Before going into the field to make a sketch, it is essential you become
familiar with the different lines used in drawing, the less difficulty
you will have in sketching from nature.
The first effort will be to get control of the hand and pencil, or pen,
which is the leading essential in learning to write or draw. Secondly, a
right understanding of the straight and curve lines used cannot be
dispensed with. A neglect of these first principles, and the want of a
thorough drilling by an experienced teacher, in our educational
institutions, is the leading difficulty in the advancement of students
in these branches, and has often been a subject of comment.
There are three leading lines in drawing, the straight horizontal line,
thus:
──────────────────
[Illustration]
[Illustration]
made by carrying the pencil from left to right, and vice versa,
beginning and ending abruptly; then perpendicular ones, commencing at
the top, draw the pencil down; then a straight oblique line, with 52
deg. slant, which is about the proper angle for writing.
The right and left curve is used as the beginning and ending of all the
small letters.
[Illustration:
Fig. 1.
]
=The Line of Beauty=, as it is called, is the two curves combined;
commencing at the top, making first the left and then the right line,
equal in length, forming a compound curve, the basis of two-thirds of
all the capital letters. A combination of curves lying horizontally, as
in fig. 2, gives the line which is formed by the meeting of the lips,
from these different lines our sketches from nature are made up.
[Illustration:
Fig. 2.
A _curved_ line changes its direction at every point.
]
A circle is a figure comprehended by a single curve line, called its
circumference, every part of which is equally distant from a point
called the center. From _a_ to _b_ will be found the left, or convex,
and from _c_ to _d_ the right, or concave curve. The whole may be made
by a quick movement of the hand, with crayon, on the black-board, thus:
Turn your right side to the board, place the crayon at the bottom, _c_,
and with the elbow as the radius, carry the crayon toward the left from
_c_ to _a_, and so on until you reach the starting point, _c_, again,
moving the hand at as rapid a rate as is possible.
[Illustration:
Fig. 3.
]
Now, if these lines can all be drawn correct, and with freedom, take the
equilateral triangle and practice it without a ruler.
[Illustration:
Fig. 4.
An _angle_ is the space between two lines that start from the same
point.
]
The perpendicular line, passing from the vanishing point _a_, to the
base _b_. The whole of the fig. 4 forms what appears to us the gable of
a house, _a_ the point where the rafters meet, _b_ the center of the
plate. This gives the horizontal, vertical, and oblique lines.
I shall endeavor to make these lessons clear and concise for the
beginner, touching only on those points which are indispensable in
learning to draw. Although many of these principles you may have
acquired, the elements of linear perspective is the very first thing to
which your attention should be directed.
=Landscapes.= All objects which present themselves to the eye, such as
buildings, forests, fields, mountains, water, &c., whether viewed from a
hill or on a level, we will call a landscape. Now as it is impossible to
make an exact copy of the subject before us, by means of any transfer
process, it can only be effected by a distinct apprehension of the real
form of the objects themselves, and of those apparent forms under which
they are presented to the eye, in their different positions in the
landscape. All these objects have their outlines, composed either of
straight or curve lines, which may be irregular in their relation to
each other. Now if we were placed on a flat, horizontal plain, the water
or ground which we would have in view before us, would appear to rise
from the spot on which we stood, the limit of that rise being determined
by a clear and well defined straight line, called the horizontal line.
It will appear in the lake; between this and the sky no object
intervenes. This horizontal or boundary line lies directly opposite to
the range of the eye, and the one to which every other line is referred,
and by which the accuracy of the drawing is secured. The point where it
crosses the perpendicular line will be the center of our picture.
=In Placing a Landscape on Paper=, first arises the question as to how
much of the landscape we will introduce into our picture. Let us suppose
it to be taken from the point of view, then that position of the scene
which the eye can easily take in, without moving the head, will
constitute the picture. The space included between the point where we
are standing and a point where our picture commences, establishes the
required distance of the eye from the proposed picture. Now, if through
this point a straight line be supposed drawn, perpendicular to the
horizon, this line will pass through, and determine the foremost objects
of the picture—touching all the leading objects directly in front of us.
=Position of the Horizontal Line= will depend upon whether or not we
make the sketch from the ground, or from an elevation. If the view be
made from the level with it, the horizontal line may be drawn at about
one-fifth of the space of the paper we intend for our picture. If we
take the sketch from an elevated point, a little above the level of the
ground, then the horizontal line may be placed at about one-third the
height, and so on. If the view is to be made from a high hill, or top of
the house, place the horizontal line at one-half the height.
Now, in holding up the pencil or ruler horizontally with the eye, and on
a level with it, you will see what objects will appear on that
horizontal line. In making a photograph of a building it is always best
to have the camera a little elevated, and at a considerable distance
from the object, as a better picture can be secured. All horizontal
planes seem to ascend if they lie below the horizontal line, and to
descend if they lie above it, vanish or merge into it, as shown in
figures 5 and 6.
In making a sketch from an elevation, the distant part of the view seems
higher than the foreground. This occurs when the point from where the
view is taken is too much elevated. A better, and much more natural
perspective, can be obtained by lowering the point of view, which also
changes the horizontal line.
After knowing the position of the horizon of your subject, point of
sight for the point of distance, you have to extend the line of horizon
from the point of sight to the limits of such distance.
For illustration, fasten a thread with a pin to the table, at a point
corresponding to the line of the horizon of your picture; a thread thus
adjusted will, when drawn out over the picture, fall exactly over all
the lines seeking
=The Vanishing Point.= In this way you get the lines for the cornice in
a building, or row of buildings, upper and lower lines of the windows
and doors, base and sidewalk.
[Illustration:
Fig. 5.
]
In making a sketch of a building, it is only necessary to get the
general outlines, and instead of working in all the doors and windows,
finishing up the cornice, etc., all that is necessary will be to get the
outline of one door or window, and the style of cornice, and indicate
the remainder by merely a mark showing the position, and make a
memorandum of the essential points which is needed in completing the
work. In figure 5, street view, make a dot on the sketch board at a
point where you wish the first upper corner of the building to commence,
draw a perpendicular line for the corner, do likewise at such a distance
to the left as you wish the building to extend on the sketch, and you
have the other corner. Holding the drawing book perpendicular between
you and the building, and on a level with the eye, place the ruler on
the sketch-book corresponding to the upper horizontal line of the
building, and make a line for the cornice, the base line is produced in
the same manner. The point _C_, where the two lines would meet, were
they continued toward the left, will be the vanishing point, from which
run all the other horizontal lines when you come to finish up the
drawing.
THE EFFECTS OF THE DRAWING IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE HORIZONTAL
LINE.
[Illustration:
Fig. 6.
]
A horizontal right line has, with respect to the plane of the picture,
one of three positions. It is either parallel to it, oblique to it, or
perpendicular to it. We will sit with the back against one of the walls
of a rectangular room. The wall opposite is parallel to that behind us,
and consequently to the plane of our picture in that position. The two
remaining walls being at right angles with that opposite, are evidently
perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and all horizontal right
lines on those two walls, are also perpendicular to that plane, and will
appear to tend towards a point immediately opposite to the eye. H. H. is
the horizontal line or level of sight; C the point opposite the eye, and
that point toward which all horizontal right lines on the walls, A & B,
appear to slant, though in reality they are perpendicular to the wall C.
The lines 1 & 2, where the ceiling and sidewalls meet, and 3 & 4, the
lower limit of the walls, as well as the horizontal lines of the door,
and its panels, are in that position, all perpendicular to the plane of
the opposite wall, and therefore to the plane of the drawing. The
effects of the drawing in different positions of the horizontal line,
should be carefully studied; if it be placed above the level of the eye,
and removed to the right or left, it will appear like this:
[Illustration]
If below the level of the eye, it will assume a direction like this:
[Illustration]
But placed to the right or left of the eye, on a perfect level, and
horizontal, it will appear thus:
──────────────────
If drawn from, and directly opposite to the eye, the end may appear
thus:
•
A _point_ has position, but not magnitude.
[Illustration:
Fig. 7.
]
If a book, or block of wood, having a square base, be represented at
different distances, seen from a point in which its sides are oblique to
the plane of the picture, and seen from both points, under the same
circumstances in all respects, as regards surrounding objects, except
that the distance of the artist from the base line is much less in one
than the other, then it will appear as do figures 7 and 8.
[Illustration:
Fig. 8.
A _surface_ has length and breadth only. A _solid_ has length,
breadth, and
thickness.
]
[Illustration]
In figure 7 the distance from us is much greater than in figure 8, and
the vanishing point farther away. We will find the first the most
pleasing to the eye, although both are accurate. In these figures we
make the two oblique lines of the base equal in length, and our position
directly opposite the center perpendicular line. If we should change our
position further to the right, the left oblique line at the base would
apparently shorten, and _vice versa_.
In making a sketch from nature, the artist must choose a position that
will command the best view of the scene about to be placed on paper, and
from a standpoint that will secure the leading objects in the landscape
before you. Begin by sketching those _objects nearest you first_. The
reasons will be shown hereafter.
In attempting to make a “bird’s eye” view of buildings, where an
elevation cannot be obtained, it will be found somewhat difficult. We
can only mark down on the sketch-book what can be seen from the position
we occupy on the level with the objects before us, and imagine the
remainder. At the same time three things should be kept in view, the
perspective, the perpendicular lines, and proper elevation, in order to
give to our picture the appearance it would have if others viewed it
from the supposed point of observation as the sketcher.
The intention of the writer has been to touch upon all the points and
rules in drawing, and dwell upon each separately, and sufficient for a
person of ordinary ability, and a good many grains of continuity, to
make a sketch artist.
“It matters not what a man’s vocation may be, if he has the taste to
discern, and mind to esteem, the good and beautiful in nature and art,
an expression of refinement will be manifest in all that he undertakes.”
In this work I did not expect more than to take the first step toward
teaching to sketch from nature. An easy, rapid, and decided manner of
sketching is to be acquired only by practice. It is an acquisition
essential to excellence in all the other artistic qualities, to which it
serves as a basis. Having given you the necessary instruction, I will
now assist you in
=Selecting a Position.= Choose a point that will command a good view of
the scene, and prevent closer and more immediate objects from concealing
any portion of the remote distance; and though the height of the
horizontal line in this case may sometimes be more than half the height
of the paper, according to the elevation attained by the artist to
command the view. In this case the horizontal line is at about one-half
the height of the paper. It frequently occurs in making a sketch, that
the artist cannot place himself at the desired point for the best view.
In such case we will imagine a point above the highest object in the
foreground of the proposed sketch. That point may be on the land, or on
the water. The artist, with a knowledge of perspective and elevation in
view, may make a memorandum of the whole; but should he attempt to draw
it from the point he is compelled to see it, no one would recognize it
as a truthful representation. We regulate the whole by our knowledge of
perspective, as accurately as if we stood upon the very spot from which
we desired to be understood that the view was taken.
=In Making a Bird’s Eye View= of a village or city, the first thing to
be done is to get a plat, or outline, of the streets and blocks, and
mark them on the sketch-book in squares, (or rather diamond shape), each
line and cross line representing a street. Commence sketching _in_ the
buildings from the point chosen, which should be the one nearest the
business center, and where the best houses stand, or from a point where
you can secure the best material for a foreground, such as a stream of
water and bridge, or a forest, etc. Transfer each block to paper,
showing the fronts of one side and the rear of the buildings of the
other side, and so on through the entire row of blocks, when you return
to the place of starting, and go down the second row, always working
toward the vanishing point.
After you have gone over the entire city, and taken every building,
tree, and other objects of interest, and completed the sketch, you are
ready for working it up. Lay out the blocks and streets on drawing
paper, with pencil, in perspective, ruling from the vanishing point, the
center of the picture, toward the point of view, which enlarges the
objects of the foreground, and diminishes those in the distance.
In drawing _in_ the buildings, begin with the first house in the
foreground, drawing the roof lines, which should be parallel with the
lines of the street; next the gables, after which the corner lines,
which should be perpendicular to the drawing paper.
The drawing should be made first with pencil, and then in ink, with fine
pointed steel pen; for shading, use small camel hair brush and India
ink.
=Lights and Shades.= In a sketch it is found that mere outline is
insufficient to the representation of an object in relief; it cannot
give substance, nor define relative distances so as to maintain the
objects in their proper places. The matter of fact representation of the
breadth of a meridian light, and the same passage of landscape viewed
under the shades of evening, affects the feeling very differently. In
the latter, there is a charm which operates even upon minds least
susceptible of impressions from the beauties of nature. The general
principle acted upon by artists, is to dispose the lights and shades in
the manner best suited to the treatment they propose for their work.
There are two extremes of light and shade, and between these lie all
those half tints and reflected lights, and exquisite gradations of
shade, which must be so carefully placed in the drawing as to clearly
indicate the graceful curve of each individual petal, without in any way
destroying the roundness and breadth of a flower. The gradations of
shade are sometimes perplexing to the learner; but in this respect the
eye is a very safe guide. It requires no cultivated taste—not even any
great amount of critical observation—to see when an object which should
look perfectly round, appears flattened on the one side, or swell too
much on the other. The theory of foreground and middle distances and
background, has much to do with the principles of light and shade. It is
not the line of perspective alone which makes one portion of a picture
retreat, and another come forward.
[Illustration]
In the drawing of a round object, apple or ball, the shades fall on the
concave part, and incline toward the side opposite to light. All shades
of objects in the same picture must fall the same way, or farthest from
the light. That part lying nearest to the light must receive the least
shade. This rule will be noticed in the face, folds of the drapery, etc.
Landscapes show the heaviest shades nearest us, the greater the distance
the lighter grows the picture. In clouds, the shades are the lightest
that are nearest the horizon, it being the greatest distance from us,
and those nearest the center of the picture the strongest.
COLORS in NATURE.
[Illustration]
Colors are merely sensations produced by the action of light on the
nervous tissue of the retina, which covers the back of the eye.
There are Three Primary Colors in Nature, Blue, Red, and Yellow. From
these are formed, all the other beautiful tints which well up from the
bosom of the deep, glows in every flower, blossoms in the trees, and
sparkles in the dew drop; softly stealing from the moon and stars, and
written upon the blue arc of night. Red indicates anger, and sometimes
guilt. Blue is said to be true, but denotes melancholy and gloom. Yellow
indicates cautiousness and prudence, and reflects the most light of any,
after white.
Yellow-green is the color nature assumes at the falling of the leaf, and
this was worn in the days of chivalry, the emblem of despair. Green
denotes tranquility. In heraldry it is used to express liberty, love,
youth and beauty, and at one time all letters of grace were signed with
green.
The color of all objects depend on the action of those bodies on the
light which fall upon them, the different rays of which they reflect,
either entirely, or only partially. The light of the sun, and the lights
used for illumination, gas, etc., seem to consist of an infinite number
of rays, of different color, and however widely they may be spread out
by the prism in the spectrum, can never be entirely separated, but
always form an even gradation of color, from red at one end of the
spectrum, through orange, yellow, green, etc., to purple at the other
end. Sir Isaac Newton divided the spectrum into seven parts, thinking he
could distinguish seven different colors, red, yellow, blue, orange,
green, indigo, and violet, which he called primary colors. Sir D.
Brewster showed that those colors which Newton considered simple were,
in reality, compound, and mixed up with a considerable proportion of
white light. He concludes from his experiments that there were but three
simple colors, red, yellow, and blue—by the mixing of which the other
colors were produced.
The principal advantages attending the choice of red, blue, and yellow,
as primary colors, are: That the choice seems to agree with the fact
that whenever a ray of white light has one of these three colors removed
by absorption, the remaining colors of the ray is that which would be
found by an equal mixture of the other two colors. And when a ray has
two of its primary colors removed, the remaining color of the ray is
that of the third primary color. The color which opposes the strongest
contrast to any primary color, is that secondary color, which is formed
of a mixture of the remaining two primaries, in such proportion as would
form with the first white light. This color is called its complimentary
color—colors being called complimentary to each other when they together
form white light. For instance, blue has for its complimentary color the
neutral secondary orange, formed of a mixture of red and yellow, and
this color gives the most vivid contrast that can be opposed to blue.
Green is the complimentary, and strongest contrasting color to red, and
red to green; and yellow the strongest contrast, and complimentary to
purple, and purple to yellow.
When the colors of the spectrum in a circle, in a perfect gradation all
around the circumference, and so that the three primaries, red, yellow
and blue, are at points in the circumference equal distance from each
other, the strongest contrast to any color will be found at a point on
the other side of the circle diametrically opposite to it. Thus, blue
will be found exactly opposite to orange, which will be intermediate
between red and yellow; and, in the same way, yellow-green will be found
exactly opposite purple-red, etc. Now, as red, blue and yellow are the
three primaries, and that all other colors are composed of mixtures of
these, let us decide which of the many different colors called reds,
yellows, and blues we are to consider as pure, and true primaries. A
pure _yellow_ has been decided upon; _chrome-yellow_ (No. 1), chromate
of zinc (citron yellow), or light cadmium. A mixture of any two bright
primaries will produce a bright secondary, and any admixture of the
third primary will make the secondary color produced much duller or
blacker. We consider that would be the purest blue which gave the
brightest green with yellow, at the same time that it gave the brightest
purple with a red, and it was decided that _cobalt blue_ was the pure
primary, which was blue with regard to the yellow chosen. It is obvious
that if the blue were a greenish blue, although it might give a very
bright green with yellow, it would give but a dull purple with the red.
The yellow contained in the blue, and which made it greenish, would
blacken or dirty the purple produced, but would not interfere with the
brightness of the green. We choose _carmine_ for the primary red as the
color which gives the brightest purple with cobalt blue, at the same
time that it gave the brightest orange with chrome yellow. Thus we have
chrome (No. 1), for yellow, cobalt for blue, and madder carmine for red.
These are the primaries.
Colored objects appear colored owing to their action on light. This
action consists in absorbing one or more of the different colored rays
which fall upon it, and reflecting the rest; and it is these reflected
rays that give the color to the object. Bodies which emit light are
called _luminous_, as the sun. Bodies which transmit light, and through
which objects can be distinguished, are called _transparent_, as water,
glass, etc. Bodies which transmit light, and not so as to permit objects
to be seen through them, are called _translucent_, as ground glass, etc.
Bodies which absorb or reflect all the rays of light, or transmit so few
rays that the eye does not perceive them, are called _opaque_, as wood,
metal, etc.
What we call a pure white object, such as chalk or white paper, appears
white by reflecting all the light which falls upon it, and is therefore
precisely the same color as the light which falls upon it. A pure black
object is one which _absorbs_ all the light which falls upon it, and
reflects _none_. Such an object will always appear black, whatever may
be the color of the light which falls upon it. Gray objects, (pale
black), absorb the three primary rays equally, or in equivalent
proportions, but not _entirely_, so that there is a certain portion of
the white light reflected unchanged. A pure green absorbs _all_ the red,
and reflects _all_ the yellow and blue. A pale but pure green absorbs
only _part_ of the red, and reflects the remainder of the red, together
with all the yellow and blue. A dull and blackish green is formed by the
absorption of all the red, and also part of the blue and yellow, and the
reflection of the remainder of the blue and yellow. The same rule will
apply in all cases of all other colored objects, except transparent
ones. Silks and satins of either color reflect light.
When three colored rays are mixed together in neutralizing proportions,
white light is produced. The easiest way of finding what are the
equivalent proportions of the primary colors is this: divide a circle of
paper into three equal parts, by lines drawn from the center to the
circumference. Paint one of these spaces with pure yellow, such as lemon
yellow, or the palest chrome yellow, and paint one of the remaining
spaces pure but weak blue, with cobalt, and the other space pure but
weak red, with madder carmine. Then try, by spinning the card rapidly on
a pivot, whether these colors neutralize each other, and if not, darken
that color that is deficient until the gray produced is neutral—that is,
of the color of lampblack mixed with white; and when this is the case,
the colors on the three spaces will be of the proper neutralizing
strength for equal spaces.