Transcriber’s Notes:
Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
in the original text.
Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold=
in the original text.
Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.
The corrections listed in the ERRATA have been applied to the text.
THE
WINE PRESS
AND
THE CELLAR.
A MANUAL FOR
THE WINE-MAKER AND THE CELLAR-MAN.
By E. H. RIXFORD.
SAN FRANCISCO: NEW YORK:
PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. D. VAN NOSTRAND.
1883.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883,
by E. H. RIXFORD,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress,
at Washington.
C. W. GORDON,
Steam Book and Job Printer,
San Francisco, Cal.
[Illustration]
PREFACE.
In 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to $10
per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton, and
consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market
turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit. At this
time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes, and the
vines were rooted out of many vineyards, and the land devoted to the
production of more profitable crops. In 1878, however, the prices
were better, and the Mission grape brought from $12 to $14 per ton,
and the foreign varieties from $22 to $26, and under a growing demand
for California wines, the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and
Napa have paid during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882,
prices ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to
$35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as
$40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in
prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different
localities. Although in California we are accustomed to speak of the
“Mission grape” and the “foreign varieties” in contradistinction, it
may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than California
readers, that the “Mission” is undoubtedly a grape of European origin,
and was cultivated by the Spanish priests at the missions existing in
the country at the advent of the Americans, and hence the name. And
notwithstanding the existence of our grape, _Vitis Californica_, the
names “native” and “California grape” have been applied to the Mission,
but the word “foreign” is never used in describing it.
The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the
increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has kept pace
with the demand.
The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, commencing
with 1875, according to the reports published from time to time, are as
follows, in gallons:
Year. Wine. Brandy.
1875 1,031,507 42,318
1876 1,115,045 59,993
1877 1,462,792 138,992
1878 1,812,159 129,119
1879 2,155,944 163,892
1880 2,487,353 189,098
1881 2,845,365 209,677
The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for 1881, but
the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of the Merchants
Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792; from which I am led to
believe that those for 1881 are too large.
The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be from
6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880,
10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased acreage
of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two million
gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viticultural
Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-third of the
crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a little less. That of
1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons.
In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State, and
according to Mr. Haraszthy’s report as President of the Viticultural
Commission, contained in the report of the commission last mentioned,
the increase during the first two years after the first organization
of the commission in 1880, amounts to 40,000 acres. Since the date
of his report, April 19, 1882, the acreage must have been largely
increased, and making a liberal allowance for errors, we must have at
least 100,000 acres in vineyards in the State at the present time,
which ought to produce, at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine
in five years from now, and in five years more, with the increased
product from the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in
the meantime, the yield ought to be doubled.
Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had
no experience in wine making; and in order that such may have the
advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent
their whole lives in perfecting the art, and have had the benefit of
the knowledge derived from generations before them, the author has
prepared the following work, in which he has attempted to lay before
the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of
Europe, especially France, where the finest wines of the world are
produced.
What is here given is the result of research on the part of the author
chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the literature of
the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in the English
language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker, or
one who intends to become such. There are many good books in the French
language, and, in fact, the principal works on the subject are to be
found in that language. But the authors of many of them have hobbies,
and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs
from that pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to
compare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in
points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This was
not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes that the
beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the
following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist will have
brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs,
and the experimentalist, to whom we all are looking for further light,
will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are
the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the
infancy of this absorbing industry.
What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on
the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding the variations in
the methods, there are but few _material_ differences in the practices
in different localities in making a given kind of wine. It is true
that one method makes a red wine, a different one makes a white wine,
that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding practice
in vinification produces a sweet wine, and another a dry wine, but the
author is convinced that the method and practice which will produce the
best result in a given case in one locality will also produce the best
result in any other.
If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France it
is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain they
are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this practice
depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine. When
the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till
their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern
climes, then the wine made from their must may safely be treated
according to methods prevailing in the latter regions. If, on the
other hand, the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their
must indicates a density of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from
them would be absolutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe
grapes, and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern
climes.
The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the treatment
in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only vary with the
varieties of wine that are to be produced.
The general climate of California corresponds in many respects with
that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe; and the
percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and
interior portions of our State is about the same as that of the musts
of those regions. The musts produced in the central coast counties and
the bay counties of the State, in average seasons, equal, if they do
not exceed, in density the musts of the central and northern portions
of France in their very best seasons.
The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison
between our wines and those of other countries, as to alcoholic
strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illustrating an
advance in wine making in this State. The earlier wine makers, guided
by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural
regions of Europe, or by the information from writers of those
countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of
maturity without considering the different conditions of climate.
Musts, therefore, that were fit only for sweet wines, were treated
according to dry wine methods, and no wonder they were found heady,
used as table wines, with so high a percentage of alcohol.
The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines,
which means, not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar
than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to
become overripe, dried up, under the ardent rays of our constant sun.
The first figures are from a paper read by the late Major Snyder before
the Napa Wine Growers’ Association, and published in the _Rural Press_,
August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66.
Vol. per cent.
Color. Name of Maker. Year. of Alcohol.
White Craig 1867 Foreign grapes 14.4
“ “ 1870 Mission 13.4
“ Dresel & Gundlach 1861 14.4
“ “ 1870 13.3
“ “ 1862 12.5
“ “ 1867 13.6
“ J. R. Snyder 1865 Mission 12.5
“ “ 1860 12.6
“ “ 1867 13.3
“ “ 1868 12.8
“ A. F. Haraszthy 1871 Foreign 11.5
“ “ 1870 “ 12.6
Red Buena Vista Ass’n 1866 16.5
White “ “ 1871 11.5
Red “ “ 1871 12.6
White H. Winkle 1869 Mission 13.2
“ “ 1871 “ 12.5
“ L. Goss 1871 Zinfandel 12.8
The following figures are from the Report of the Commissioner of
Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report of the Chemist. It
will be observed that where the name is followed by a †, it is that of
the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker.
DRY RED WINES.
Per cent. Total
by vol. of acid as
Name. alcohol. Glucose. tartaric. Maker.
Sonoma Mission, ’79 10.03 None .722 Gretsch & Mayer.†
“ Zinfandel, ’79 9.78 Trace .693 “ “
Mission 9.29 do .917 B. Dreyfus & Co.
Zinfandel 11.35 do .768 “ “
Zinfandel, ’78 10.30 do .825 Dresel & Co.
Zinfandel, ’79 11.08 do .798 “ “
Zinfandel 12.31 do .814 Geo. Hamlin & Co.†
California Claret 10.56 do .903
Zinfandel 13.24 0.18 .726
DRY WHITE WINES.
White Hock 17.37 0.09 .855
White Hock 12.87 0.09 .767
Muscatel 13.34 0.12 .767
Sonoma Hock 12.05 0.13 .422 Perkins, Stern & Co.†
Riesling 11.26 Trace .846 Dresel & Co.
Hock 11.35 do .785 “ “
Dry Muscat 11.44 do .619 Dreyfus & Co.
Zinfandel 11.26 do .590 “ “
Riesling 12.05 do .696 “ “
Gutedel 11.70 do .756 “ “
Hock 9.70 do .723 “ “
Sonoma Mission, ’78 10.56 do .619 Gretsch & Mayer.†
“ Riesling, ’77(?) 13.15 do .695 “ “
“ “ ’79 13.15 do .575 “ “
“ Mission, ’79 10.38 do .619 “ “
“ Gutedel, ’79 11.87 do .589 “ “
Dry Muscat ’74(?) 12.40 do .816 “ “
Zinfandel, ’78 11.96 do .761 “ “
“ ’79 11.00 do .740 “ “
PORT. SWEET WINES.
California Port 21.89 8.60 .790
“ “ 20.89 5.78 .510 Kohler & Frohling.
“ “ 18.88 4.49 .755 Dreyfus & Co.
“ “ 19.87 5.88 .370 “ “
“ “ 15.49 8.60 .486 Perkins, Stern & Co.
“Sunny Slope“ 15.12 11.57 .433 “ “
Los Angeles 16.52 11.39 .508 Gretsch & Mayer.†
SHERRY.
California Sherry. 17.96 .61 .532
“ “ 16.15 2.45 .721 Dreyfus & Co.
“ “ 16.80 2.20 .573 “ “
CHAMPAGNES.
“Grand Prize“ med. dry 12.49 8.21 .821 Arpad Haraszthy.
“Eclipse,“ extra dry 11.87 6.51 .885 “ “
MISCELLANEOUS.
Gerke’s White 14.74 2.21 .673 Henry Gerke.
Sweet Muscatel 18.58 25.37 .753 Perkins, Stern & Co.
“ “ 22.36 11.59 .366 Dreyfus & Co.
“ “ 22.46 16.94 .331 “ “
Los Angeles Muscatel 17.08 13.44 .533 Gretsch & Mayer.†
Angelica 11.79 12.48 .489
“ 13.90 13.25 .347 Perkins, Stern & Co.
“ 18.14 14.81 .430 Dreyfus & Co.
“ 18.78 16.20 .466 Gretsch & Mayer.†
California Malaga 17.70 8.59 .659 Henry Gerke.
What is particularly striking in the figures last quoted, is the
remarkably high percentage of acid, which far exceeds what we had
hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. Yet as a large
proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may be that the wines
had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping.
From Prof. Hilgard’s report of the work done in the viticultural
laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University of
California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract Table V given
in the appendix. The figures for the averages are our own. This report
contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the
work done in the laboratory, and gives many details of the analyses
of these wines, which the limits of this volume will not permit us
to give in full. And those who wish to see the results of the most
complete analysis of California wines ever before made, are referred to
the report itself.
It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different
wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the
chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in this table were
furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a few of them having
been produced at the University, and were undoubtedly pure, and in
a fair condition, as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be
furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis; and the condition
of those analyzed by the chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful.
From analyses by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in the _Journal
of the Chemical Society_, London, for April, 1883, from _Zeits. Anal.
Chem._, XXII, 46-58, we extract the following figures, the alcoholic
strength being reduced to volume per cent. as nearly as could be done
from the per cent. by weight in volume without the specific gravity:
Red White White Red
Main. Main. Hocks. French. French. Moselle.
{ Max. 11.76 12.54 12.77 12.17 11.52 10.77
Alcohol { Min. 11.73 11.00 8.00 11.18 9.91 8.77
{ Aver. 11.75 11.76 10.83 11.67 10.58 10.02
{ Max. .62 .80 1.01 .71 .58 .95
Acid { Min. .54 .54 .48 .54 .48 .64
{ Aver. .58 .69 .66 .62 .54 .79
And from the analyses given in the work of Thudichum and Dupré, we
deduce the following:
THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES.
Vol. per cent. { Maximum 14.45 Acid as { Maximum .823
Alcohol. { Minimum 9.15 tartaric.{ Minimum .416
{ Average 10.00 { Average .543
SIX FRENCH CLARETS.
{ Maximum 12.38 { Maximum .645
Alcohol { Minimum 10.42 Acid { Minimum .548
{ Average 10.95 { Average .593
FOUR BURGUNDIES.
{ Maximum 14.97 { Maximum .668
Alcohol { Minimum 11.54 Acid { Minimum .495
{ Average 12.78 { Average .562
ELEVEN SHERRIES.
{ Maximum 22.75 { Maximum .626
Alcohol { Minimum 17.03 Acid { Minimum .372
{ Average 20.93 { Average .476
SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES.
{ Maximum 18.87 { Maximum .510
Alcohol { Minimum 16.60 Acid { Minimum .397
{ Average 17.37 { Average .454
ELEVEN PORT WINES.
{ Maximum 23.34 { Maximum .510
Alcohol { Minimum 18.04 Acid { Minimum .398
{ Average 21.50 { Average .424
TEN HUNGARIAN WINES.
{ Maximum 14.55 { Maximum .716
Alcohol { Minimum 11.55 Acid { Minimum .570
{ Average 12.85 { Average .637
The analyses of many other wines are given, and many other details
which would be of little use to the practical man, belonging rather to
the domain of the chemistry of wines.
There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for we
have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a
wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for himself what
kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce, and
his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind.
Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we are
beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the
different districts of the State. It is true that only a beginning
has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in this direction
can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves.
It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos, and furnish
for the information of the public the results of the labors of the
experimenters in the field.
Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of its chief
executive Viticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore, who has an
extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the
State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists are beginning
to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is now going on, which
without the Commission would be impossible.
It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of
vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of grapes
should be planted in the different sections, and probably the time to
produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information
on the latter subject has not yet arrived. As fast as reliable
information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be made known by the
Commission, and every intended vine grower should carefully study its
reports, as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of
the local viticultural societies, and those of the general conventions.
If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his ground
to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes, making sure
that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the best methods of
vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself, or keep a careful
record of his blends, and will age and rear the different products
according to the best and most intelligent methods, the writer
confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which
will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of
Europe; and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will
find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous
as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the
world.
The writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following
pages. What the intended wine maker wants is not new, untried theories,
but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in
the field, in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods
which, later he learns, have already been tried by the laborers before
him.
In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to the
following authors and their productions, as well as to others
mentioned in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he has
failed to give credit where it is due, it is because the information
remains, but the source is forgotten.
A. DU BREUIL, Les Vignobles et les Arbres et
Fruits à Cidre, Paris, 1875.
DR. JULES GUYOT, Culture de la Vigne et
Vinification, Paris, 1861.
HENRI MACHARD, Traité Pratique sur les Vins,
Bensançon, 1874.
RAIMOND BOIREAU, Culture de la Vigne,
Traitement des Vins, Vinification, Distillation, etc.,
2 vols., Bordeaux, 1876.
A. HARASZTHY, Grape Culture, Wines, and
Wine Making, New York, 1862, including translations
of JOHANN CARL LEUCHS on Wine Making, and
DR. L. GALL, Improvement in Wine Making.
L. PASTEUR, on Fermentation, Annales de
Chimie, 3 Series, Vol. LVIII, p. 330.
JOSEPH BOUSSINGAULT, Sur la Fermentation des
Fruits á Noyau Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210.
M. BOUSSINGAULT, Expériences pour constater
la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du moût de du marc de
raisin. Annales de Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433.
ANDRE PELLICOT, Le Vigneron Provençal,
Montpellier, 1866.
HENRY VIZITELLI, Facts about Sherry, London,
1876; Facts about Port and Madeira, London, 1880.
J. L. W. THUDICHUM and AUGUST
DUPRE, Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine,
London, 1872.
N. BASSET, Guide Théorique et Pratique du
Frabricant d’Alcool et du Distillateur.
J. J. GRIFFIN, Chemical Testing of Wines and
Liquors, London.
L. F. DUBIEF, Traité Complet Théorique et
Pratique de Vinification ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris.
P. SCHUTZENBERGER, On Fermentation,
International Scientific Series, New York, 1876.
E. J. MAUMENE, Traité Théorique et Pratique
du Travail des Vins, Paris, 1874.
M. W. MAIGNE, Nouveau Manuel Complet du
Sommelier et du Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret),
Paris, 1874.
DON PEDRO VERDAD, From Vineyard to Decanter,
a Book about Sherry, London, 1876.
GEN. E. D. KEYES, Letter to Major J. R.
Snyder, on Sherry making, published in San Francisco
_Daily Evening Bulletin_, May 29, 1877.
PROF. E. W. HILGARD, Report of work done
in the Viticultural Laboratory under the charge of
F. W. Morse, University of California, College of Agriculture;
Report of 1882, State Printer, Sacramento, 1883.
August, 1883.
CONTENTS.
PREFACE.
Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to 1882, the
Mission grape, v; annual shipments of wine and
brandy from California, annual production of wine,
acreage of vines, probable future production of
wine, vi; objects of this book, want of works on
the subject in English, method of vinification
varies with kind of wine rather than with locality
or climate, vii; climate of California and density
of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii;
comparison between California and European wines,
viii-xiii; State Viticultural Commission, xiii;
advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by
the author, list of authorities, xv.
CHAPTER I.
GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.
Utensils for picking, number of pickers necessary,
when to commence, 1; when to gather, successive
gathering, 2; sorting the grapes, requisite degree
of maturity, 3; signs of ripeness, gathering before
complete maturity, 4; gathering after complete
maturity, ripeness according to required strength, 5.
CHAPTER II.
MUST.
Composition, grape sugar, 6; must-scale, 7; testing for
sugar, 8; correcting for temperature, 10; sugar and
alcohol, alcohol in wine, 11.
CHAPTER III.
SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.
Sugaring, 13; nothing gained by adding sugar, 15; cost
of glucose wine, 16; experiment with glucose, the
use of glucose condemned, 17; watering, 18.
CHAPTER IV.
STEMMING AND CRUSHING.
Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of stemming,
proper practice, 20; to estimate tannin, stemmers,
21; how to remove the stems, crushing, methods of
crushing, 22; aerating the must, crushers, 23;
rapidity of operation, special practice, 24.
CHAPTER V.
FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.
Several different kinds of fermentation, alcoholic
fermentation, the yeast plant, 25; functions of
yeast, normal conditions of the life of yeast, 26;
action of various chemical and physical agents,
28; viscous or mannitic fermentation, lactic
fermentation, 29; acetic fermentation, 30; origin
of ferments, 31; ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE
MAKING: vinous or alcoholic fermentation,
sugar, 32; alcohol by weight and by volume, 33;
fermentation, its products, per cent., sugar to per
cent. alcohol, different authors, 34; limits of
sugar and spirit, 36; temperature, 37; fermenting
houses, 38.
CHAPTER VI.
RED WINE.
Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, filling the
tanks, 39; open vats, closed vats, 40; the best
practice, 41; hermetically sealed tanks, practice
in the Médoc, stirring the pomace in the vat, 42;
when to draw from the vat, 43; the objections to
long vatting, in making fine wines, 44; how to know
when to draw from the vat, method of drawing from
the vat and filling the casks, 45; wine presses,
46; pressing and press wine, special practice
for fine wines, TREATMENT OF RED WINES:
insensible fermentation, 47; ulling or filling up,
48; summary of the rules for the treatment of new
red wines, 50; treatment of old red wines, 51;
summary of rules for the care of old red wines, 53.
CHAPTER VII.
WHITE WINE.
Made from both red and white grapes, differences
between red and white wine, hygienic effect of
red and white wine, 54; process of making, the
barrels, filling the barrels during fermentation,
55; pressing and filling, different kinds of white
wine, dry white wines, mellow white wines, 56;
sweet white wines, grand white wines, 57; treatment
of white wines, to keep sweet, 58; dry white wines,
mellow white wines, 59; summary of rules, racking, 60.
CHAPTER VIII.
CASKS.
Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, 61; new
casks, 62; old casks, rinsing chain, visitor to
examine the inside of a cask, 63; empty casks,
washing, sulphuring casks, condition to be
examined, 64; flatness in the cask, acidity, mouldy
casks, 65; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to
sulphuring, cask borers, 66; size of casks, 67.
CHAPTER IX.
SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION.
Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous oxide or
sulphur dioxide, the sulphurer or sulphur burner,
69; sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a cask,
70; to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided
in certain cases, 71; arresting fermentation,
unfermented must, prepared in two ways, 72;
clarification and care of unfermented must,
sulphur flavor, 73; other substances to arrest
fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of
sulphurous acid, bisulphite of lime, 74; salicylic acid, 75.
CHAPTER X.
AGING.—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES.
General considerations, how new wine differs from
old, development of bouquet and flavor, old wine,
characteristics of, 76; color, aroma, flavor,
influences which develop, also destroy, influence
of the air, 77; variations of temperature,
influence of heat, 78; aging by heat, 79;
preserving wine by heat, 80; influence of cold,
treatment of frozen wine, 81; influence of light,
aging by sunlight, effect of motion of voyages,
wines suitable for shipment, 82; shipping new
wine, 83; other motions, aging by fining, aging
generally, 84; wines which gain the most by aging
processes, 85.
CHAPTER XI.
GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS.
Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc.,
86; to prevent degeneration, CELLARS:
temperature, 87; dampness, ventilation,
evaporation, 88; other precautions, supports for
casks and tuns, 89.
CHAPTER XII.
RACKING.
Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for
a good racking, 91; new red wines, 92; old red
wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent
rackings, 93; care to be observed, other
precautions, 94; different methods of racking,
implements for tipping the cask, 95; racking
without contact with the air, pumps and siphons, 97.
CHAPTER XIII.
CLARIFICATION—FINING.
Objects of fining, different substances employed,
gelatinous substances, 99; gelatine, its
preparation, isinglass, fish glue, or ichthyocol,
100; albuminous substances, blood, milk, white of
eggs, 101; clarifying powders, gum arabic, addition
of salt, addition of alcohol, addition of tannin,
preparation, 102; method of operation, implements
for stirring, 103.
CHAPTER XIV.
SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES.
Generally, to increase sugar in must, without
fermentation, care required, 105; clarification,
boiling must, left on the lees, 106; sweet
muscat, pressing, marc of sweet wines, amount
of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine,
107; straw wine, PORT WINE in the Upper
Douro: the must, lagars, etc., 108; treading,
fermentation, Vizitelli’s description, 109; lodges
or storehouses, mixing, port loses color in wood,
alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation, 112;
MADEIRA: making, casks, treatment, heating
house, heating, 113; solera system, ullage,
alcohol, 114; SHERRY: climate, vintage,
crushing, gypsum, 115; pressing, 116; plastering,
fermenting, adding spirit, 117; bodegas or
storehouses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso,
basto, flowers, 118; sweet wine, vino dulce, color
wine, vino de color, arrope, 119; mature wine,
THE SOLERA SYSTEM: establishing a solera,
120; standard soleras and their foundation, 121;
blending for shipment, 122; formulas, fining, 124.
CHAPTER XV.
DEFECTS AND DISEASES.
Divided into two classes, general considerations,
125; NATURAL DEFECTS: earthy flavor, its
causes, 126; how prevented, treatment, 127; wild
taste and grassy flavor, greenness, causes, 128;
prevention, treatment, 129; roughness, causes, not
a fault, disappears in time, how avoided, 130;
how removed, bitterness, causes, how prevented,
treatment, taste of the stems, 131; sourness,
causes, how prevented, treatment, 132; alcoholic
weakness, how avoided, treatment, 133; want of
color, causes, how guarded against, treatment,
dull, bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of
the lees, causes, 134; treatment, 135; putrid
decomposition, causes, 136; how avoided, treatment,
different defects together, ACQUIRED DEFECTS
AND DISEASES: flat wines, flowers, causes,
137; prevention, 138; treatment, 139; sourness,
acidity, pricked wine, causes, what wine liable
to, 140; how prevented, treatment, 141; experiment
before treatment, 142; Machard’s treatment, other
methods, 144; cask flavor, barrel flavor, causes,
145; treatment, 146; mouldy flavor, causes,
prevention and treatment, foreign flavors, 147;
ropiness, causes, treatment, ropy wines in bottles,
and other treatment, 148; acrity, treatment,
bitterness, 149; treatment, two kinds according
to Maumené, 150; fermentation, taste of the lees,
yeasty flavor, 151; how prevented, treatment,
degeneration, putrid fermentation, duration of
different wines, 152; treatment, 153.
CHAPTER XVI.
WINE IN BOTTLES.
When ready for bottling, how long to remain in wood,
154; how prepared for bottling, the most favorable
time for bottling, 155; bottles, 156; filling
the bottles, 157; corks, 158; corking machines,
159; preparation of the corks, driving in corks,
160; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the
same, coloring same, 161; capsules, capsuling,
piling bottles, 162; racks and bins for bottles,
164; treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation
in bottles, 165; deposits and turbidity, 166;
bitterness and acrity, ropiness, degeneration
and putridity, 167; decantation, 168; operation,
instrument, 169.
CHAPTER XVII.
CUTTING OR MIXING WINES.
Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect of,
171; wines of same nature should be used, fine
wines, 173; ordinary wines, must be allowed
sufficient time, large quantities, new and old
wine, green wines, 174; white and red wines,
diseased wines, mixing grapes, precaution, 175.
CHAPTER XVIII.
WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE.
Pomace and lees often placed in the still, WINE
LEES: the lees should be cared for, quantity
of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees,
analysis, vary, 176; treatment of lees, 177;
extraction of wine from the lees, 178; fining the
wine from the lees, 179; red wine from lees, white
wine from lees, pressing the sediment, 180; use
of dry lees, MARC OR POMACE—PIQUETTE:
unfermented marc of white wine or of red wine not
entirely fermented, fermented marc of red wine,
washing the marc, Pezeyre’s method, 183.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.
Generally, 185; table of substances recognized,
186; alcohol, estimate of, 187; ethers, sugar,
estimate of, 190; mannite, mucilage and mellowness,
191; pectose, pectin, fatty matter, glycerin,
coloring matter, aldehydes, 192; acids, tartaric,
malic, citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, 193;
acetic, lactic, valeric, succinic, total acids,
the bouquet, artificial bouquet, 194; Maumené’s
experiment, 195; different substances employed,
iris, 196; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly,
197; vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter
almonds and fruit pits, sassafras, 198; other
aromas, effects, 199.
CHAPTER XX.
GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS.
Proportion of juice to marc, 200; proportion of wine
to grapes, 201; wooden and metal utensils, 202;
cleanliness, 203; different cellar utensils, 204,
205; USEFUL RULES: to ascertain the
weight of a given number of gallons of a liquid,
for reducing must, for sugaring must, 206; for
fortifying and reducing wines, to reduce with
water, 207; to reduce with weaker or fortify with
stronger wine or alcohol, PLASTERING,
208; common practice in Spain and southern France,
objects, chemical effects, 209; effects on health,
210; plastering sherry, quantity used, 212; by
adding water, sherry flavor, 213.
APPENDIX.
Sugar tables: Table I, Balling’s degrees (per cent.
sugar), corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific
gravity at 63½° F., 215; Table II, Baumé’s
degrees, corresponding degrees Balling (per cent.
sugar), and specific gravity at 63½° F. 216;
Table III, Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per
cent. sugar, at 60° F. 217; Alcohol table, Table
IV, showing per cent. by volume for every one-tenth
per cent. from 0.1 to 30 per cent., corresponding
per cent. by weight, and specific gravity, 218-19;
Table V, showing amount of alcohol and acid in
different California wines, 220-23.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. Page.
1. HYDROMETER 8
2. HYDROMETER-JAR 9
3. WOODEN STEMMER 21
4. CRUSHER 23
5. FERMENTING VAT 41
6. WINE PRESSES 46
7. } ULLING POTS } 49
8. } }
9. } Z FUNNELS } 49
10.} }
11. RINSING CHAIN } 63
12. VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK }
13. SULPHURER } 69
14. MAUMENE’S SULPHURER }
15. CASK AND SUPPORT 89
16. JACK FOR TIPPING A CASK } 95
17. FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK }
18. } IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK } 96
19. } }
20. A METHOD OF RACKING } 97
21. } SIPHONS }
22. } }
23. ROTARY FORCE PUMP 98
24. } }
25. } IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING } 103
26. } }
27. BOTTLE WASHER }
28. } BOTTLE DRAINERS } 156
29. } }
30. RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES 157
31. BUNG SCREW 158
32. CORKING MACHINES 159
33. CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES 160
34. PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX } 162
35. CAPSULER }
36. PILING BOTTLES 163
37. } BOTTLE RACKS } 164
38. } }
39. BURROW’S SLIDER BIN 165
40. DECANTING BASKET }
41. CORKSCREWS } 169
42. DECANTING INSTRUMENT }
ERRATA
On page 216, Table II, read 63½° F, instead of 93½° F.
On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, read
11.00 per cent. by weight, instead of 10.10.
On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, read
20.9 by volume, instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by
volume, read .97251 specific gravity, instead of .96251.
On page 222 read Tienturier instead of Tenturier.
THE WINE PRESS AND THE CELLAR.
CHAPTER I.
GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.
The first step in wine making proper, is the gathering of the grapes,
or “picking,” as it is usually termed in California.
=Utensils for Picking.=—Knives, scissors, and pruning shears are used
to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that he finds most
convenient in practice; but if the berries are inclined to drop off,
scissors or pruning shears are preferable. Some authors give minute
descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which to
gather the grapes, but the practice in that respect usually followed
in this State will be found the most convenient. The grapes here are
generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds. The
box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top, or three
or four holes bored with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily
move it from vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands
to the wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying,
transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be filled
again.
=Number of Pickers necessary—When to Commence.=—There ought to be a
sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one
fermenting vat in a day, in making red wine. If, however, circumstances
render this impossible, it would be well to pile up the grapes on a
good clean floor, under cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill
the tank, and then crush them, and fill the tank in one day. (See _Red
Wine_.) Picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair
average ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the
latest variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate
the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that
they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so that
it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be
employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and before
too much sugar is developed. (See _Musts_.)
=When to Gather.=—It is of little importance at what time of the day
the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the morning or the heat
of mid-day, or whether the dew is on or off, as long as they are ripe.
In some countries, however, and in what are known as bad years, the
grapes do not arrive at complete maturity, and therefore great care
is taken to gather them only in dry weather, and after the dew has
disappeared. (See _Fermentation—Temperature_.) If they are picked
during the heat of the day, fermentation will commence sooner than if
picked in the cool of the morning; and for this reason, in making white
wine from colored grapes, care should be taken to pick and press them
when cool, if it is desired that the wine should be free from color;
for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing, as it is apt
to do if the grapes are warm, some of the coloring matter is pretty
sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the wine.
=Successive Gathering.=—It is sometimes recommended that the grapes
should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vineyard two or three
times, and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe, leaving the
green ones, but even picking off separately three or four grapes from
each bunch where it is not evenly ripened, and this is the practice
that is followed to-day in making the great white wines of France and
Germany; but it certainly will not be adopted in this State while labor
is as dear, and wine is as cheap as it is at present. Instead, that
practice will be followed which is recommended by those writers who
advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they
are all fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one picking.
Where, however, different varieties are planted in the same vineyard,
which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked at the
same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first, and the
later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The same rule
also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on different
soils and in different situations, as it is well known that the same
variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil,
earlier than on low land and rich soil.
=Sorting the Grapes.=—It will frequently happen, however, that there
are some bunches of green grapes, and they should always be thrown
aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes, also, there is what is
called a second crop, which ripens so much later than the main one that
two gatherings are necessary. In that case it would be injurious to the
grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine till the complete
maturity of those of the second. Careful wine makers, therefore, will
find it to their advantage, either to leave the green grapes upon the
vines for a second picking, or, if all are picked together, to throw
the green ones into a separate receptacle, or to sort them out from the
ripe ones before crushing. Those who wish to take extra care will even
have the unripe, rotten, and dried berries clipped from the bunches
with scissors. These extra precautions are those which are observed
in making the great wines of Europe; but they are not suggested here
in the expectation that they will be generally followed by the wine
makers of California, but rather for the purpose of indicating the best
practices to those who may find out that on account of the varieties
they cultivate, and of the situation and soil of their vineyards, they
too can produce such wines by using the same care.
=Requisite Degree of Maturity.=—It is insisted by all intelligent
writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which will be
mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived
at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines from the finest
varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color, that
delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that alcoholic strength
which they possess in so eminent a degree. And if it is so necessary
that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe, it is
quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally
so. For these latter are generally wanting in sugar, and consequently
their wines are feeble in strength, and as the sugar increases directly
with the degree of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in
their wines increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up
for their natural defects.
=Signs of Ripeness.=—Complete maturity of the grape is indicated by the
concurrence of the following signs:
1. The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown.
2. The bunch becomes pendant.
3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become
thin and translucent.
4. The berries are easily separated from the stem.
5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable
flavor; has become sweet, thick, and glutinous.
6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances.
These are the signs given by several French authors, and are here
taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that, under some
circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the
state of maturity indicated by these signs, and under other conditions
should be gathered even later. He says:
=Gathering before Complete Maturity.=—1. In certain localities north of
the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the degree of
maturity just indicated. Yet the crop must be gathered, or otherwise it
would rot on the vines. Under these circumstances, the only thing that
can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long as they derive
any benefit from it.
2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered
before the moment of absolute maturity.
3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for the making
of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of
maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the quantity of sugar in the
grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to
make a dry wine. This is the practice in making the dry white wines of
Lunel, of Coudrieux, of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray.
4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the
olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree
of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed
into alcohol by fermentation. The result will be that these wines
will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation, which will make its
appearance whenever they are moved, and which will soon change into
acetic fermentation. The only way to cure this tendency and to render
the wines capable of shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the
addition of spirits. To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the
grapes should be gathered before complete maturity.
Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been confined to
the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases the grapes
should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar,
and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many
cases acquire, they recommend that the must be reduced by water. (See
_Watering Musts_.)
=Gathering after Complete Maturity.=—To make sweet wines, the grapes
should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest
possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the grapes are not only
allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also artificial means are
resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or drying them on straw after
picking, and even applying heat to them in various ways. (See _Sweet
Wines_.)
=Ripeness according to Required Strength.=—If the wine maker will
first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be, he
may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time
the amount of sugar contained in the grapes, and by gathering them
at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that, fermented, it
will produce the desired percentage of spirit. This testing is easily
performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer; and for
information on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on
musts.