they
necessarily grew dis-spirited; their ambition was crushed, and, though
ardently attached to their country, they could but mourn over their
unhappy lot. Since 1788, commercial affairs have been on but little
better footing, the trade being entirely in the hands of the Danish
merchants, but not farmed out to a company. The trade, foreign and
domestic, is open to both Danes and Icelanders, but to no others. No
foreign vessels are allowed to visit Iceland for purposes of traffic,
unless they carry coal or timber, or go with cash to buy the products of
the country. As there are no merchants but Danes in all the commercial
towns, foreign traders would never find purchasers for their cargoes of
timber or coal were they to go there.
At this time the legislative powers of Iceland are vested in the
Althing, and presided over by the governor, who is called the
Stifftamptman. This body is composed of twenty-six members, one from
each county or syssel—twenty in number, elected by ballot—and six
appointed by the king. All the members of the Althing must be residents
of the country, but they may be either Danes or Icelanders. When an act
is passed by a majority, it must be sent to Copenhagen for the approval
of the king, and if not signed by him does not become a law. The
Icelanders very naturally desire “free trade,” and wish to have their
ports thrown open to the competition of the world; but the Danish
merchants and ship-owners in Iceland and Denmark, enjoying as they now
do, a monopoly of the commerce, are all opposed to this. In the session
of 1851, the king’s councillors—the six he appointed—prepared a bill,
and introduced it, allowing foreign vessels to trade here, but with the
proviso that they should pay a tonnage duty of about one rix-dollar per
ton. The trade of Iceland being neither extensive nor lucrative, this
would amount to just about a complete prohibition. The other members
nearly all opposed the bill, saying, “Give us free trade or nothing;”
and it never passed the house. The governor was incensed to see the will
of his royal master thwarted; and like some governors in our old
colonial times, he dissolved the Althing, and they broke up in a grand
row. It was adjourned over for two years, to meet again in 1853. The
friends of free and unrestricted trade, in Iceland, are in hopes of
having a law passed before many years, opening their ports to the ships
of all nations alike. The “Stifftamptman” or governor is appointed by
the king, and holds his office during the pleasure of His Majesty. He is
usually a Danish nobleman, and receives a salary of 3,000 rix-dollars a
year, which is paid by the Danish government. There are three amptmen or
deputy governors, residing in the northern, southern, and eastern
quarters of the island. The Stifftamptman, residing in the west, renders
a fourth amptman unnecessary. The governor presides at all sessions of
the Althing, manages all state affairs, presides over the post-office
department, and carrying the mails, and is in every respect the head of
the state, without a cabinet or advisers. There is a treasurer—or
landfoged, as he is termed—who is also appointed by the crown, and
receives a salary of 2,000 rix-dollars a year. The public funds are kept
in an iron chest in the governor’s house, under the protection of a
double lock and two keys, one of which is kept by the governor and the
other by the treasurer. Both of these are necessary to open the chest.
The principal officer in each county, or syssel, is called the
sysselman, and is elected by the people. The sysselman is both sheriff
and magistrate; and all suits at law in his syssel are tried before him,
an appeal being allowed to the Supreme Court at Reykjavik. The Supreme
Court is presided over by the chief justice, who is appointed by the
crown, and holds his office permanently. The sysselman, in their
respective syssels, call all public meetings, convene elections, and
preserve order. In the useful arts, so far as their productions and
circumstances will allow, and in moral and religious improvement,
Iceland has kept pace with the world. Printing was introduced in the
year 1530; and the Reformation, which had been going on in Europe for
some time, extended to Iceland in 1551. The Roman Catholic Church at
this time, the established religion of the country, had become so
corrupt, that the last Catholic bishop and his two illegitimate sons
were beheaded for murder and other crimes. Since then to the present
day, the religion of the country has been Lutheran, and there is said to
be not one person residing in Iceland except Protestants. Such is a
slight sketch of the settlement and progress of this isolated country.
FOOTNOTES:
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Footnote 1:
Humboldt’s Cosmos.