interested member of the society is called for as to what success, if
any, has been had in growing the McIntosh Red top-worked on hardy trees
here in Minnesota. Scions of this variety have been sent out several
years by the society and probably some have already come into fruitage,
or perhaps they have been secured from other sources. Replies will be
published. Address Secy. Latham.
NO PLANT PREMIUMS AFTER APRIL 1ST.--All members ordering plant
premiums have undoubtedly noted this important condition that "all
applications for plant premiums must be made prior to April 1st." This
condition will be strictly adhered to, and those sending in selections
for plant premiums after that date need not feel disappointed if they do
not receive them. It is absolutely necessary to make a definite date
beyond which no applications will be received in order to work out
successfully the problem of distribution which faces us at that time.
TO MEMBERS OF AUXILIARY SOCIETIES.--Occasionally a member of an
auxiliary society writes to this office asking for a copy of the annual
volume of the society. Members of auxiliary societies are entitled to
this volume, but the State Society does not pay postage on it, the
amount received from auxiliary societies for memberships not permitting
this expense. Any member of any auxiliary society who wishes to have a
copy of the annual volume mailed from this office should send with the
application postage at the rate of seven cents if within one hundred
fifty miles of Minneapolis, and ten cents to points in the state more
than one hundred fifty miles from Minneapolis.
BUY NURSERY STOCK AT HOME.--There are always more or less
agents of foreign nurseries, that is nurseries located outside the
state, canvassing for orders of nursery stock in our state, and many
citizens are also tempted to reply to advertisements of outside
nurseries who are trying to secure business in Minnesota. It is not my
purpose to condemn these outside nurseries nor their methods of doing
business, which in most cases undoubtedly are honorable and straight
forward. But there is a real advantage in buying nursery stock at home,
that is, from nurserymen located in our own state, and especially from
nurserymen who are in the immediate vicinity. There is no class of goods
that one can buy in connection with which there is such opportunity for
mistake and fraud as in nursery stock. It is impossible for any but an
expert to tell by the appearance of a tree or plant of any kind what the
variety is, and either through mistake or purposely it is no uncommon
thing for those purchasing trees to be disappointed as to the names of
varieties when they come into fruitage or flower. If the nurseries are
in our own state, or in our vicinity, it is a very easy matter to get at
them, and they will almost uniformly be found willing to make good such
blunders, or if they don't and the matter is worth while they can be
made to do so. Don't place your orders outside of the state if the
things you want can be purchased at home. You will find it a real
advantage to act on this counsel. Especially in the case of strawberry
plants the element of distance is a very important one as on account of
their leafy character they heat and spoil readily. A few plants near
home are often worth more to the recipient than a large shipment from
abroad.
NURSERYMEN OF MINNESOTA.--The secretary endeavors to keep a
correct list of all those engaged in the nursery business in this state.
As far as his personal acquaintance goes of course the list is known to
be a correct one, but there are doubtless a number engaged in the
nursery business in a small way of whom he does not know personally, and
he would be glad to hear from any engaged in the nursery business who
are not personally acquainted with him so that their names may be added
to this list. The address of the secretary is always to be found on the
front cover page of this magazine.
THE SOCIAL ELEMENT AT OUR ANNUAL MEETING.--Those of our members
who attended the last annual meeting could not have failed to note the
large proportion of ladies in attendance at these meetings, not only at
the one managed by the Woman's Auxiliary, but also at every other
meeting during the four days session. You may be surprised to learn that
approximately one-third of those who registered as purposing to attend
the meeting belonged to the gentler sex, and the proportion in
attendance was somewhere in that neighborhood. This is one of the
delightful features of our annual gathering which is steadily
increasing. More and more are the ladies attending our meetings, and in
larger number are they becoming members of the association aside from
any relation they may sustain as wives or daughters to those who are
already members. This movement should be in every way encouraged, and we
hope another year to be able to offer still more attractive
accommodations in this direction. In planning for a new building for the
society, this feature of our work should not by any means be lost sight
of. I believe that very few organizations of this kind can boast so
large an interest on the part of the ladies in the various branches of
its work.
DID YOU SELECT EVERBEARING STRAWBERRIES AS YOUR PREMIUM?--An
altogether unexpected demand has been made upon us for the Everbearing
Strawberries the society is offering as plant premiums to its members
this spring. Probably twice as many plants have been called for as can
be furnished in the amount asked for. Under the "right of substitution"
which the society reserves in the matter of its plant premiums, probably
plant premium No. 16 will be substituted for Nos. 17 and 18 if matters
turn out as now appears, though the number of plants sent will be more
than is offered under No. 16. As this everbearing strawberry, originated
at the fruit-breeding farm, No. 1017, is a very prolific plant maker, a
dozen plants, if the runners are allowed to grow, will make plants
enough to set out a bed of them next year, large enough in all
probability for family use.
In the matter of June-bearing strawberry No. 3, offered as premium,
there is undoubtedly stock enough to fill all orders including those
asked for for which money has been sent, and we are in hopes that orders
for raspberry No. 4 can be filled in their entirety, though it may be
necessary to return money which has been sent for additional plants.
In this distribution all members will be treated exactly alike and
altogether in accordance with the conditions noted in connection with
the list of premiums as found on page six of the society folder and on
the inside front cover page of the magazine.
[Illustration: VIEW IN FRUIT-BREEDING GREENHOUSE, STATE COLLEGE,
BROOKINGS, S.D.
This is Prof. N. E. Hansen's laboratory, where he works out his problems
in cross-breeding. (See opposite page.)]
While it is not the intention to publish anything in this
magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be
remembered that the articles published herein recite the
experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must
always be noted in estimating their practical value.
THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST
Vol. 44 MAY, 1916 No. 5
What is Hardiness?
PROF. N. E. HANSEN, HORTICULTURIST, BROOKINGS, S.D.
By the term hardiness is understood the capacity to resist against any
special condition of environment. So in speaking of hardiness of the
plant it may mean hardiness as to either cold, heat, drouth, fungus or
insect trouble. In the present discussion hardiness against cold will be
considered mainly, since that is the most difficult problem we have to
meet in this horticultural field. It would be of great advantage could
we determine by examination of the plant its power to resist cold. If we
could determine by the looks of a new apple tree its power of resistance
to our test winters, it would save us many thousands of dollars and much
vexation of spirit. Some years ago the Iowa State Horticultural Society
made a determined and praiseworthy effort to determine hardiness by some
characteristic of the plant, especially in apple trees. A chemical test
of the sap of hardy and tender varieties was made. The palisade cells of
the leaf, and the cellular structure of the wood, were examined under
high powers of the microscope to determine some means by which a tender
variety could be distinguished from a hardy one, but no general rule or
conclusion could be formulated. In a general way nurserymen and
orchardists say that a variety that ripens its wood well in the fall
shows it by the twigs being sturdy and not easily bent, while twigs that
are not well ripened indicate lack of hardiness.
The winter of 1884-85 was preceded by a late, wet autumn that kept trees
of all varieties growing very late, so that winter came before the wood
was ripened. In all the literature on this subject, I have been unable
to find any method by which a hardy variety could be distinguished from
a tender one of the same species, or, in other words, there is no
correlation between morphology and hardiness.
Although we do not know what determines hardiness, we may still go ahead
with our experimental work. We do not really know what electricity is,
but inventors in that line have enough of a theory on this subject so
that they are able to work very successfully with this gigantic force of
nature. We know there is a difference in hardiness between the red cedar
of Tennessee and the red cedar of Minnesota, and that it is safest for
us to plant the tree as it is found at the north. The same applies to
many other trees that are found native over a wide area. At Moscow,
Russia, the box elder as first imported was from St. Louis, and it
winter-killed. Afterwards they got the box elder from Manitoba, and it
proved perfectly hardy. Although botanically both are the same, yet
there is a difference in hardiness.
My way of securing hardiness is to work with plants that are already
hardy. I like to work with native plums in my plant breeding experiments
because there need be no concern about their hardiness. We know they are
hardy, or they would not be here after thousands of years of natural
selection in this climate.
The other way of obtaining hardiness is by crossing a tender variety
with a hardy one. When we cross the native plum with the Japanese plum,
we obtain seedlings that combine in a fair measure the hardiness of the
native plum with the size and quality of the Japanese plum.
In many states of the Union the question of varieties for commercial
orchards has been to a large degree settled. There is always room for a
new apple, but for commercial purposes the varieties already in
cultivation are sufficiently satisfactory as to size, color and quality
as well as in keeping and shipping capacity. So the main effort in their
horticultural societies is along other lines, such questions as
marketing, packing, spraying, insects, fungi and orchard management. But
in this region the winter apple question is still a vital one.
Some promising winter apples have appeared recently, and it remains to
be seen whether they will stand up under the next test winter. They are
certainly satisfactory in size, color, quality and keeping capacity.
The greatest question now presents itself in planting apple seed. What
variety shall I choose? Some pedigrees may be like a blind alley, they
will lead us nowhere. The commercial apples of the East and of the
Pacific Coast are the survivors of millions of apple seedlings raised
by immigrants from Western Europe during the past three centuries. They
survived because they were the best. From time to time very good
varieties are super-ceded by new ones that appear. From the ashes of
millions of seedlings will arise, Phoenix-like, the creations that will
dominate our future prairie pomology. Here in the Northwest thousands of
farmers have already determined to a considerable extent what we may
expect from planting the seed of certain standard varieties.
[Illustration: The Waneta plum. A promising variety originated and
introduced by Prof. N. E. Hansen.]
Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa are full of seedlings of the Duchess. Some
of the best are Okabena, Peerless, Patten's Greening, Milwaukee, Dudley,
Pewaukee. A very large amount of Wealthy seed has been planted,
especially in Minnesota. Many of these give promise, but in none do we
appear to have obtained the true winter-keeping capacity. The Wealthy
has given us the Lord's L, Evelyn, Lyman Sweet, Perfect and many more,
observed at Minnesota state fairs from time to time. The Malinda has
given us in the Perkins' seedlings a number of promising new varieties
that evidently are true winter keepers. The fact that they appear hardy
may come from the fact that the original orchard had hardy varieties,
like the Duchess, standing near the Malinda. From the experience with
these three varieties I would like to draw the conclusion that in order
to get winter apples we should save the seed of winter apples, but it
would not be safe to draw this conclusion without further experiments.
There is an immense number of Ben Davis seedlings in Missouri and
adjoining states, but none appear to have come into extensive commercial
notice except the Black Ben Davis and Gano. But as near as I can learn
we cannot obtain real hardiness from this line of descent, unless the
Ben Davis in the mother orchard is standing near varieties like the
Duchess.
The seed of standard winter apples top-grafted on hardy stocks like
Hibernal should be carefully saved as nature may have smiled with
indulgence upon your efforts and created the desired variety. I am
watching with great interest a tree of very vigorous, smooth growth,
from seed of Talman Sweet top-grafted on Duchess. You would not expect
to get anything hardy from seed of the Talman Sweet, but the entire
hardiness so far of the young trees propagated from the original
seedling, makes me impatient to see the fruit. A blend of Talman Sweet
and Duchess ought certainly to bring something good, but they will not
all be hardy or all good. The fact that there are so many different
lines of pedigree available to us in our apple work, makes it all the
more necessary for us to divide the work.
Let us gather inspiration from the story of Johnny Apple-Seed--one of
the patron saints of American horticulture--who about one hundred and
twenty-five years ago forced his way through the wilderness of Indiana
and Ohio and planted many bushels of apple seed as he went along, so
that when settlers came they found their orchards ready for them. The
story of John Chapman and his unselfish efforts in planting the seed of
apples and other fruits in the American wilderness should give us
courage and patience to give a little of our time to this work. Make a
record of what seeds you plant, and when the seedlings are one year of
age plant them out in a row where they can be cultivated. Select the
best ones as they fruit and bring to the state fair or horticultural
meeting. You may not win the grand prize, but you will have the
satisfaction of having made some contribution to the common welfare.
* * * * *
In localities where cottontails are sufficiently abundant to be a
continual menace, the safest and most nearly permanent method of
securing immunity from their ravages is to fence against them. It has
been found that woven wire netting of one and one-half inch mesh and
thirty inches high will exclude rabbits, provided, that the lower border
of the fence is buried five or six inches below the surface of the
ground. In cases where a small number of trees are concerned, a cylinder
of similar wire netting around each tree, if so fastened that it cannot
be pushed up close against the tree, serves the purpose more
economically.
Standardizing Minnesota Potatoes.
A. W. AAMODT, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL.
(Gideon Memorial Contest.)
The potato is one of the large farm crops of the country, rating next to
the cereals in importance. According to the census report of 1909,
United States produced 389,194,965 bushels, and three-fourths of these
were consumed in the states in which they were produced. The report also
shows that the most extensive production was along the northern tier of
states, from Maine to Minnesota. In 1909 the states ranked in production
as follows: New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, Minnesota,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois and Colorado. In the same year
Minnesota ranked fourth in surplus production, producing sixteen per
cent. of the potatoes which entered into interstate commerce. Wisconsin
produced twenty per cent., Michigan twenty-four per cent. and Maine
twenty-five per cent.
[Illustration: Figure I. Rural New Yorker.]
In Minnesota the largest part of these potatoes are grown in certain
districts of the state, and according to the 1909 census the counties
rank in respective order, namely: Hennepin, Isanti, Chisago, Clay,
Anoka, Sherburne, Washington, Ottertail, Dakota, and Mille Lacs. This
shows that the largest production is in the vicinity of St. Paul and
Minneapolis, and the Red River Valley, especially in Clay County.
The following statement shows the per cent. of increase in acreage from
1900 to 1910 and that the older districts are being rapidly outdone by
the counties towards the northern part of the state:
Clay, 455 per cent.; Sherburne, 254 per cent.; Polk, 136 per cent.;
Todd, 109 per cent.; Hennepin, 83 per cent.; Anoka, 58 per cent.;
Isanti, 26 per cent.; Chisago, 17 per cent.
From these reports it is also evident that the distribution of the
surplus is entirely towards the southern states, either as table stock
or as seed potatoes, which in turn varies with the different years
because of differences in crop yields. But as a general rule Maine, New
York and Michigan supply the states in the east, east central and
southeastern part of the country, Wisconsin the Chicago market and
Minnesota the Mississippi Valley, especially Nebraska and Kansas. In
addition Minnesota ships seed potatoes to many of the Southern states.
[Illustration: Figure II. Burbank.]
Because of these markets, potato shippers maintain that competition is
extremely keen between the potato growing sections of this country.
There can be no doubt that the only way Minnesota can meet her increase
in yield and increase in demand is to determine whether or not she will
expand her markets to the territory which is now being held by the other
states. But before Minnesota can get these markets and obtain the better
prices, she must standardize her potatoes. That is, Minnesota can
obtain great improvement by adopting certain standards for the grading
and sorting of potatoes.
At a conference held in Chicago, last February, of representatives from
the growing, shipping and marketing interests, the following
recommendations for greater uniformity in potato shipments were made:
_Size._--Market stock of round white varieties shall be graded over a
screen which measures 1-7/8 inches in the clear. For long white
varieties a screen of 1-3/4 inches, in the clear, is recommended.
_Weight._--Stock running over twelve ounces is undesirable and not over
five per cent. of this maximum weight should be allowed in first class
shipments.
[Illustration: Figure III. Burbank Russet.]
_Quality._--Stock should be practically free from serious external
imperfections, including late blight rot, common scab, sunburn, frost
injury, bruises, knobbiness, second growth, etc. Stock should be mature
and clean.
_Varietal purity._--Commercial potato shipments should be graded to one
variety.
All indications show that Minnesota must grade and sort for commercial
shipments of potatoes, and that a definite brand or grade designating a
definite standard must be adopted in order to secure the highest prices.
All inferior stock must be thrown out, and the best potatoes given a
chance to make an attractive showing.
The standing which Minnesota potatoes will have in the market will be
determined a great deal by the grading, which is usually the work of
the dealer, although some farmers do their own grading by hand. Ungraded
potatoes injure the Minnesota potato trade and reduce the profits, as
the freight is the same on dirt, small and unsound potatoes as it is on
the fine stock. As much as a ton of dirt and culls is sometimes found in
a car on the Chicago "team tracks" after the wholesale merchant has
sacked all he is willing to accept. This freight, sorting charges and
cost of disposing of refuse must be paid by some one. Co-operating to
improve the sorting done at loading stations is a means of establishing
a grade to meet competition and to reach new markets.
[Illustration: Figure IV. Early Ohio.]
Standardization also means grading to eliminate potatoes infected with
disease, such as common scab and late blight, sunken discolorations or
dry hard blisters, green, spongy and coarse stock. All of these defects
tend to lower prices.
In order to increase the value of the Minnesota potato we must also
supply the market with the variety which it demands, and, furthermore,
this variety must be free from mixture. Minnesota has already taken a
step in this direction. The Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station,
Minnesota Crop Improvement Association and the Minnesota Potato Growers'
Association have recommended the following varieties and types to be
selected and grown.
The Rural New Yorker, as shown in Figure 1, is the leading round, white,
late potato for Minnesota. It is a good yielding and keeping variety,
fine in quality, an excellent market sort and suitable for almost any
soil.
Similar to the Rural New Yorker are the Carman No. 3 and Sir Walter
Raleigh.
The Green Mountain is a desirable white late potato, similar to the
Rural New Yorker, but more oblong and with squarer ends. It is better
suited to rich heavy soils than the Rural New Yorker, as they are not so
likely to grow hollow.
[Illustration: Figure V. Triumph.]
Other similar varieties are the Carman No. 1, Green Mountain, Jr., and
State of Maine.
The Burbank (Fig. II) is a long, white, late potato of excellent quality
and suitable only for rich, loose, loam soils. Thrives well upon new
rich soils that are well supplied with humus.
Other inferior varieties confused with the Burbank are the White Chief,
White Star and Pingree.
The Burbank Russet (Fig. III) is a long, russet, late potato differing
mainly from the Burbank in its heavily russeted skin. Very fine for
baking. Suitable for low, moist, friable and peaty soils.
The Early Ohio (Fig. IV) is the leading early potato in Minnesota. The
type is oval with a pinkish or flesh colored skin. It is particularly
suited to the black, rich, friable soils.
The Triumph (Fig. V) is a round, red, very early potato, valuable for
southern seed trade. It suffers severely from drought, and, therefore,
soils subject to this condition should be avoided.
Similar or identical varieties are Red Bliss, Bliss, Triumph and Stray
Beauty.
The Irish Cobbler is a promising white, early, roundish potato of good
quality, although inferior to the Early Ohio. It has not been
sufficiently tested out, but is promising for southern seed trade.
Similar variety is the Extra Early Eureka.
The King is a broad, oblong, reddish potato. Very suitable for worn-out
and sandy soils.
Similar or identical variety is the Maggie Murphy.
In conclusion I would have you to remember the main points of this paper
which may be summarized as follows:
First. That Minnesota is one of the leading potato producing states of
the Union.
Second. That Minnesota must establish a reputation for a continuous
supply of well graded stock practically free from diseases and
blemishes.
Third. That Minnesota must create a general interest in better seed,
true to name and type.
Finally. Minnesota must secure the co-operation of all agencies
interested in the production, distribution and utilization of potatoes
to get better production, better grading and better marketing.
* * * * *