Implements of Great Britain_, p. 512; Report on the Cave, _Phil. Trans._
(Royal Society, 1873).
BRIXTON, a district in the south of London, England, included in the
metropolitan borough of Lambeth (_q.v._).
BRIZEUX, JULIEN AUGUSTE PÉLAGE (1803-1858), French poet, was born at
Lorient (Morbihan) on the 12th of September 1803. He belonged to a family
of Irish origin, long settled in Brittany, and was educated for the law,
but in 1827 he produced at the Théâtre Français a one-act verse comedy,
_Racine_, in collaboration with Philippe Busoni. A journey to Italy in
company with Auguste Barbier made a great impression on him, and a second
visit (1834) resulted in 1841 in the publication of a complete translation
of the _Divina Commedia_ in _terza rima_. With _Primel el Nola_ (1852) he
included poems written under Italian influence, entitled _Les Ternaires_
(1841), but in the rustic idyl of _Marie_ (1836) turned to Breton country
life; in _Les Bretons_ (1845) he found his inspiration in the folklore and
legends of his native province, and in _Telen-Aroor_ (1844) he used the
Breton dialect. His _Histoires poétiques_ (1855) was crowned by the French
Academy. His work is small in bulk, but is characterized by simplicity and
sincerity. Brizeux was an ardent student of the philology and archaeology
of Brittany, and had collected materials for a dictionary of Breton
place-names He died at Montpellier on the 3rd of May 1858.
His _Oeuvres complètes_ (2 vols., 1860) were edited with a notice of the
author by Saint-René Taillandier. Another edition appeared in 1880-1884 (4
vols.). A long list of articles on his work may be consulted in an
exhaustive monograph, _Brizeux; sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1898), by the abbé
C. Lecigne.
BRIZO, an ancient goddess worshipped in Delos. She delivered oracles in
dreams to those who consulted her about fishery and seafaring. The women of
Delos offered her presents consisting of little boats filled with all kinds
of eatables (with the exception of [v.04 p.0620] fish) in order to obtain
her protection for those engaged on the sea (Athenaeus viii. p. 335).
BROACH, or BHARUCH, an ancient city and modern district of British India,
in the northern division of Bombay. The city is on the right bank of the
Nerbudda, about 30 m. from the sea, and 203 m. N. of Bombay. The area,
including suburbs, occupies 2-1/6 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 42,896. The sea-borne
trade is confined to a few coasting vessels. Handloom-weaving is almost
extinct, but several cotton mills have been opened. There are also large
flour-mills. Broach is the Barakacheva of the Chinese traveller Hsüan Tsang
and the Barygaza of Ptolemy and Arrian. Upon the conquest of Gujarat by the
Mahommedans, and the formation of the state of that name, Broach formed
part of the new kingdom. On its overthrow by Akbar in 1572, it was annexed
to the Mogul empire and governed by a Nawab. The Mahrattas became its
masters in 1685, from which period it was held in subordination to the
peshwa until 1772, when it was captured by a force under General Wedderburn
(brother to Lord Loughborough), who was killed in the assault. In 1783 it
was ceded by the British to Sindhia in acknowledgment of certain services.
It was stormed in 1803 by a detachment commanded by Colonel Woodington, and
was finally ceded to the East India Company by Sindhia under the treaty of
Sarji Anjangaom.
The DISTRICT OF BROACH contains an area of 1467 sq. m. Consisting chiefly
of the alluvial plain at the mouth of the river Nerbudda, the land is rich
and highly cultivated, and though it is without forests it is not wanting
in trees. The district is well supplied with rivers, having in addition to
the Nerbudda the Mahi in the north and the Kim in the south. The population
comprises several distinct races or castes, who, while speaking a common
dialect, Gujarati, inhabit separate villages. Thus there are Koli, Kunbi or
Voro (Bora) villages, and others whose lands are almost entirely held and
cultivated by high castes, such as Rajputs, Brahmans or Parsees. In 1901
the population was 291,763, showing a decrease of 15%, compared with an
increase of 5% in the preceding decade. The principal crops are cotton,
millet, wheat and pulse. Dealing in cotton is the chief industry, the
dealers being organized in a gild. Besides the cotton mills in Broach city
there are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton, some of them
on a very large scale. The district is traversed throughout its length by
the Bombay & Baroda railway, which crosses the Nerbudda opposite Broach
city on an iron-girder bridge of 67 spans. The district suffered severely
from the famine of 1899-1900.
BROACH (Fr. _broche_, a pointed instrument, Med. Lat. _brocca_, cf. the
Latin adjective _brochus_ or _broccus_, projecting, used of teeth), a word,
of which the doublet "brooch" (_q.v._) has a special meaning, for many
forms of pointed instruments, such as a bodkin, a wooden needle used in
tapestry-making, a spit for roasting meat, and a tool, also called a
"rimer," used with a wrench for enlarging or smoothing holes (see TOOL).
From the use of a similar instrument to tap casks, comes "to broach" or
"tap" a cask. A particular use in architecture is that of "broach-spire," a
term employed to designate a particular form of spire, found only in
England, which takes its name from the stone roof of the lower portion. The
stone spire being octagonal and the tower square on plan, there remained
four angles to be covered over. This was done with a stone roof of slight
pitch, compared with that of the spire, and it is the intersection of this
roof with the octagonal faces of the spire which forms the broach.
BROADSIDE, sometimes termed BROADSHEET, a single sheet of paper containing
printed matter on one side only. The broadside seems to have been employed
from the very beginning of printing for royal proclamations, papal
indulgences and similar documents. England appears to have been its chief
home, where it was used chiefly for ballads, particularly in the 16th
century, but also as a means of political agitation and for personal
statements of all kinds, especially for the dissemination of the dying
speeches and confessions of criminals. It is prominent in the history of
literature because, particularly during the later part of the 17th century,
several important poems, by Dryden, Butler and others, originally appeared
printed on the "broad side" of a sheet. The term is also used of the
simultaneous discharge of the guns on one side of a ship of war.
BROADSTAIRS, a watering-place, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 3 m. S.E. of Margate, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. of urban district, Broadstairs and St Peter's (1901) 6466.
From 1837 to 1851 Broadstairs was a favourite summer resort of Charles
Dickens, who, in a sketch called "Our English Watering-Place," described it
as a place "left high and dry by the tide of years." This seaside village,
with its "semicircular sweep of houses," grew into a considerable town
owing to the influx of summer visitors, for whose entertainment there are,
besides the "Albion" mentioned by Dickens, numerous hotels and
boarding-houses, libraries, a bathing establishment and a fine promenade.
Dickens' residence was called Fort House, but it became known as Bleak
House, through association with his novel of that name, though this was
written after his last visit to Broadstairs in 1851. Broadstairs has a
small pier for fishing-boats, first built in the reign of Henry VIII. An
archway leading down to the shore bears an inscription showing that it was
erected by George Culmer in 1540, and not far off is the site of a chapel
of the Virgin, to which ships were accustomed to lower their top-sails as
they passed. St Peter's parish, lying on the landward side of Broadstairs,
and included in the urban district, has a church dating from the 12th to
the end of the 16th century. Kingsgate, on the North Foreland, north of
Broadstairs on the coast, changed its name from St Bartholomew's Gate in
honour of Charles II.'s landing here with the duke of York in 1683 on his
way from London to Dover. Stonehouse, close by, now a preparatory school
for boys, was the residence of Archbishop Tait, whose wife established the
orphanage here.
BROCA, PAUL (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthropologist, was born at
Sainte-Foy la Grande, Gironde, on the 28th of June 1824. He early developed
a taste for higher mathematics, but circumstances decided him in adopting
medicine as his profession. Beginning his studies at Paris in 1841, he made
rapid progress, becoming house-surgeon in 1844, assistant anatomical
lecturer in 1846, and three years later professor of surgical anatomy. He
had already gained a reputation by his pathological researches. In 1853 he
was named fellow of the Faculty of Medicine, and in 1867 became member of
the Academy of Medicine and professor of surgical pathology to the Faculty.
During the years occupied in winning his way to the head of his profession
he had published treatises of much value on cancer, aneurism and other
subjects. It was in 1861 that he announced his discovery of the seat of
articulate speech in the left side of the frontal region of the brain,
since known as the convolution of Broca. But famous as he was as a surgeon,
his name is associated most closely with the modern school of anthropology.
Establishing the Anthropological Society of Paris in 1859, of which he was
secretary till his death, he was practically the inventor of the modern
science of craniology. He rendered distinguished service in the
Franco-German War, and during the Commune by his organization and
administration of the public hospitals. He founded _La Revue
d'Anthropologie_ in 1872, and it was in its pages that the larger portion
of his writings appeared. In his last years Broca turned from his labours
in the region of craniology to the exclusive study of the brain, in which
his greatest triumphs were achieved (see APHASIA). He was decorated with
the Legion of Honour in 1868, and was honorary fellow of the leading
anatomical, biological and anthropological societies of the world. He died
on the 9th of July 1880. A statue of him by Choppin was erected in 1887 in
front of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris.
BROCADE, the name usually given to a class of richly decorative
shuttle-woven fabrics, often made in coloured silks and with or without
gold and silver threads. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and
wrought as additions to the main fabric, sometimes stiffening it, though
more frequently producing on its face the effect of low relief. These
additions present a distinctive appearance on the back of the stuff where
[v.04 p.0621] the weft or floating threads of the brocaded or broached
parts hang in loose groups or are clipped away.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Brocade woven in red and olive green silks and gold
thread on a cream-coloured ground. Along the top is the Kufic inscription
"Arrahm[=a]n" (The Merciful) several times repeated in olive green on a
gold-thread ground. Pairs of seated animals, _addorsed regardant_ and geese
_vis-à-vis_ are worked within the lozenge-shaped compartments of the
trellis framework which regulates the pattern. Both animals and birds are
separated by conventional trees, and the latter are enclosed in
inscriptions of Kufic characters. _Siculo-Saracenic_; 11th or 12th century.
5½ in. sq.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Part of a Siculo-Saracenic brocade woven in the
12th century. l6½ in. wide.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Piece of stuff woven or brocaded with red silk and
gold thread, with an ogival framing enclosing alternately, pairs of
parrots, _addorsed regardant_, and a well-known Persian (or Sassanian)
leaf-shaped fruit device. Probably of Rhenish-Byzantine manufacture in the
12th or 13th century. 9 in. long.]
The Latin word _broccus_ is related equally to the Italian _brocato_, the
Spanish _brocar_ and the French _brocarts_ and _brocher_, and implies a
form of stitching or broaching, so that textile fabrics woven with an
appearance of stitching or broaching have consequently come to be termed
"brocades." A Spanish document dated 1375 distinguishes between _los draps
d'or é d'argent o de seda_ and _brocats d'or é d'argent_, a difference
which is readily perceived, upon comparing for instance cloths of gold,
Indian kincobs, with Lyons silks that are _brochés_ with threads of gold,
silk or other material. Notwithstanding this, many Indian kincobs and
dainty gold and coloured silk-weavings of Persian workmanship, both without
floating threads, are often called brocades, although in neither is the
ornamentation really _broché_ or brocaded. Contemporary in use with the
Spanish _brocats_ is the word _brocado_. In addition to _brocarts_ the
French now use the word _brocher_ in connexion with certain silk stuffs
which however are not brocades in the same sense as the _brocarts_. A
wardrobe account of King Edward IV. (1480) has an entry of "satyn broched
with gold"--a description that fairly applies to such an enriched satin as
that for instance shown in fig. 4. But some three centuries earlier than
the date of that specimen, decorative stuffs were partly _brochés_ with
gold threads by oriental weavers, especially those of Persia, Syria and
parts of southern Europe and northern Africa under the domination of the
Saracens, to whom the earlier germs, so to speak, of brocading may be
traced. Of such is the 11th or 12th century Siculo-Saracenic specimen in
fig. 1, in which the heads only of the pairs of animals and birds are
broched with gold thread. Another sort of brocaded material is indicated in
fig. 2, taken from a part of a sumptuous Siculo-Saracenic weaving produced
in coloured silks and gold threads at the famous Hotel des Tiraz in Palermo
for an official robe of Henry IV. (1165-1197) as emperor of the Holy Roman
Empire, and still preserved in the cathedral of Regensburg. Fig. 3 is a
further variety of textile that would be classed as _brocat_. This is of
the 12th or 13th century manufacture, possibly by German or
Rhenish-Byzantine weavers, or even by Spanish weavers, many of whom at
Almeria, Malaga, Grenada and Seville rivalled those at Palermo. In the 14th
century the making of satins heavily brocaded with gold threads was
associated conspicuously with such Italian towns as Lucca, Genoa, Venice
and Florence. Fig. 4 is from a piece of 14th-century dark-blue satin
broached in relief with gold thread in a design the like of which appears
in the background of Orcagna's "Coronation of the Virgin," now in the
National Gallery, London. During the 17th century Genoa, Florence and Lyons
vied with each other in making brocades in which the enrichments were as
frequently of coloured silks as of gold intermixed with silken threads.
Fig. 5 is from a piece of crimson silk damask flatly brocaded with flowers,
scroll forms, fruit and birds in gold. This is probably of Florentine
workmanship. Rather more closely allied to modern brocades is the Lyons
specimen given in fig. 6, in which the brocading is done not only with
silver but also with coloured silks. Early in the 18th century Spitalfields
was busy as a competitor with Lyons in manufacturing many sorts of
brocades, specified in a collection of designs preserved in the national
art library of the Victoria and [v.04 p.0622] Albert Museum, under such
trade titles as "brocade lutstring, brocade tabby, brocade tissue, brocade
damask, brocade satin, Venetian brocade, and India figured brocade."
Brocading in China seems to be of considerable antiquity, and Dr Bushell in
his valuable handbook on Chinese art cites a notice of five rolls of
brocade with dragons woven upon a crimson ground, presented by the emperor
Ming Ti of the Wei dynasty, in the year A.D. 238, to the reigning empress
of Japan; and varieties of brocade patterns are recorded as being in use
during the Sung dynasty (960-1279). The first edition of an illustrated
work upon tillage and weaving was published in China in 1210, and contains
an engraving of a loom constructed to weave flowered-silk brocades such as
are woven at the present time at Suchow and Hangchow and elsewhere. On the
other hand, although they are described usually as brocades, certain
specimens of imperial Chinese robes sumptuous in ornament, sheen of
coloured silks and the glisten of golden threads, are woven in the
tapestry-weaving manner and without any floating threads. It seems
reasonable to infer that Persians and Syrians derived the art of weaving
brocades from the Chinese, and as has been indicated, passed it on to
Saracens as well as Europeans.
(A. S. C.)
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Piece of blue satin brocaded with gold threads. The
unit of the pattern is a symmetrical arrangement of fantastic birds, vine
leaves and curving stems. The bird shapes are remotely related to, if not
derived from, the Chinese mystical "fonghoang." North Italian weaving of
the 14th century; about 11 in. square.]
Illustration: FIG. 5.--Piece of crimson silk damask brocaded in gold thread
with symmetrically arranged flowers, scrolls, birds, &c. Italian
(?Florentine). Late 17th century; about 2 ft. 6 in. long.]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Piece of pink silk brocaded in silver and white and
coloured silks. French middle 18th century; about 15 in. square.]
BROCCHI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1772-1826), Italian mineralogist and geologist,
was born at Bassano on the 18th of February 1772. He studied at the
university of Pisa, where his attention was turned to mineralogy and
botany. In 1802 he was appointed professor of botany in the new lyceum of
Brescia; but he more especially devoted himself to geological researches in
the adjacent districts. The fruits of these labours appeared in different
publications, particularly in his _Trattato mineralogico e chemico sulle
miniere di ferro del dipartimento del Mella_ (1808)--treatise on the iron
mines of Mella. These researches procured him the office of inspector of
mines in the recently established kingdom of Italy, and enabled him to
extend his investigations over great part of the country. In 1811 he
produced a valuable essay entitled _Memoria mineralogica sulla Valle di
Fassa in Tirolo_; but his most important work is the _Conchiologia fossile
subapennina con osservazioni geologiche sugli Apennini, e sul suolo
adiacente_ (2 vols., 4to, Milan, 1814), containing accurate details of the
structure of the Apennine range, and an account of the fossils of the
Italian Tertiary strata compared with existing species. These subjects were
further illustrated by his geognostic map, and his _Catalogo ragionato di
una raccolta di rocce, disposto con ordine geografico, per servire alla
geognosia dell' Italia_ (Milan, 1817). His work _Dello stato fisico del
suolo di Roma_ (1820), with its accompanying map, is likewise noteworthy.
In it he corrected the erroneous views of Breislak, who conceived that Rome
occupies the site of a volcano, to which he ascribed the volcanic materials
that cover the seven hills. Brocchi pointed out that these materials were
derived either from Mont Albano, [v.04 p.0623] an extinct volcano, 12 m.
from the city, or from Mont Cimini, still farther to the north. Several
papers by him, on mineralogical subjects, appeared in the _Biblioteca
Italiana_ from 1816 to 1823. In the latter year Brocchi sailed for Egypt,
in order to explore the geology of that country and report on its mineral
resources. Every facility was granted by Mehemet Ali, who in 1823 appointed
him one of a commission to examine the district of Sennaar; but Brocchi,
unfortunately for science, fell a victim to the climate, and died at
Khartum on the 25th of September 1826.
BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, ANDRÉ JEAN FRANÇOIS MARIE (1772-1840), French
mineralogist and geologist, was born at Villiers, near Nantes, on the 6th
of August 1772. After studying at the École Polytechnique, he was in 1794
the first pupil admitted to the École des Mines. In 1804 he was appointed
professor of geology and mineralogy in the École des Mines, which had been
temporarily transferred to Pezay in Savoy, and he returned with the school
to Paris in 1815. Later on he became inspector general of mines and a
member of the Academy of Sciences. He investigated the transition strata of
the Tarantaise, wrote on the position of the granite rocks of Mont Blanc,
and on the lead minerals of Derbyshire and Cumberland. He was charged with
the superintendence of the construction of the geological map of France,
undertaken by his pupils Dufrénoy and Elie de Beaumont. He died in Paris on
the 16th of May 1840. His publications include _Traité élémentaire de
minéralogie_ (2 vols., 1801-1802; 2nd ed., 1808), and _Traité abrégé de
cristallographie_ (Paris, 1818).
[Illustration]
BROCHANTITE, a mineral species consisting of a basic copper sulphate
Cu_4(OH)_6SO_4, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. The crystals are
usually small and are prismatic or acicular in habit; they have a perfect
cleavage parallel to the face lettered a in the adjoining figure. They are
transparent to translucent, with a vitreous lustre, and are of an
emerald-green to blackish-green colour. Specific gravity 3.907; hardness
3½-4. The mineral was first found associated with malachite and native
copper in the copper mines of the Urals, and was named by A. Lévy in 1824
after A.J.M. Brochant de Villiers. Several varieties, differing somewhat in
crystalline form, have been distinguished, some of them having originally
been described as distinct species, but afterwards proved to be essentially
identical with brochantite; these are königine from the Urals,
brongniartine from Mexico, krisuvigite from Iceland, and warringtonite from
Cornwall. Of other localities, mention may be made of Roughten Gill,
Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where small brilliant crystals are associated
with malachite and chrysocolla in a quartzose rock; Rézbánya in the Bihar
Mountains, Hungary; Atacama in Chile, with atacamite, which closely
resembles brochantite in general appearance; the Tintic district in Utah. A
microscopical examination of the green copper ores of secondary origin in
the Clifton and Morenci district of Arizona proves brochantite to be of
extremely common occurrence mostly intergrown with malachite which
effectually masks its presence: it is not unlikely that the malachite of
other localities will on examination be found to be intergrown with
brochantite.
Mention may be here made of another orthorhombic basic copper sulphate not
unlike brochantite in general characters, but differing from it in
containing water of crystallization and in its fine blue colour; this is
the Cornish mineral langite, which has the composition
CuSO_4·3Cu(OH)_2+H_2O.
(L. J. S.)
BROCK, SIR ISAAC (1769-1812), British soldier and administrator, was born
at St Peter Port, Guernsey, on the 6th of October 1769. Joining the army at
the age of fifteen as an ensign of the 8th regiment, he became a
lieutenant-colonel in 1797, after less than thirteen years' service. He
commanded the 49th regiment in the expedition to North Holland in 1799, was
wounded at the battle of Egmont-op-Zee, and subsequently served on board
the British fleet at the battle of Copenhagen. From 1802 to 1805 he was
with his regiment in Canada, returning thither in 1806 in view of the
imminence of war between Great Britain and the United States. From
September 1806 till August 1810 he was in charge of the garrison at Quebec;
in the latter year he assumed the command of the troops in Upper Canada,
and soon afterwards took over the civil administration of that province as
provisional lieutenant-governor. On the outbreak of the war of 1812 Brock
had to defend Upper Canada against invasion by the United States. In the
face of many difficulties and not a little disaffection, he organized the
militia of the province, drove back the invaders, and on the 16th of August
1812, with about 730 men and 600 Indians commanded by their chief Tecumseh,
compelled the American force of 2500 men under General William Hull
(1753-1825) to surrender at Detroit, an achievement which gained him a
knighthood of the Bath and the popular title of "the hero of Upper Canada"
From Detroit he hurried to the Niagara frontier, but on the 13th of October
in the same year was killed at the battle of Queenston Heights. The House
of Commons voted a public monument to his memory, which was erected in
Saint Paul's cathedral, London. On the 13th of October 1824, the twelfth
anniversary of his death, his remains were removed from the bastions of
Fort George, where they had been originally interred, and placed beneath a
monument on Queenston Heights, erected by the provincial legislature. This
was blown up by a fanatic in 1840, but as the result of a mass-meeting of
over 8000 citizens held on the spot, a new and more stately monument was
erected.
His _Life and Correspondence_ by his nephew, Ferdinand Brock Tupper (2nd
edition, London, 1847), still remains the best; later lives are by D.R.
Read (Toronto, 1894), and by Lady Edgar (Toronto and London,1905).
(W. L. G.)
BROCK, THOMAS (1847- ), English sculptor, was the chief pupil of Foley, and
later became influenced by the new romantic movement. His group "The Moment
of Peril" was followed by "The Genius of Poetry," "Eve," and other ideal
works that mark his development. His busts, such as those of Lord Leighton
and Queen Victoria; his statues, such as "Sir Richard Owen" and "Dr
Philpott, bishop of Worcester"; his sepulchral monuments, such as that to
Lord Leighton in St Paul's cathedral, a work of singular significance,
refinement and beauty; and his memorial statues of Queen Victoria, at Hove
and elsewhere, are examples of his power as a portraitist, sympathetic in
feeling, sound and restrained in execution, and dignified and decorative in
arrangement. The colossal equestrian statue of "Edward the Black Prince"
was set up in the City Square in Leeds in 1901, the year in which the
sculptor was awarded the commission to execute the vast Imperial Memorial
to Queen Victoria in front of Buckingham Palace. Brock was elected an
associate of the Royal Academy in 1883 and full member in 1891.
BROCKEN, a mountain of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, the highest point (3733
ft.) of the Harz. It is a huge, bare, granite-strewn, dome-shaped mass and,
owing to its being the greatest elevation in north Germany, commands
magnificent views in all directions. From it Magdeburg and the Elbe, the
towers of Leipzig and the Thuringian forest are distinctly visible in clear
weather. Access to the summit is attained by a mountain railway (12 m.)
from Dreiannen-Hohne, a station on the normal gauge line
Wernigerode-Nordhausen, and by two carriage roads from the Bodetal and
Ilsenburg respectively. In the folklore of north Germany the Brocken holds
an important place, and to it cling many legends. Long after Christianity
had penetrated to these regions, the Brocken remained a place of heathen
worship. Annually, on Walpurgis night (1st of May), curious rites were here
enacted, which, condemned by the priests of the Christian church, led to
the belief that the devil and witches here held their orgies. Even to this
day, this superstition possesses the minds of many country people around,
who believe the mountain to be haunted on this night. In literature [v.04
p.0624] it is represented by the famous "Brocken scene" in Goethe's
_Faust_.
See Jacobs, _Der Brocken in Geschichte und Sage_ (Halle, 1878); and Pröhle,
_Brockensagen_ (Magdeburg, 1888).
BROCKEN, SPECTRE OF THE (so named from having been first observed in 1780
on the Brocken), an enormously magnified shadow of an observer cast upon a
bank of cloud when the sun is low in high mountain regions, reproducing
every motion of the observer in the form of a gigantic but misty image of
himself.
BROCKES, BARTHOLD HEINRICH (1680-1747), German poet, was born at Hamburg on
the 22nd of September 1680. He studied jurisprudence at Halle, and after
extensive travels in Italy, France and Holland, settled in his native town
in 1704. In 1720 he was appointed a member of the Hamburg senate, and
entrusted with several important offices. Six years (from 1735 to 1741) he
spent as _Amtmann_ (magistrate) at Ritzebtütel. He died in Hamburg on the
16th of January 1747. Brockes' poetic works were published in a series of
nine volumes under the fantastic title _Irdisches Vergnügen in Gott_
(1721-1748); he also translated Marini's _La Strage degli innocenti_
(1715), Pope's _Essay on Man_ (1740) and Thomson's _Seasons_ (1745). His
poetry has small intrinsic value, but it is symptomatic of the change which
came over German literature at the beginning of the 18th century. He was
one of the first German poets to substitute for the bombastic imitations of
Marini, to which he himself had begun by contributing, a clear and simple
diction. He was also a pioneer in directing the attention of his countrymen
to the new poetry of nature which originated in England. His verses,
artificial and crude as they often are, express a reverential attitude
towards nature and a religious interpretation of natural phenomena which
was new to German poetry and prepared the way for Klopstock.
Brockes' autobiography was published by J.M. Lappenberg in the _Zeitschrift
des Vereins für Hamburger Geschichte,_ ii. pp. 167 ff. (1847). See also A.
Brandl, _B. H. Brockes_ (1878), and D.F. Strauss, _Brockes und H.S.
Reimarus_ (_Gesammelte Schriften_, ii.). A short selection of his poetry
will be found in vol. 39 (1883) of Kürschner's _Deutsche
Nationalliteratur_.
BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD (1772-1823), German publisher, was born at
Dortmund, on the 4th of May 1772. He was educated at the gymnasium of his
native place, and from 1788 to 1793 served an apprenticeship in a
mercantile house at Düsseldorf. He then devoted two years at Leipzig to the
study of modern languages and literature, after which he set up at Dortmund
an emporium for English goods. In 1801 he transferred this business to
Arnheim, and in the following year to Amsterdam. In 1805, having given up
his first line of trade, he began business as a publisher. Two journals
projected by him were not allowed by the government to survive for any
length of time, and in 1810 the complications in the affairs of Holland
induced him to return homewards. In 1811 he settled at Altenburg. About
three years previously he had purchased the copyright of the
_Konversations-Lexikon_, started in 1796, and in 1810-1811 he completed the
first edition of this celebrated work (14th ed. 1901-4). A second edition
under his own editorship was begun in 1812, and was received with universal
favour. His business extended rapidly, and in 1818 Brockhaus removed to
Leipzig, where he established a large printing-house. Among the more
extensive of his many literary undertakings were the critical
periodicals--_Hermes_, the _Literarisches Konversationsblatt_ (afterwards
the _Blätter für literarische Unterhaltung_), and the _Zeitgenossen_, and
some large historical and bibliographical works, such as Raumer's
_Geschichte der Hohenstaufen_, and Ebert's _Allgemeines bibliographisches
Lexikon_. F.A. Brockhaus died at Leipzig on the 20th of August 1823. The
business was carried on by his sons, Friedrich Brockhaus (1800-1865) who
retired in 1850, and Heinrich Brockhaus (1804-1874), under whom it was
considerably extended. The latter especially rendered great services to
literature and science, which the university of Jena recognized by making
him, in 1858, honorary doctor of philosophy. In the years 1842-1848,
Heinrich Brockhaus was member of the Saxon second chamber, as
representative for Leipzig, was made honorary citizen of that city in 1872,
and died there on the 15th of November 1874.
See H. E. Brockhaus, _Friedrich A. Brockhaus, sein Leben und Wirken nach
Briefen und andern Aufzeichnungen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1872-1881); also by
the same author, _Die Firma F. A. Brockhaus von der Begrundung bis zum
hundertjahrigen Jubilaum_ (1805-1905, Leipzig, 1905).
Another of Friedrich's sons, HERMANN BROCKHAUS (1806-1877), German
Orientalist, was born at Amsterdam on the 28th of January 1806. While his
two brothers carried on the business he devoted himself to an academic
career. He was appointed extraordinary professor in Jena in 1838, and in
1841 received a call in a similar capacity to Leipzig, where in 1848 he was
made ordinary professor of ancient Semitic. He died at Leipzig on the 5th
of January 1877. Brockhaus was an Oriental scholar in the old sense of the
word, devoting his attention, not to one language only, but to acquiring a
familiarity with the principal languages and literature of the East. He
studied Hebrew, Arabic and Persian, and was able to lecture on Sanskrit,
afterwards his specialty, Pali, Zend and even on Chinese. His most
important work was the _editio princeps_ of the _Katha-sarit-sagara_, "The
Ocean of the Streams of Story," the large collection of Sanskrit stories
made by Soma Deva in the 12th century. By this publication he gave the
first impetus to a really scientific study of the origin and spreading of
popular tales, and enabled Prof. Benfey and others to trace the great bulk
of Eastern and Western stories to an Indian, and more especially to a
Buddhistic source. Among Prof. Brockhaus's other publications were his
edition of the curious philosophical play _Prabodhachandrodaya_, "The Rise
of the Moon of Intelligence," his critical edition of the "Songs of Hafiz,"
and his publication in Latin letters of the text of the "Zend-Avesta."
BROCKLESBY, RICHARD (1722-1797), English physician, was born at Minehead,
Somersetshire, on the 11th of August 1722. He was educated at Ballitore, in
Ireland, where Edmund Burke was one of his schoolfellows, studied medicine
at Edinburgh, and finally graduated at Leiden in 1745. Appointed physician
to the army in 1758, he served in Germany during part of the Seven Years'
War, and on his return settled down to practise in London. In 1764 he
published _Economical and Medical Observations_, which contained
suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. In his latter
years he withdrew altogether into private life. The circle of his friends
included some of the most distinguished literary men of the age. He was
warmly attached to Dr Johnson, to whom about 1784 he offered an annuity of
£100 for life, and whom he attended on his death-bed, while in 1788 he
presented Burke, of whom he was an intimate friend, with £1000, and offered
to repeat the gift "every year until your merit is rewarded as it ought to
be at court." He died on the 11th of December 1797, leaving his house and
part of his fortune to his grand-nephew, Dr Thomas Young.
BROCKTON, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20 m. S.
of Boston, and containing an area of 21 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop.
(1870) 8007; (1880)13,608; (1890) 27,294; (1900) 40,063, of whom 9484 were
foreign-born, including 2667 Irish, 2199 English Canadians and 1973 Swedes;
(1910, census) 56,878. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railway. Brockton has a public library, with 54,000 volumes, in 1908. By
popular vote, beginning in 1886 (except in 1898), the liquor traffic was
prohibited annually. The death-rate, 13.18 in 1907, is very low for a
manufacturing city of its size. Brockton is the industrial centre of a
large population surrounding it (East and West Bridgewater, North Easton,
Avon, Randolph, Holbrook and Whitman), and is an important manufacturing
place. Both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked first among the cities of the
United States in the manufacture of boots and shoes. The city's total
factory product in 1900 was valued at $24,855,362, and in 1905 at
$37,790,982, an increase during the five years of 52%. The boot and shoe
product in 1905 was valued at $30,073,014 (9.4% of the value of the total
boot and shoe product of the United States), the boot [v.04 p.0625] and
shoe cut stock at $1,344,977, and the boot and shoe findings at
$2,435,137--the three combined representing 89.6% of the city's total
manufactured product. In 1908 there were 35 shoe factories, including the
W.L. Douglas, the Ralston, the Walkover, the Eaton, the Keith and the
Packard establishments, and, in 1905, 14,000,000 (in 1907 about 17,000,000)
pairs of shoes were produced in the city. Among the other products are
lasts, blacking, paper and wooden packing boxes, nails and spikes, and shoe
fittings and tools. The assessed valuation of the city rose from $6,876,427
in 1881 to $37,408,332 in 1907. Brockton was a part of Bridgewater until
1821, when it was incorporated as the township of North Bridgewater. Its
present name was adopted in 1874, and it was chartered as a city in 1881.
Brockton was the first city in Massachusetts to abolish all grade crossings
(1896) within its limits.
BROCKVILLE, a town and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and capital of
Leeds county, named after General Sir Isaac Brock, situated 119 m. S.W. of
Montreal, on the left bank of the St Lawrence, and on the Grand Trunk, and
Brockville & Westport railways. A branch line connects it with the Canadian
Pacific. It has steamer communication with the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario
ports, and is a summer resort. The principal manufactures are hardware,
furnaces, agricultural implements, carriages and chemicals. It is the
centre of one of the chief dairy districts of Canada, and ships large
quantities of cheese and butter. Pop. (1881) 7609; (1901) 8940.
BROD, a town of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Pozega, on the left bank
of the river Save, 124 m. by rail S.E. by E. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 7310.
The principal Bosnian railway here crosses the river, to meet the Hungarian
system. Brod has thus a considerable transit trade, especially in cereals,
wine, spirits, prunes and wood. It is sometimes called Slavonisch-Brod, to
distinguish it from Bosna-Brod, or Bosnisch-Brod, across the river. The
town owes its name to a ford (Servian _brod_) of the Save, and dates at
least from the 15th century. Brod was frequently captured and recaptured in
the wars between Turkey and Austria; and it was here that the Austrian army
mustered, in 1879, for the occupation of Bosnia.
BRODERIP, WILLIAM JOHN (1789-1859), English naturalist, was born in Bristol
on the 21st of November 1789. After graduating at Oxford he was called to
the bar in 1817, and for some years was engaged in law-reporting. In 1822
he was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate, and filled that office
until 1856, first at the Thames police court and then at Westminster. His
leisure was devoted to natural history, and his writings did much to
further the study of zoology in England. The zoological articles in the
_Penny Cyclopaedia_ were written by him, and a series of articles
contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_ were reprinted in 1848 as _Zoological
Recreations_, and were followed in 1852 by _Leaves from the Note-book of a
Naturalist_. He was one of the founders of the Zoological Society of
London, and a large collection of shells which he formed was ultimately
bought by the British Museum. He died in London on the 27th of February
1859.
BRODHEAD, JOHN ROMEYN (1814-1873), American historical scholar, was born in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of January 1814, the son of Jacob
Brodhead (1782-1855), a prominent clergyman of the Dutch Reformed Church.
He graduated at Rutgers College in 1831, and in 1835 was admitted to the
bar in New York City. After 1837, however, he devoted himself principally
to the study of American colonial history, and in order to have access to
the records of the early Dutch settlements in America he obtained in 1839
an appointment as attaché of the American legation at the Hague. His
investigations here soon proved that the Dutch archives were rich in
material on the early history of New York, and led the state legislature to
appropriate funds for the systematic gathering from various European
archives of transcripts of documents relating to New York. Brodhead was
appointed (1841) by Governor William H. Seward to undertake the work, and
within several years gathered from England, France and Holland some eighty
manuscript volumes of transcriptions, largely of documents which had not
hitherto been used by historians. These transcriptions were subsequently
edited by Edward O'Callaghan (vols. i.-xi. incl.) and by Berthold Fernow
(vols. xii.-xv., incl.), and published by the state under the title
_Documents relating to the Colonial History of New York_ (15 vols.,
1853-1883). From 1846 to 1849, while George Bancroft was minister to Great
Britain, Brodhead held under him the post of secretary of legation. In
1853-1857 he was naval officer of the port of New York. He published
several addresses and a scholarly _History of the State of New York_ (2
vols., 1853-1871), generally considered the best for the brief period
covered (1609-1690). He died in New York City on the 6th of May 1873.
BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS, 1st Bart. (1783-1862), English physiologist
and surgeon, was born in 1783 at Winterslow, Wiltshire. He received his
early education from his father; then choosing medicine as his profession
he went to London in 1801, and attended the lectures of John Abernethy. Two
years later he became a pupil of Sir Everard Home at St George's hospital,
and in 1808 was appointed assistant surgeon at that institution, on the
staff of which he served for over thirty years. In 1810 he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society, to which in the next four or five years he
contributed several papers describing original investigations in
physiology. At this period also he rapidly obtained a large and lucrative
practice, and from time to time he wrote on surgical questions,
contributing numerous papers to the Medical and Chirurgical Society, and to
the medical journals. Probably his most important work is that entitled
_Pathological and Surgical Observations on the Diseases of the Joints_, in
which he attempts to trace the beginnings of disease in the different
tissues that form a joint, and to give an exact value to the symptom of
pain as evidence of organic disease. This volume led to the adoption by
surgeons of measures of a conservative nature in the treatment of diseases
of the joints, with consequent reduction in the number of amputations and
the saving of many limbs and lives. He also wrote on diseases of the
urinary organs, and on local nervous affections of a surgical character. In
1854 he published anonymously a volume of _Psychological Inquiries_; to a
second volume which appeared in 1862 his name was attached. He received
many honours during his career. He attended George IV., was
sergeant-surgeon to William IV. and Queen Victoria, and was made a baronet
in 1834. He became a corresponding member of the French Institute in 1844,
D.C.L. of Oxford in 1855, and president of the Royal Society in 1858, and
he was the first president of the general medical council. He died at
Broome Park, Surrey, on the 21st of October 1862. His collected works, with
autobiography, were published in 1865 under the editorship of Charles
Hawkins.
His eldest son, Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Bart. (1817-1880), was
appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford in 1865, and is chiefly known
for his investigations on the allotropic states of carbon and for his
discovery of graphitic acid.
BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER (1815-1897), English geologist, son of P.B. Brodie,
barrister, and nephew of Sir Benjamin C. Brodie, was born in London in
1815. While still residing with his father at Lincoln's Inn Fields, he
gained some knowledge of natural history and an interest in fossils from
visits to the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, at a time when W.
Clift was curator. Through the influence of Clift he was elected a fellow
of the Geological Society early in 1834. Proceeding afterwards to Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, he came under the spell of Sedgwick, and henceforth
devoted all his leisure time to geology. Entering the church in 1838, he
was curate at Wylye in Wiltshire, and for a short time at Steeple Claydon
in Buckinghamshire, becoming later rector of Down Hatherley in
Gloucestershire, and finally (1855) vicar of Rowington in Warwickshire, and
rural dean. Records of geological observations in all these districts were
published by him. At Cambridge he obtained fossil shells from the
Pleistocene deposit at Barn well; in the Vale of Wardour he discovered in
Purbeck Beds the isopod named by Milne-Edwards _Archaeoniscus Brodiei_; in
Buckinghamshire he described the outliers of Purbeck and [v.04 p.0626]
Portland Beds; and in the Vale of Gloucester the Lias and Oolites claimed
his attention. Fossil insects, however, formed the subject of his special
studies (_History of the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks of England_,
1845), and many of his published papers relate to them. He was an active
member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club and of the Warwickshire Natural
History and Archaeological Society, and in 1854 he was chief founder of the
Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeologists' Field Club. In 1887 the
Murchison medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. He
died at Rowington, on the 1st of November 1897.
See Memoir by H. B. Woodward in _Geological Magazine_, 1897, p. 481 (with
portrait).
BRODY, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 62 m. E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop.
(1900) 17,360, of which about two-thirds are Jews. It is situated near the
Russian frontier, and has been one of the most important commercial centres
in Galicia, especially for the trade with Russia. But since 1879, when its
charter as a free commercial city was withdrawn, its trade has also greatly
diminished. Brody was created a town in 1684, and was raised to the rank of
a free commercial city in 1779.
BROEKHUIZEN, JAN VAN [JANUS BROUKHUSIUS], (1649-1707), Dutch classical
scholar and poet, was born on the 20th of November 1649, at Amsterdam.
Having lost his father when very young, he was placed with an apothecary,
with whom he lived several years. Not liking this employment, he entered
the army, and in 1674 was sent with his regiment to America, in the fleet
under Admiral de Ruyter, but returned to Holland the same year. In 1678 he
was sent to the garrison at Utrecht, where he contracted a friendship with
the celebrated Graevius; here he had the misfortune to be so deeply
implicated in a duel that, according to the laws of Holland, his life was
forfeited. Graevius, however, wrote immediately to Nicholas Heinsius, who
obtained his pardon. Not long afterwards he became a captain of one of the
companies then at Amsterdam. After the peace of Ryswick, 1697, his company
was disbanded, and he retired on a pension to a country house near
Amsterdam and pursued his classical and literary studies at leisure. His
Dutch poems, in which he followed the model of Pieter Hooft, were first
published in 1677; a later edition, with a biography by D. van Hoogstraten,
appeared in 1712, the last edition, 1883, was edited by R.A. Kollewijn. His
classical reputation rests on his editions of Propertius (1702) and
Tibullus (1707). His Latin poems (_Carmina_) appeared in 1684; a later
edition(_Poemata_) by D. van Hoogstraten appeared in 1711. The _Select
Letters_ (_Jani Browkhusii Epistolae Selectae_, 1889 and 1893) were edited
by J.A. Worp, who also wrote his biography, 1891. Broekhuizen died on the
15th of December 1707.
BRÖGGER, WALDEMAR CHRISTOFER (1851- ), Norwegian geologist, was born in
Christiania on the 10th of November 1851, and educated in that city. In
1876 he was appointed curator of the geological museum in his native city,
and assistant on the Geological Survey. He was professor of mineralogy and
geology from 1881 to 1890 in the university of Stockholm, and from 1890 in
the university of Christiania. He also became rector and president of the
senate of the royal university of Christiania. His observations on the
igneous rocks of south Tirol compared with those of Christiania afford much
information on the relations of the granitic and basic rocks. The subject
of the differentiation of rock-types in the process of solidification as
plutonic or volcanic rocks from a particular magma received much attention
from him. He dealt also with the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway, and with the
late glacial and post-glacial changes of level in the Christiania region.
The honorary degree of Ph.D. was conferred upon him by the university of
Heidelberg and that of LL.D. by the university of Glasgow. The Murchison
medal of the Geological Society of London was awarded to him in 1891.
BROGLIE, DE, the name of a noble French family which, originally
Piedmontese, emigrated to France in the year 1643. The head of the family,
FRANÇOIS MARIE (1611-1656), then took the title of comte de Broglie. He had
already distinguished himself as a soldier, and died, as a
lieutenant-general, at the siege of Valenza on the 2nd of July 1656. His
son, VICTOR MAURICE, COMTE DE BROGLIE (1647-1727), served under Condé,
Turenne and other great commanders of the age of Louis XIV., becoming
_maréchal de camp_ in 1676, lieutenant-general in 1688, and finally marshal
of France in 1724.
The eldest son of Victor Marie, FRANÇOIS MARIE, afterwards DUC DE BROGLIE
(1671-1745), entered the army at an early age, and had a varied career of
active service before he was made, at the age of twenty-three,
lieutenant-colonel of the king's regiment of cavalry. He served
continuously in the War of the Spanish Succession and was present at
Malplaquet. He was made lieutenant-general in 1710, and served with Villars
in the last campaign of the war and at the battle of Denain. During the
peace he continued in military employment, and in 1719 he was made
director-general of cavalry and dragoons. He was also employed in
diplomatic missions, and was ambassador in England in 1724. The war in
Italy called him into the field again in 1733, and in the following year he
was made marshal of France. In the campaign of 1734 he was one of the chief
commanders on the French side, and he fought the battles of Parma and
Guastalla. A famous episode was his narrow personal escape when his
quarters on the Secchia were raided by the enemy on the night of the 14th
of September 1734. In 1735 he directed a war of positions with credit, but
he was soon replaced by Marshal de Noailles. He was governor-general of
Alsace when Frederick the Great paid a secret visit to Strassburg (1740).
In 1742 de Broglie was appointed to command the French army in Germany, but
such powers as he had possessed were failing him, and he had always been
the "man of small means," safe and cautious, but lacking in elasticity and
daring. The only success obtained was in the action of Sahay (25th May
1742), for which he was made a duke. He returned to France in 1743, and
died two years later.
His son, VICTOR FRANÇOIS, DUC DE BROGLIE (1718-1804), served with his
father at Parma and Guastalla, and in 1734 obtained a colonelcy. In the
German War he took part in the storming of Prague in 1742, and was made a
brigadier. In 1744 and 1745 he saw further service on the Rhine, and in
1756 he was made _maréchal de camp_. He subsequently served with Marshal
Saxe in the low countries, and was present at Roucoux, Val and Maastricht.
At the end of the war he was made a lieutenant-general. During the Seven
Years' War he served successively under d'Estrées, Soubise and Contades,
being present at all the battles from Hastenbeck onwards. His victory over
Prince Ferdinand at Bergen (1759) won him the rank of marshal of France
from his own sovereign and that of prince of the empire from the emperor
Francis I. In 1760 he won an action at Corbach, but was defeated at
Vellinghausen in 1761. After the war he fell into disgrace and was not
recalled to active employment until 1778, when he was given command of the
troops designed to operate against England. He played a prominent part in
the Revolution, which he opposed with determination. After his emigration,
de Broglie commanded the "army of the princes" for a short time (1792). He
died at Münster in 1804.
Another son of the first duke, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, COMTE DE BROGLIE
(1719-1781), served for some years in the army, and afterwards became one
of the foremost diplomatists in the service of Louis XV. He is chiefly
remembered in connexion with the _Secret du Roi_, the private, as distinct
from the official, diplomatic service of Louis, of which he was the ablest
and most important member. The son of Victor François, VICTOR CLAUDE,
PRINCE DE BROGLIE (1757-1794), served in the army, attaining the rank of
_maréchal de camp_. He adopted revolutionary opinions, served with
Lafayette and Rochambeau in America, was a member of the Jacobin Club, and
sat in the Constituent Assembly, constantly voting on the Liberal side. He
served as chief of the staff to the Republican army on the Rhine; but in
the Terror he was denounced, arrested and executed at Paris on the 27th of
June 1794. His dying admonition to his little son was to remain [v.04
p.0627] faithful to the principles of the Revolution, however unjust and
ungrateful.
ACHILLE CHARLES LÉONCE VICTOR, DUC DE BROGLIE (1785-1870), statesman and
diplomatist, son of the last-named, was born at Paris on the 28th of
November 1785. His mother had shared her husband's imprisonment, but
managed to escape to Switzerland, where she remained till the fall of
Robespierre. She now returned to Paris with her children and lived there
quietly until 1796, when she married a M. d'Argenson, grandson of Louis
XV.'s minister of war. Under the care of his step-father young de Broglie
received a careful and liberal education and made his entrée into the
aristocratic and literary society of Paris under the Empire. In 1809, he
was appointed a member of the council of state, over which Napoleon
presided in person; and was sent by the emperor on diplomatic missions, as
attaché, to various countries. Though he had never been in sympathy with
the principles of the Empire, de Broglie was not one of those who rejoiced
at its downfall. In common with all men of experience and sense he realized
the danger to France of the rise to power of the forces of violent
reaction. With Decazes and Richelieu he saw that the only hope for a calm
future lay in "the reconciliation of the Restoration with the Revolution."
By the influence of his uncle, Prince Amédée de Broglie, his right to a
peerage had been recognized; and to his own great surprise he received, in
June 1814, a summons from Louis XVIII. to the Chamber of Peers. There,
after the Hundred Days, he distinguished himself by his courageous defence
of Marshal Ney, for whose acquittal he, alone of all the peers, both spoke
and voted. After this defiant act of opposition it was perhaps fortunate
that his impending marriage gave him an excuse for leaving the country. On
the 15th of February 1816, he was married at Leghorn to the daughter of
Madame de Staël. He returned to Paris at the end of the year, but took no
part in politics until the elections of September 1817 broke the power of
the "ultra-royalists" and substituted for the _Chambre introuvable_ a
moderate assembly. De Broglie's political attitude during the years that
followed is best summed up in his own words: "From 1812 to 1822 all the
efforts of men of sense and character were directed to reconciling the
Restoration and the Revolution, the old régime and the new France. From
1822 to 1827 all their efforts were directed to resisting the growing power
of the counter-revolution. From 1827 to 1830 all their efforts aimed at
moderating and regulating the reaction in a contrary sense." During the
last critical years of Charles X.'s reign, de Broglie identified himself
with the _doctrinaires_, among whom Royer-Collard and Guizot were the most
prominent. The July revolution placed him in a difficult position; he knew
nothing of the intrigues which placed Louis Philippe on the throne; but,
the revolution once accomplished, he was ready to uphold the _fait
accompli_ with characteristic loyalty, and on the 9th of August took office
in the new government as minister of public worship and education. As he
had foreseen, the ministry was short-lived, and on the 2nd of November he
was once more out of office. During the critical time that followed he
consistently supported the principles which triumphed with the fall of
Laffitte and the accession to power of Casimir Périer in March 1832. After
the death of the latter and the insurrection of June 1832, de Broglie took
office once more as minister for foreign affairs (October 11th). His tenure
of the foreign office was coincident with a very critical period in
international relations. But for the sympathy of Great Britain under
Palmerston, the July monarchy would have been completely isolated in
Europe; and this sympathy the aggressive policy of France in Belgium and on
the Mediterranean coast of Africa had been in danger of alienating. The
Belgian crisis had been settled, so far as the two powers were concerned,
before de Broglie took office; but the concerted military and naval action
for the coercion of the Dutch, which led to the French occupation of
Antwerp, was carried out under his auspices. The good understanding of
which this was the symbol characterized also the relations of de Broglie
and Palmerston during the crisis of the first war of Mehemet Ali (_q.v._)
with the Porte, and in the affairs of the Spanish peninsula their common
sympathy with constitutional liberty led to an agreement for common action,
which took shape in the treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France,
Spain and Portugal, signed at London on the 22nd of April 1834. De Broglie
had retired from office in the March preceding, and did not return to power
till March of the following year, when he became head of the cabinet. In
1836, the government having been defeated on a proposal to reduce the five
per cents, he once more resigned, and never returned to official life. He
had remained in power long enough to prove what honesty of purpose,
experience of affairs, and common sense can accomplish when allied with
authority. The debt that France and Europe owed him may be measured by
comparing the results of his policy with that of his successors under not
dissimilar circumstances. He had found France isolated and Europe full of
the rumours of war; he left her strong in the English alliance and the
respect of Liberal Europe, and Europe freed from the restless apprehensions
which were to be stirred into life again by the attitude of Thiers in the
Eastern Question and of Guizot in the affair of the "Spanish marriages."
From 1836 to 1848 de Broglie held almost completely aloof from politics, to
which his scholarly temperament little inclined him, a disinclination
strengthened by the death of his wife on the 22nd of September 1838. His
friendship for Guizot, however, induced him to accept a temporary mission
in 1845, and in 1847 to go as French ambassador to London. The revolution
of 1848 was a great blow to him, for he realized that it meant the final
ruin of the Liberal monarchy--in his view the political system best suited
to France. He took his seat, however, in the republican National Assembly
and in the Convention of 1848, and, as a member of the section known as the
"Burgraves," did his best to stem the tide of socialism and to avert the
reaction in favour of autocracy which he foresaw. He shared with his
colleagues the indignity of the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851,
and remained for the remainder of his life one of the bitterest enemies of
the imperial regime, though he was heard to remark, with that caustic wit
for which he was famous, that the empire was "the government which the
poorer classes in France desired and the rich deserved." The last twenty
years of his life were devoted chiefly to philosophical and literary
pursuits. Having been brought up by his step-father in the sceptical
opinions of the time, he gradually arrived at a sincere belief in the
Christian religion. "I shall die," said he, "a penitent Christian and an
impenitent Liberal." His literary works, though few of them have been
published, were rewarded in 1856 by a seat in the French Academy, and he
was also a member of another branch of the French Institute, the Academy of
Moral and Political Science. In the labours of those learned bodies he took
an active and assiduous part. He died on the 25th of January 1870.
Besides his _Souvenirs_, in 4 vols. (Paris, 1885-1888), the duc de Broglie
left numerous works, of which only some have been published. Of these may
be mentioned _Écrits et discours_ (3 vols., Paris, 1863); _Le Libre Échange
et l'impôt_ (Paris, 1879); _Vues sur le gouvernement de la France_ (Paris,
1861). This last was confiscated before publication by the imperial
government. See Guizot, _Le Duc de Broglie_ (Paris, 1870), and _Mémoires_
(Paris, 1858-1867); and the histories of Thureau-Dangin and Duvergier de
Hauranne.
JACQUES VICTOR ALBERT, DUC DE BROGLIE (1821-1901), his eldest son, was born
at Paris on the 13th of June 1821. After a brief diplomatic career at
Madrid and Rome, the revolution of 1848 caused him to withdraw from public
life and devote himself to literature. He had already published a
translation of the religious system of Leibnitz (1846). He now at once made
his mark by his contributions to the _Revue des deux Mondes_ and the
Orleanist and clerical organ _Le Correspondant_, which were afterwards
collected under the titles of _Études morales et littéraires_ (1853) and
_Questions de religion et d'histoire_ (1860). These were supplemented in
1869 by a volume of _Nouvelles études de littérature et de morale_. His
_L'Église et l'empire romain au IVe siècle_ (1856-1866) brought him the
succession to Lacordaire's seat in the Academy in 1862. In 1870 he
succeeded his father in the dukedom, having previously been known as the
prince de Broglie. In the following year he was elected to the National
[v.04 p.0628] Assembly for the department of the Eure, and a few days later
(on the 19th of February) was appointed ambassador in London; but in March
1872, in consequence of criticisms upon his negotiations concerning the
commercial treaties between England and France, he resigned his post and
took his seat in the National Assembly, where he became the leading spirit
of the monarchical campaign against Thiers. On the replacement of the
latter by Marshal MacMahon, the duc de Broglie became president of the
council and minister for foreign affairs (May 1873), but in the
reconstruction of the ministry on the 26th of November, after the passing
of the septennate, transferred himself to the ministry of the interior. His
tenure of office was marked by an extreme conservatism, which roused the
bitter hatred of the Republicans, while he alienated the Legitimist party
by his friendly relations with the Bonapartists, and the Bonapartists by an
attempt to effect a compromise between the rival claimants to the monarchy.
The result was the fall of the cabinet on the 16th of May 1874. Three years
later (on the 16th of May 1877) he was entrusted with the formation of a
new cabinet, with the object of appealing to the country and securing a new
chamber more favourable to the reactionaries than its predecessor had been.
The result, however, was a decisive Republican majority. The duc de Broglie
was defeated in his own district, and resigned office on the 20th of
November. Not being re-elected in 1885, he abandoned politics and reverted
to his historical work, publishing a series of historical studies and
biographies written in a most pleasing style, and especially valuable for
their extensive documentation. He died in Paris on the 19th of January
1901.
Besides editing the _Souvenirs_ of his father (1886, &c.), the _Mémoires_
of Talleyrand (1891, &c.), and the _Letters_ of the Duchess Albertine de
Broglie (1896), he published _Le Secret du roi, Correspondance secrète de
Louis XV avec ses agents diplomatiques, 1752-1774_ (1878); _Frédéric II et
Marie Thérèse_ (1883); _Frédéric II et Louis XV_ (1885); _Marie Thérèse
Impératrice_ (1888); _Le Père Lacordaire_ (1889); _Maurice de Saxe et le
marquis d'Argenson_ (1891); _La Paix d'Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1892); _L'Alliance
autrichienne_ (1895); _La Mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron à Berlin_ (1896);
_Voltaire avant et pendant la Guerre de Sept Ans_ (1898); _Saint Ambroise_,
translated by Margaret Maitland in the series of "The Saints" (1899).
BROGUE, (1) A rough shoe of raw leather (from the Gael. _brog_, a shoe)
worn in the wilder parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. (2) A
dialectical accent or pronunciation (of uncertain origin), especially used
of the Irish accent in speaking English.
BROHAN, AUGUSTINE SUSANNE (1807-1887), French actress, was born in Paris on
the 22nd of January 1807. She entered the Conservatoire at the age of
eleven, and took the second prize for comedy in 1820, and the first in
1821. She served her apprenticeship in the provinces, making her first
Paris appearance at the Odéon in 1832 as Dorine in _Tartuffe_. Her success
there and elsewhere brought her a summons to the Comédie Française, where
she made her _début_ on the 15th of February 1834, as Madelon in _Les
Précieuses ridicules_, and Suzanne in _Le Mariage de Figaro_. She retired
in 1842, and died on the 16th of August 1887.
Her elder daughter, JOSEPHINE FÉLICITÉ AUGUSTINE BROHAN (1824-1893), was
admitted to the Conservatoire when very young, twice taking the second
prize for comedy. The soubrette part, entrusted for more than 150 years at
the Comédie Française to a succession of artists of the first rank, was at
the moment without a representative, and Mdlle Augustine Brohan made her
_début_ there on the 19th of May 1841, as Dorine in _Tartuffe_, and Lise in
_Rivaux d'eux-mêmes_. She was immediately admitted _pensionnaire_, and at
the end of eighteen months unanimously elected _sociétaire_. She soon
became a great favourite, not only in the plays of Molière and de Regnard,
but also in those of Marivaux. On her retirement from the stage in 1866,
she made an unhappy marriage with Edmond David de Gheest (d. 1885),
secretary to the Belgian legation in Paris.
Susanne Brohan's second daughter, ÉMILIE MADELEINE BROHAN (1833-1900), also
took first prize for comedy at the Conservatoire (1850). She was engaged at
once by the Comédie Française, but instead of making her _début_ in some
play of the _répertoire_ of the theatre, the management put on for her
benefit a new comedy by Scribe and Legouvé, _Les Contes de la reine de
Navarre_, in which she created the part of Marguerite on the 1st of
September 1850. Her talents and beauty made her a success from the first,
and in less than two years from her _début_ she was elected _sociétaire_.
In 1853 she married Mario Uchard, from whom she was soon separated, and in
1858 she returned to the Comédie Française in leading parts, until her
retirement in 1886. Her name is associated with a great number of plays,
besides those in the classical _répertoire_, notably _Le Monde où l'on
s'ennuie_, _Par droit de conquête_, _Les Deux Veuves_, and _Le Lion
amoureux_, in which, as the "marquise de Maupas", she had one of her
greatest successes.
BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563), English author, wrote the first English
version of the story of Romeo and Juliet. _The Tragicall Historye of Romeus
and Julieit_ (1562) is a rhymed account of the story, taken, not directly
from Bandello's collection of novels (1554), but from the French
translation (_Histoires tragiques_) of Pierre Boaistuau or Boisteau,
surnamed Launay, and François de Belleforest. Broke adds some detail to the
story as told by Boisteau. As the poem contains many scenes which are not
known to exist elsewhere, but which were adopted by Shakespeare in _Romeo
and Juliet_, there is no reasonable doubt that it may be regarded as the
main source of the play. Broke perished by shipwreck in 1563, on his way
from Newhaven to join the English troops fighting on the Huguenot side in
France.
The genesis of the Juliet story, and a close comparison of Shakespeare's
play with Broke's version, are to be found in a reprint of the poem and of
William Paynter's prose translation from the _Palace of Pleasure_, edited
by Mr P. A. Daniel for the New Shakespere Society (1875).
BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART. (1776-1841), British rear-admiral, was
born at Broke Hall, near Ipswich, on the 9th of September 1776, a member of
an old Suffolk family. Entering the navy in June 1792, he saw active
service in the Mediterranean from 1793 to 1795, and was with the British
fleet at the battle of Cape St Vincent, 1797. In 1798 he was present at the
defeat and capture of the French squadron off the north coast of Ireland.
From 1799 to 1801 he served with the North Sea fleet, and in the latter
year was made captain. Unemployed for the next four years, he commanded in
1805 a frigate in the English and Irish Channels. In 1806 he was appointed
to the command of the "Shannon", 38-gun frigate, remaining afloat,
principally in the Bay of Biscay, till 1811. The "Shannon" was then ordered
to Halifax, Nova Scotia. For a year after the declaration of war between
Great Britain and the United States in 1812, the frigate saw no important
service, though she captured several prizes. Broke utilized this period of
comparative inactivity to train his men thoroughly. He paid particular
attention to gunnery, and the "Shannon" ere long gained a unique reputation
for excellence of shooting. Broke's opportunity came in 1813. In May of
that year the "Shannon" was cruising off Boston, watching the "Chesapeake",
an American frigate of the same nominal force but heavier armament. On the
1st of June Broke, finding his water supply getting low, wrote to Lawrence,
the commander of the "Chesapeake", asking for a meeting between the two
ships, stating the "Shannon's" force, and guaranteeing that no other
British ship should take part in the engagement. Before this letter could
be delivered, however, the "Chesapeake", under full sail, ran out of Boston
harbour, crowds of pleasure-boats accompanying her to witness the
engagement. Broke briefly addressed his men. "Don't cheer," he concluded,
"go quietly to your quarters. I feel sure you will all do your duty." As
the "Chesapeake" rounded to on the "Shannon's" weather quarter, at a
distance of about fifty yards, the British frigate received her with a
broadside. A hundred of the "Chesapeake's" crew were struck down at once,
Lawrence himself being mortally wounded. A second broadside, equally
well-aimed, increased the confusion, and, her tiller-ropes being shot away,
the American frigate drifted foul of the "Shannon". Broke sprang on board
with some sixty of his men following him. After a brief struggle [v.04
p.0629] the fight was over. Within fifteen minutes of the firing of the
first shot, the "Chesapeake" struck her flag, but Broke himself was
seriously wounded. For his services he was rewarded with a baronetcy, and
subsequently was made a K.C.B. His exploit captivated the public fancy, and
his popular title of "Brave Broke" gives the standard by which his action
was judged. Its true significance, however, lies deeper. Broke's victory
was due not so much to courage as to forethought. "The 'Shannon,'" said
Admiral Jurien de La Gravière, "captured the 'Chesapeake' on the 1st of
June 1813; but on the 14th of September 1806, when he took command of his
frigate, Captain Broke had begun to prepare the glorious termination to
this bloody affair." Broke's wound incapacitated him from further service,
and for the rest of his life caused him serious suffering. He died in
London on the 2nd of January 1841.
BROKEN HILL, a silver-mining town of Yancowinna county, New South Wales,
Australia, 925 m. directly W. by N. of Sydney, and connected with Adelaide
by rail. Pop. (1901) 27,518. One of the neighbouring mines, the
Proprietary, is the richest in the world; gold is associated with the
silver; large quantities of lead, good copper lodes, zinc and tin are also
found. The problem of the profitable treatment of the sulphide ores has
been practically solved here. In addition Broken Hill is the centre of one
of the largest pastoral districts in Australia. The town is the seat of the
Roman Catholic bishop of Wilcannia.
BROKER (according to the _New English Dictionary_, from Lat. _brocca_,
spit, spike, _broccare_, to "broach"--another Eng. form of the same word;
hence O. Fr. _vendre à broche_, to retail, e.g. wine, from the tap, and
thus the general sense of dealing; see also for a discussion of the
etymology and early history of the use of the word, J.R. Dos Passos, _Law
of Stockbrokers_, chap. i., New York, 1905). In the primary sense of the
word, a broker is a mercantile agent, of the class known as general agents,
whose office is to bring together intending buyers and sellers and make a
contract between them, for a remuneration called brokerage or commission;
e.g. cotton brokers, wool brokers or produce brokers. Originally the only
contracts negotiated by brokers were for the sale or purchase of
commodities; but the word in its present use includes other classes of
mercantile agents, such as stockbrokers, insurance-brokers, ship-brokers or
bill-brokers. Pawnbrokers are not brokers in any proper sense of the word;
they deal as principals and do not act as agents. In discussing the chief
questions of modern legal interest in connexion with brokers, we shall deal
with them, firstly, in the original sense of agents for the purchase and
sale of goods.
_Relations between Broker and Principal._--A broker has not, like a factor,
possession of his principal's goods, and, unless expressly authorized,
cannot buy or sell in his own name; his business is to bring into privity
of contract his principal and the third party. When the contract is made,
ordinarily he drops out altogether. Brokers very frequently act as factors
also, but, when they do so, their rights and duties as factors must be
distinguished from their rights and duties as brokers. It is a broker's
duty to carry out his principal's instructions with diligence, skill and
perfect good faith. He must see that the terms of the bargain accord with
his principal's orders from a commercial point of view, e.g. as to quality,
quantity and price; he must ensure that the contract of sale effected by
him be legally enforceable by his principal against the third party; and he
must not accept any commission from the third party, or put himself in any
position in which his own interest may become opposed to his principal's.
As soon as he has made the contract which he was employed to make, in most
respects his duty to, and his authority from, his principal alike cease;
and consequently the law of brokers relates principally to the formation of
contracts by them.
The most important formality in English law, in making contracts for the
sale of goods, with which a broker must comply, in order to make the
contract legally enforceable by his principal against the third party, is
contained in section 4 of the Sale of Goods Act 1893, which (in substance
re-enacting section 17 of the Statute of Frauds) provides as follows:--"A
contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards
shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of
the goods as sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in
earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or _unless some note or
memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be
charged or his agent in that behalf_."
From the reign of James I. till 1884 brokers in London were admitted and
licensed by the corporation, and regulated by statute; and it was common to
employ one broker only, who acted as intermediary between, and was the
agent of both buyer and seller. When the Statute of Frauds was passed in
the reign of Charles II., it became the practice for the broker, acting for
both parties, to insert in a formal book, kept for the purpose, a
memorandum of each contract effected by him, and to sign such memorandum on
behalf of both parties, in order that there might be a written memorandum
of the contract of sale, signed by the agent of the parties as required by
the statute. He would then send to the buyer a copy of this memorandum,
called the "bought note", and to the seller a "sold note", which would run
as follows:--
"I have this day bought for you from A B [or "my principal"] ..."
[signed] "M, _Broker_."
"I have this day sold for you to A B [or "my principal"] ..."
[signed] "M, _Broker_."
There was in the earlier part of the 19th century considerable discussion
in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's book, or the bought and
sold notes (singly or together), constituted the statutory memorandum; and
judicial opinion was not unanimous on the point. But at the present day
brokers are no longer regulated by statute, either in London or elsewhere,
and keep no formal book; and as an entry made in a private book kept by the
broker for another purpose, even if signed, would probably not be regarded
as a memorandum signed by the agent of the parties in that behalf, the old
discussion is now of little practical interest.
Under modern conditions of business the written memorandum of the contract
of sale effected by the broker is usually to be found in a "contract note";
but the question whether, in the particular circumstances of each case, the
contract note affords a sufficient memorandum in writing, depends upon a
variety of considerations--e.g. whether the transaction is effected through
one or through two brokers; whether the contract notes are rendered by one
broker only, or by both; and, if the latter, whether exchanged between the
brokers, or rendered by each broker to his own client; for under present
practice any one of these methods may obtain, according to the trade in
which the transaction is effected, and the nature of the particular
transaction.
Where one and the same broker is employed by both seller and buyer, bought
and sold notes rendered in the old form provide the necessary memorandum of
the contract. Where two brokers are employed, one by the seller and one by
the buyer, sometimes one drops out as soon as the terms are negotiated, and
the other makes out, signs and sends to the parties the bought and sold
notes. The latter then becomes the agent of both parties for the purpose of
signing the statutory memorandum, and the position is the same as if one
broker only had been employed. On the other hand, if one broker does not
drop out of the transaction, each broker remains to the end the agent of
his own principal only, and neither becomes the agent of the other party
for the purpose of signing the memorandum. In such a case it is the usual
practice for the buyer's broker to send to the seller's broker a note of
the contract,--"I, acting on account of A. B. [or, "of my principal,"],
have this day bought _from_ you, acting on account of C. D. [or, "of your
principal"],"--and to receive a corresponding note from the seller's
broker. Thus each of the parties receives through his own agent a
memorandum signed by the other party's agent. These contract notes are
usually known as, and serve the purpose of, "bought" and "sold" notes. In
all the above three cases the broker's duty of compliance with all
formalities necessary to make the contract of sale legally enforceable is
performed, [v.04 p.0630] and both parties obtain a written memorandum of
the contract upon which they can sue.
The broker, on performing his duty in accordance with the terms upon which
he is employed, is entitled to be paid his "brokerage." This usually takes
the form of a percentage, varying according to the nature and conditions of
the business, upon the total price of the goods bought or sold through him.
When he guarantees the solvency of the other party, he is said to be
employed upon _del credere_ terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of
remuneration. In some trades it is the custom for the selling broker to
receive payment from the buyer or his broker; and in such case it is his
duty to account to his principal for the purchase money. A broker who
properly expends money or incurs liability on his principal's behalf in the
course of his employment, is entitled to be reimbursed the money, and
indemnified against the liability. Not having, like a factor, possession of
the goods, a broker has no lien by which to enforce his rights against his
principal. If he fails to perform his duty, he loses his right to
remuneration, reimbursement and indemnity, and further becomes liable to an
action for damages for breach of his contract of employment, at the suit of
his principal.
_Relations between Broker and Third Party._--A broker who signs a contract
note _as broker_ on behalf of a principal, whether named or not, is not
personally liable on the contract to the third party. But if he makes the
contract in such a way as to make himself a party to it, the third party
may sue either the broker or his principal, subject to the limitation that
the third party, by his election to treat one as the party to the contract,
may preclude himself from suing the other. In this respect the ordinary
rules of the law of agency apply to a broker. Generally, a broker has not
authority to receive payment, but in trades in which it is customary for
him to do so, if the buyer pays the seller's broker, and is then sued by
the seller for the price by reason of the broker having become insolvent or
absconded, he may set up the payment to the broker as a defence to the
action by the broker's principal. Brokers may render themselves liable for
damages in tort for the conversion of the goods at the suit of the true
owner if they negotiate a sale of the goods for a selling principal who has
no title to the goods.
_The Influence of Exchanges._--The relations between brokers and their
principals, and also between brokers and third parties as above defined,
have been to some extent modified in practice by the institution since the
middle of the 19th century in important commercial centres of "Exchanges,"
where persons interested in a particular trade, whether as merchants or as
brokers, meet for the transaction of business. By the contract of
membership of the association in whose hands is vested the control of the
exchange, every person on becoming a member agrees to be bound by the rules
of the association, and to make his contracts on the market in accordance
with them. A governing body or committee elected by the members enforces
observance of the rules, and members who fail to meet their engagements on
the market, or to conform to the rules, are liable to suspension or
expulsion by the committee. All disputes between members on their contracts
are submitted to an arbitration tribunal composed of members; and the
arbitrators in deciding the questions submitted to them are guided by the
rules. A printed book of rules is available for reference; and various
printed forms of contract suited to the various requirements of the
business are specified by the rules and supplied by the association for the
use of members. In order to simplify the settlement of accounts between
members, particularly in respect of "futures," i.e. contracts for future
delivery, a weekly or other periodical settlement is effected by means of a
clearing-house; each member paying or receiving in respect of all his
contracts which are still open, the balance of his weekly "differences,"
i.e. the difference between the contract price and the market price fixed
for the settlement, or between the last and the present settlement prices.
As all contracts on the market are made subject to the rules, it follows
that so far as the rules alter the rights and liabilities attached by law,
the ordinary law is modified. The most important modification in the
position of brokers effected by membership of such an exchange is due to
the rule that as, between themselves, all members are principals, on the
market no agents are recognized; a broker employed by a non-member to buy
for him on the market is treated by the rules as buying for himself, and
is, therefore, personally liable on the contract. If it be a contract in
futures, he is required to conform to the weekly settlement rules. If his
principal fails to take delivery, the engagement is his and he is required
to make good to the member who sold to him any difference between the
contract and market price at the date of delivery. But whilst this practice
alters directly the relations of the broker to the third party, it also
affects or tends to affect indirectly the relations of the broker to his
own principal. The terms of the contract of employment being a matter of
negotiation and agreement between them, it is open to a broker, if he
chooses, to stipulate for particular terms; and it is the usual practice of
exchanges to supply printed contract forms for the use of members in their
dealings with non-members who employ them as brokers, containing a
stipulation that the contract is made subject to the rules of the exchange;
and frequently also a clause that the contract is made with the broker as
_principal_. In addition to these express terms, there is in the contract
of employment the term, implied by law in all trade contracts, that the
parties consent to be bound by such trade usages as are consistent with the
express terms of the contract, and reasonable. On executing an order the
broker sends to his client a contract-note either in the form of the old
bought and sold notes "I have this day [bought / sold] for you," or, when
the principal clause is inserted, "I have this day [sold to / bought] from
you." These are not bought and sold notes proper, for the broker is not the
agent of the third party for the purpose of signing them as statutory
memoranda of the sale. But they purport to record the terms of the contract
of employment, and the principal may treat himself as bound by their
provisions. Sometimes they are accompanied by a detachable form, known as
the "client's return contract note," to be filled in, signed and returned
by the client; but even the "client's return contract note" is retained by
the client's own broker, and is only a memorandum of the terms of
employment. The following is a form of contract note rendered by a broker
to his client for American cotton, bought on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange
for future delivery. The client's contract note is attached to it, and is
in precisely corresponding form.