fields a carpet of mangled forms. You are not dropping ruin and death
from the skies or polluting God's pure waters with submarines. You are
not turning all your energies into the work of destruction, despoiling
the treasures of art and the pride of the ages and turning the fairest
portions of the earth into desolations. You are not changing yourselves
into demons to gloat over starvation and ruin. You are soldiers of
peace. Behind you was the somber earth. You touched it with the wand of
your power, and beauty, health and pleasure sprang up to bless you.
See what you have done! You have clothed the barrenness of the dreary
plain with gardens, orchards and forests. You have been at work with God
and glorified a vast empire, and now he has blessed the work of your
hands. Instead of the air sodden with tears and tremulous with the wail
of widows and orphans, you are welcomed with the joy of children and the
delight of mothers. All along the lines of progress you receive the most
cordial ovations, and when you pass on to the land where "everlasting
spring abides", may you receive the royal welcome, "Well done, good and
faithful servant."
The Newer Fruits in 1915 and How Secured.
PROF. N. E. HANSEN, STATE COLLEGE, BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA.
Mr. Hansen: Mr. President and Fellow Members: This subject is not an
entirely satisfactory one this year owing to the fact that we lost about
three sets of tomato plants from frost, the last frost coming the ninth
of June. These conditions, of course, are unusual, but it prevented the
fruiting of a lot of new fruit seedlings which appeared promising.
However, I decided to propagate two new plums because they had borne
several excellent crops. One of these is a very late plum of good
quality, with flesh of peculiar crisp texture, which ripens after all
the other plums, about a week before frost. It is a combination of the
Wolf plum with the Kansas sand plum (_Prunus Watsoni_). The tree is of
late dwarf habit but very productive, and its late season may give it a
place.
Another plum which I decided to place in propagation is a hybrid of the
wild plum of Manitoba with the Japanese plum. The mother tree was raised
from wild plum pits received from Manitoba a few years ago. These bear
very freely and are the earliest of the native plums. The tree is of
low, dwarf habit. The fruit is not as large as my Waneta, which is a
hybrid of the largest native plum, the Terry, (_Prunus Americana_), with
the Apple, one of the best of Burbank's Japanese plums. But since the
range of the plum Manitoba is so far north, it may give greater
hardiness where that is needed. At any rate, it is of interest to know
that the Manitoba native plum can be mated with the Japanese plum.
Pears constitute my favorite line at present. "What can I do for hardy
pears?" is a question I have been asked many times. The prairie
northwest cannot raise pears owing to the cold or the blight. In my
travels in Asia, including four tours of exploration in Siberia, I made
a business of buying up basketfuls of pears in Manchuria, Mongolia,
Western China and Eastern Siberia and saving the seed, giving the flesh
away to the coolies, who were glad always to get the fruit. These have
raised me many seedlings. In addition I have imported a lot of pears
from Russia.
[Illustration: Pyrus Simoni
The hardy, blight-proof sand pear used by Prof. N.E. Hansen in breeding
pears for the Northwest. A careful study of our eastern Arctic pears has
been made recently by Mr. Alfred Rehder, botanist at Arnold Arboretum,
and this form of sand pear is now called Pyrus Ovoidea instead of Pyrus
Sinensis, or Pyrus Simoni.]
The pears of northern China and eastern Siberia are usually called the
Chinese sand pear and have been given various names, _Pyrus Sinensis_,
_Pyrus Ussuriensis_, _Pyrus Simoni_. The form I am working with mainly
was received in the spring of 1899 at the South Dakota Station under the
name of _Pyrus Simoni_, from Dr. C.S. Sargent, Director of the Arnold
Arboretum, Boston, Massachusetts. Since the publication of Bulletin 159,
of the South Dakota Experiment Station, April, 1915, in which I give a
brief outline of this work, the pears of this region have been studied
by Dr. Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum, and it now appears that
the true name of _Pyrus Simonii_ should be _Pyrus Ovoidea_. These trees
have proved perfectly hardy at Brookings and have never suffered from
blight. Varieties of other pears have been top-grafted on this tree, and
they have blighted, but the blight did not affect the rest of the tree.
Mr. Charles G. Patten, Charles City, Iowa, also has a form of the
Chinese sand pear which has proven immune to blight. In other places
sand pears have been under trial which have suffered from
winter-killing. However, I understand that the pear Mr. Patten has
tapers toward the stem, while the pear received by me as _Pyrus Simonii_
tapers toward the blossom end. The actual source of seed is really of
greater importance than the botanical name, as it is possible to get the
seed from too far south, whereas we should plant only the northern form
of the species.
The fruits of _Pyrus Ovoidea_ correspond in size to the ordinary pear
much like the Whitney crab-apple does to the apple. It is a real pear,
juicy and sweet, but not high flavored. Other varieties of pears have
been top-grafted on this tree and have blighted, but the blight did not
affect the rest of the tree. During the many seasons I have had this
pear the tip of one twig only showed a very slight trace the past
season, but I did not determine it was really blight. It is practically
immune.
I have also worked the Birch-Leaved pear, _Pyrus betulifolia_, Bunge, a
native of northern China, and a choice ornamental tree. Trees of this
species were received from a nursery in Germany in the fall of 1896 and
have proven perfectly hardy and quite resistant to blight. The fruit is
quite small, usually less than one-half inch in diameter, covered with
thick russet. _Betulifolia_ means birch-leaved, alluding to the shape of
the leaf.
Now, the pear is a difficult thing to work with on account of blight.
What is blight? It is an American bacterial disease, not found in the
home of the pear, Asia or Europe, so that during the 6,000 years of its
cultivation of recorded history the pear has never had to meet the
bacterial enemy known as blight. That is one of the reasons, I presume,
why they have such strict quarantine in Europe against American trees.
The question with pears is, will they stand blight or not? They are
spending hundreds of thousands of dollars in California to keep out
blight. Blight is a native of the northeast United States, and they are
keeping it down on the Pacific slope, but they are always on the edge of
the precipice. The whole pear culture of America is in an unsatisfactory
state, owing to this danger.
With these two northern pears as a foundation, I have endeavored to
secure seedlings with fruit of large size and choice quality by
hybridizing them with many of the best cultivated pears from Germany,
France, England, Central Russia and Finland, as well as with some of the
best varieties from the eastern pear-growing regions of the United
States. The work has been done mostly under glass in our fruit-breeding
greenhouse. Some of these fruits weighed one and one-fourth pounds. Some
of the resulting seedlings are subject to blight, while many have thus
far shown immunity. Since it is impossible to determine their relative
immunity to blight except by distributing them for trial elsewhere, I
sent out scions in the spring of 1915 of thirty-nine of these new
seedlings to twenty-four men in several states. These varieties are
under restrictions until fruited and deemed worthy of further
propagation.
[Illustration: Crossing work in pears--view in Prof. N. E. Hansen's
Fruit-Breeding Greenhouse, State College, Brookings, S.D.]
I did not know whether immunity to blight is a possibility or only an
iridescent dream, so I made no charge for these scions. The only test of
a pear seedling, the same as with the apple, is that of propagation.
Furthermore, if you have but the one seedling tree you may lose it by
accident; whereas, if you send it out to a number of good men, you
cannot lose it.
It should be distinctly understood that none of these new seedlings have
borne fruit, but by what may be termed the projective efficiency of the
pedigree I am satisfied that some of them will be valuable. In like
manner, a horse-breeder depends so much on the pedigree in his colts
that he is willing to enter them in a race. I believe something of value
will come from this line of work. I do know that my _Pyrus Ovoidea_ is a
pretty good, juicy little pear, a whole lot better than no pear at all.
I hope these seedlings will keep up their immunity to blight. The
original seedling trees certainly have had every chance to become
affected by blight, as they were surrounded by blighting apple trees,
crab-apple trees and pear trees, and no blight was cut out. I thought
this was the best way, since that is the test they will have in the
farmers' orchards when they go out from the nursery.
_Hardy Pear Stocks._--Now we are up against the problem of stocks for
these hardy pears. The quince is a standard dwarf stock, but it is not
hardy enough for us. Last spring I planted 12,000 seedlings of the
various commercial pear stocks, including imported French pear
seedlings, American grown French pear seedlings, Kieffer pear seedlings
and Japan pear seedlings. From one season's experience I like the Japan
pear the best. The French pear seedlings, especially, did not do well.
The Japan pear stock is coming into high favor in recent years on our
Pacific slope, where it is sometimes called the Chinese blight-proof
stock. The French pear stock is not in favor on our Pacific slope owing
to their liability to blight. We may also expect from the French pear
stock a decided lack of hardiness. The Japan pear stock is probably some
form of the Chinese sand pear. The seed may come from too far south,
whereas we should plant only the northern form of the species. This
varying degree of hardiness in the Japan pear seedling of commerce I
find discussed in a German horticultural paper. I have tried to
establish a regular source of supply by importing the seed, but it is
difficult indeed to do this. To avoid root-killing at the north we
should mulch these Japan pear seedlings heavily until we get enough
orchards of this truly hardy form, _Pyrus Ovoidea_, planted so we can
raise our own stocks. I firmly believe we will extend pear culture on
the North American continent clear to the Arctic Circle if we wish.
For pear stocks I am going to try everything I can think of. Some years
ago I worked pears on Juneberry stock from a hint given me many years
ago by Professor J.L. Budd. These grew well and were in full bloom when
five feet high, but were lost in clearing off a block of trees. I hope
to try this again on a larger scale. The mountain ash and hawthorn are
sometimes used, but both will be expensive and perhaps short-lived. The
quince is the dwarf stock of commerce but would need to be very heavily
mulched to prevent root-killing. Such dwarf pears are splendid in the
back yard, or for training up against the side of the house; the fruit
is fine and large, and the trees fruit the second year. The pear will
root in nursery by grafting with a long scion on apple seedlings. I hope
there will be much work done along this line.
To sum up the question, I think there is a hardy pear in sight. We have
the requisite pedigree back of it, and it seems that the quality we call
immunity to blight is in some of these Chinese or Siberian pears. If we
can combine the hardiness and blight-resistance of this Siberian pear
with the large size and high quality of fruit of the European pear, with
thousands of years of cultivation back of it, then we have the solution
of the pear question in sight. Millions and millions of people are
watching for a good hardy pear. (Applause.)
* * * * *
WARNING TO MUSHROOM GROWERS.--As the result of a serious case
of mushroom poisoning in a mushroom grower's family recently, the
mushroom specialists of the U.S. Department of Agriculture have issued a
warning to commercial and other growers of mushrooms to regard with
suspicion any abnormal mushrooms which appear in their beds. It seems
that occasionally sporadic forms appear in mushroom beds, persist for a
day or two, and then disappear. These are generally manure-inhabiting
species and may be observed shortly after the beds have been cased. In
the instance cited, however, these fungi appeared in considerable
numbers at the time the edible _Agaricus campestris_ should have been
ready for the market, and the dealer supposed it was probably a new
brown variety and tried it in his own family. As a result, five persons
were rendered absolutely helpless and were saved after several hours
only through the assistance of a second physician who had had experience
with this type of poisoning.
In the opinion of the Department, this case is peculiarly significant
and demonstrates that the grower must be able to distinguish _Agaricus
campestris_ from any of the wild forms of mushrooms that may appear in
the beds. Under the circumstances, the Department strongly urges every
grower to make himself thoroughly familiar with the cultivated species.
Complete descriptions, with pictures of poisonous and cultivated
species, are contained in Department Bulletin 175, "Mushrooms and Other
Common Fungi," which can be purchased for 30 cents from the
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
Manufacture of Cider Vinegar from Minnesota Apples.
PROF. W. G. BRIERLY, HORT. DEPT., UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL.
Cider making is an old process, carried on in a small way on the farm or
more extensively in the commercial "quick process." From apple cider
many different products are obtained, chief of these being vinegar and
others being bottled cider, boiled cider, apple butter and, more
recently, concentrated cider and cider syrup. This discussion will
consider only the manufacture of vinegar.
As a farm process, the making of cider vinegar utilizes an otherwise
waste product, the culls or unmarketable varieties. It can be done on
rainy days or when other work is slack. For the best results, however,
as in any form of marketing, some vinegar should be made each year so
that the market may be supplied regularly, and, further, to give the
necessary experience which will mean a better quality of vinegar.
As a commercial process we find the making of cider is a regularly
conducted manufacturing enterprise in which a considerable amount of
capital is needed. Expert knowledge of vinegar making, especially of the
"quick process," is essential. On this basis it is not open to the apple
grower and is a doubtful venture on a co-operative plan without the help
of experts. Where a vinegar factory is established, however, it gives to
the orchardist a means to dispose of his cull apples.
Considering the process as it can be carried on on the farm, there are a
number of distinct steps, all of which are important. The first step is
to prepare for the work. Get a good machine, as it will pay for itself
in the added extract of juice. A good machine need not cost more than
$25 and may be had for less. Casks must be obtained and sterilized with
live steam or sulphur fumes, washed thoroughly, and kept in a convenient
place where they will not dry. It is best as well to have the
convenience of running water to wash the apples if dirty and to clean up
the machine occasionally. Cleanliness should be provided for and
insisted upon, as dirty and decaying apples not only give undesirable
flavors, but the bacteria and molds feed upon the sugar in the cider and
greatly reduce the strength of the vinegar. This is one reason why a
rainy day is a good time for cider making, as dust and flies are less
and molds are not so abundantly "planted" in the cider.
The next step is the grinding and pressing and is very simple. With an
efficient machine the cider is quickly ready for the casks.
Then follows the first fermentation, which very frequently is not
properly managed, and poor vinegar results. The casks should be filled
only two-thirds full, the bung left open but screened with cheesecloth
or lightly fitted with a plug of cotton to admit air. Compressed yeast
generally should be added, at the rate of one cake to each five gallons,
first mixing the yeast in lukewarm water. If the cask is then placed in
a warm place, at least sixty degrees--seventy degrees or more being
better--we have the three requirements of proper fermentation, namely,
air, warmth and yeast. This will give rapid fermentation, which will
reduce the loss of sugars to a minimum. This fermentation should be
allowed to go on until completed. If vinegar starts to form it will
usually leave a residue of sugar and give a weaker vinegar. It will
require from two weeks to a year to change all the sugars into alcohol,
depending upon the management of the work. When finished the clear juice
is "racked" or siphoned into a clean cask, through a straining cloth to
insure the removal of all pomace or sediment.
[Illustration: Prof. W. G. Brierly, Horticultural Dept., University Farm,
St. Paul, Minn.]
Then follows the fermentation to produce the acetic acid and finish the
vinegar. A "starter" of "mother" can be used, but it is best to take out
a gallon or more of the cider when "racking" and add a pint to a quart
of a good grade cider vinegar. Let it stand in a warm place, well
covered with cheesecloth, and in from four to ten days a granular,
brownish cake should begin to form. This starter can then be put
directly into the casks, a pint or more to each cask. If the starter
develops a white, slimy coat, throw it out and start again. For all of
this second stage of fermentation follow the same plan as at first. Fill
the barrels not over two-thirds full, use a cotton plug or cheesecloth
screen at the bung and keep at a warm temperature. The essentials again
are air and warmth, with a good vinegar starter. Under these conditions
the vinegar may be ready in from two to ten months. If the usual plan of
"natural" fermentation is followed, and the cask is kept at a low
temperature, it may be three years before the vinegar is ready.
When the vinegar seems to be completed, send a sample to the State Dairy
and Food Commission at the Capitol for analysis. If they say it is
completed, "rack" off and strain again into clean barrels, this time
filling full and driving in the bung. This will prevent loss from
evaporation, and the vinegar can be sold at any time. The state law
requires that cider vinegars sold in the state measure up to a certain
standard--namely, four per cent. of acetic acid, 1.6 grams per 100 cc.
of solids, and .25 grams per 100 cc. of ash.
So much for vinegar making in general. For Minnesota conditions little
is known about the definite behavior of any apple varieties. This has
led to the study of vinegar making as a problem for the Experiment
Station. The Division of Horticulture is carrying on variety tests to
determine the yields of juice at different stages of maturity, the
efficiency of types of presses, labor costs per gallon, and the
production of vinegar from each variety to determine its value. The
Division of Agricultural Chemistry makes analyses of the sweet cider to
determine the composition and vinegar prospects, and also analyzes the
vinegars at various stages. The work has been carried on for two seasons
and is showing some interesting facts. These must, however, be checked
with further work before definite statements can be published.
As to machines, our results show that the press with press cloths will
outyield nearly two to one the press with the barrel or drum. However, a
strong grain sack used to catch the pomace and used to confine it in the
drum will give a very satisfactory yield, but it requires a considerable
amount of labor to do this.
As to labor costs per gallon, we have as yet no definite figures except
that one man can grind and press a minimum of eight to nine gallons an
hour. Two men can raise the output to at least thirteen gallons. At 25
cents per hour the cost per gallon on this basis varies between two and
four cents. As the apples are of little value, and the labor generally
"rainy day" labor, this seems to give an inexpensive product.
Our vinegars are as yet incomplete. The run of 1914 was very limited and
of necessity stored in a cold cellar. It now tests two per cent. acetic
acid, so is only half finished.
As to variety yields, the results of the work of two seasons compare
very closely and show generally that there is a variation from a minimum
of a scant two gallons up to more than a pint over three gallons from
forty pounds of each variety. The forty-pound quantity is taken as
representative of the bushel by measure. The varieties leading cider
production are--the Hibernal and Wealthy, which generally have given us
about three gallons per forty pounds, the Duchess and Patten running
slightly lower in cider yield. The Longfield, Lowland Raspberry,
Charlamoff and Whitney rank in a third group, according to our trials.
This does not mean, however, that those in the latter group are not
usable, as the Charlamoff and Whitney are among the highest in sugar
content. These figures are greatly modified if the apples have been in
storage or are over-ripe.
The chemical analyses of the ciders show that, in general, Minnesota
apples do not contain relatively high percentages of sugars. This varies
with the season and increases with maturity. The highest total sugar
content in ripe apples has been found in the Charlamoff at 9.25 per
cent., followed in order by Whitney, 9.08 per cent., Wealthy 8.81 per
cent., Duchess 8.60 per cent., Patten 8.21 per cent., Hibernal 7.85 per
cent., and Longfield at 7.17 per cent. The significance of these figures
is seen when the statement is made that it usually takes two per cent.
sugars to make one per cent. of acetic acid. With the majority of our
apples we must work carefully, or the vinegar will not meet the state
standard of four per cent. acetic acid. This is further substantiated by
the report of the State Dairy and Food Commission that the vinegar
samples sent to them rarely come up to the standard.
From the data as we now have it we cannot draw definite conclusions, but
in general it is safe to say that the making of vinegar from Minnesota
apples is done on a close margin. This will mean careful work to get the
most out of the fermentation, the use of yeast, warm cellars or store
rooms and proper management of the casks as to filling and the entrance
of air. The work is not expensive. There is a good demand for really
good vinegar, and a market is provided for fruit which could not readily
be sold in any other form.
A Summer in Our Garden.
MRS. GERTRUDE ELLIS SKINNER, AUSTIN.
Summer in our garden begins with the arrival of the first seed catalogue
in January, and closes the day before its arrival the next January. We
may be short on flowers in our garden, but we are long on seed
catalogues in our library. We do not believe in catalogue houses
excepting seed catalogues. We find them more marvelous than the Arabian
Nights, more imaginative than Baron Manchausen, and more alluring than a
circus poster. We care not who steals the Mona Lisa so long as Salzer
sends us pictures of his cabbages. The art gallery of the Louvre may be
robbed of its masterpiece without awakening a pang in our breasts, if
Dreer will only send us the pictures of those roses that bloom in the
paint-shops of Philadelphia. Morgan may purchase the choicest
collections of paintings in Europe and hide them from the public in his
New York mansion, if May will send us pictures of watermelons, such as
were never imagined by Raphael, Michael Angelo or Correggio.
While the world watches the struggle for the ownership of some great
railway system, the control of some big trust, the development of some
enormous enterprise, we watch for the arrival of the seed catalogue to
see which artist can get the most cabbages in a field, the most melons
on a cart, or make the corn look most like the big trees of Yosemite.
Don't talk to us of the pleasures of bridge whist, it is not to be
compared with the seed catalogue habit.