if the orchard had never been sprayed, but by spraying year after year
you finally cut it down.
Mr. Cashman: You said a pressure of 200 pounds ought to be used?
Mr. Stakman: Yes, but it isn't necessary to get an expensive power
sprayer to keep up that pressure. There are sprayers on the market that
cost from $30 to $40 which have a pressure tank by which the pressure
can be maintained at from 175 to 250 pounds without any great amount of
trouble, that is, for a small orchard. If you have a big enough orchard
for a power sprayer, of course get it.
Mr. M'Clelland: This summer my plum trees, the leaves all turned brown
and came off. What is the reason?
Mr. Stakman: When did it happen?
Mr. M'Clelland: Along in August, I think; July or August.
Mr. Stakman: What kind of soil were they on?
Mr. M'Clelland: Clay.
Mr. Stakman: Did you spray?
Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir, I sprayed.
Mr. Stakman: What did you use?
Mr. M'Clelland: Lime-sulphur, I think.
Mr. Stakman: Did the whole leaf turn brown?
Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir, the whole leaf turned brown and came off.
Mr. Stakman: How strong did you use the lime-sulphur?
Mr. M'Clelland: Not very strong.
Mr. Stakman: If you use very strong lime-sulphur you sometimes get such
an effect on both plums and apples. Sometimes the leaves fall, and
almost immediately you get a new crop of leaves.
Mr. M'Clelland: This was in August.
Mr. Stakman: There was a perfect crop of new leaves?
Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir.
Mr. Stakman: My only suggestion would be that you used the lime-sulphur
too strong. That might account for it.
Mr. Sauter: I never sprayed until this year. I tried it this year and
with good results. I sprayed my apple trees at the same time, and I
sprayed the plums with the same thing I sprayed the apple trees with. I
had nice plums and nice apples; last year I had hardly any.
Mr. Stakman: What did you use?
Mr. Sauter: Lime-sulphur and some black leaf mixture. I used it on the
plum trees and the apple trees, and afterwards I used arsenate of lead.
Mr. Stakman: You didn't get any injury to the plum trees?
Mr. Sauter: No, sir, we had nice plums.
A Member: I have seventeen plum trees, and I have only sprayed with
kerosene emulsion and the second time put in some Paris green, and I
have never seen any of the brown rot, but there have been a good many of
the black aphids on the plum trees, on the end of the branches. I cut
them off and burned them. I didn't know whether that would be the end of
it or not.
Mr. Ruggles: Why don't you use "black leaf 40," 1/2 pint in 50 gallons
of the spray liquid. It can be used in combination with arsenate of lead
and lime-sulphur or arsenate of lead and Bordeaux mixture.
If you wash them with black leaf 40 it will kill all the aphids. I did
that myself this summer.
A Member: Please give us a little better explanation of what black leaf
40 is.
Mr. Ruggles: It is an extract of tobacco that is for sale by wholesale
drug companies and stores, or you can get it from Kentucky, from the
Tobacco Products Company, at Louisville, Ky., or Grasseli Chemical Co.,
St. Paul. I am not advertising, Mr. President, but they will send you a
small package for seventy-five cents, about half a pint. Of course, that
looks kind of expensive, but it will go a long way. I think possibly it
is the best thing we have to combat lice.
Mr. Stakman: Plum pocket is caused by a fungus which is supposed to
infect mostly when the flower buds are just beginning to swell,
especially in cold, wet weather. Plum pocket causes the fruit to
overgrow and destroys the pit, and big bladder or sack-like fruits are
produced instead of the normal fruit. The fungus that causes it gets
into the twig and is supposed to live there year after year. Therefore
pathologists usually recommend cutting out and burning affected branches
and even trees that bear pocketed plums several seasons in succession.
Our experiments with plum pocket have not extended far enough to enable
me to say anything definite about it.
Mr. Hall: With us in western Minnesota this year this plum pocket got
all the plums that the frost didn't get. If we were to cut off the twigs
we would have to chop off the trees.
Mr. Stakman: When a tree becomes so badly infected that practically all
of the branches produce pocketed plums year after year you can't expect
very much normal fruit. Sometimes you might get some, but usually not
very many.
Mr. Graves (Wisconsin): Do you use your black leaf 40 in conjunction
with your Bordeaux or lime-sulphur?
Mr. Ruggles: Yes, you can.
Mr. Graves: Doesn't it counteract the result?
Mr. Ruggles: No, it does not.
Mr. Stakman: I used this year lime-sulphur and black leaf 40 together.
Mr. Graves: You say you got the same results from black leaf 40 in that
mixture?
Mr. Stakman: It killed the plant lice; that is all I wanted.
Mr. Graves: We had some experiences that indicated that black leaf
counteracted the other results.
Mr. Stakman: Yes, sir, I think that has been the impression, but I think
there have been some experiments more recently to show that the black
leaf 40 can be used in conjunction with other sprays without
counteracting their results.
Mr. Richardson: Did you ever know the plum pocket to come unless we had
cold weather about the time of blossoming and lots of east wind?
Mr. Stakman: Yes, a little; I have seen it mostly when there was cold
weather, however, and as I said before it usually isn't so serious
unless there is cold, wet weather.
Mr. Richardson: I settled out in Martin County, Minnesota, in 1866, and
in all my experience I never saw plum pocket unless we had the right
kind of cold weather at the time of the blossoming. I had my plums all
killed and destroyed one year and never did anything for it, and when we
had the right kind of weather I never had any trouble.
Mr. Stakman: When you have cold, wet weather, as I mentioned before,
infection takes place much more rapidly than it does at other times.
There is some evidence to show that the fungus lives in the twigs and
that affected ones should be cut out.
Mr. Richardson: Yes, but these didn't bear any for four or five years,
and when we got the right kind of weather I got good plums.
Mr. Norwood: My experience is something like this man's. I have had my
plums killed off as many as five years with the plum pocket and then had
a good crop of plums. I sprayed with lime-sulphur.
Mr. Stakman: When did you spray?
Mr. Norwood: I spray just before the buds open.
Mr. Stakman: The flower or leaf?
Mr. Norwood: Flower, and then I spray when the plums are well started,
just before they begin to ripen.
Mr. Stakman: Were you spraying for the pocket or brown rot?
Mr. Norwood: I used lime-sulphur and arsenate of lime.
Mr. Stakman: Of course, spraying after buds open wouldn't do any good
for the plum pockets at all.
Mr. Norwood: I spray mainly for the brown rot, and I have pretty good
luck.
Mr. Cashman: Have you had any experience in using orchard heaters to
save plums in cold nights?
Mr. Stakman: I will ask Mr. Cady to answer that.
Mr. Cady: No, I haven't tried to use them.
Mr. Cashman: We tried it this year, and we saved our plum crop. We have
tried it the last four years and saved our plum crop each year. We also
sprayed each year and had a very good crop of plums when neighbors who
had not sprayed had very few, and I am satisfied if we use the proper
ingredients and spray properly at the right time, and occasionally use
an orchard heater when there is any danger of freezing, that we will
raise a good crop of most any plum that is hardy enough for this
climate.
A Member: What kind of heaters do you use?
Mr. Cashman: We use oil heaters. We use crude oil, the same oil we use
in our tractor engine.
A Member: Where do you buy your heaters?
Mr. Cashman: We have them made at the hardware store, of sheet iron,
with a cover. We put about two gallons of oil in this heater. There is a
small piece of waste that is used as a wick, which we light from a
torch. It will heat quite a large space sufficiently for two or three
hours and prevent frost.
Mrs. Glenzke: Do you put a canvas over the tree or leave it uncovered?
Mr. Cashman: We do not put anything over the tree.
Mr. Stakman: What does your oil cost?
Mr. Cashman: About eight or nine cents a gallon.
Prof. Hansen: Just a thought occurred to me that out west on the Pacific
coast where men have to get down to business in order to raise fruit
they have these horticultural commissioners that have absolute police
power to make orchard men clean up. They will come into your old orchard
and pull it up and burn it and add it to your taxes, charge it up to
you, if you don't clean up. The same sort of police power should prevail
here. If a man has an old plum orchard that is diseased through and
through, it won't do for him to tell his tale of woe year after year and
not do anything. A county agent will come along and clean it up for him.
After it is cleaned up it will be an easier proposition. If you are not
going to keep up with the times and spray, then the county agent ought
to have police power to burn the orchard. Either spray or go out of the
plum business.
* * * * *
TO MAKE CONCENTRATED APPLE CIDER ON A COMMERCIAL SCALE.--The
specialists of the fruit and vegetable utilization laboratory of the
department have completed arrangements for a commercial test of the
recently discovered method of concentrating apple cider by freezing and
centrifugal methods. As a result, a cider mill in the Hood River Valley,
Ore., will this fall undertake to manufacture and put on the retail
market 1,000 gallons of concentrated cider, which will represent 5,000
gallons of ordinary apple cider with only the water removed.
The new method, it is believed, makes possible the concentrating of
cider in such a way that it will keep better than raw cider, and also be
so reduced in bulk that it can be shipped profitably long distances from
the apple growing regions. The old attempts to concentrate cider by
boiling have been failures because heat destroys the delicate flavor of
cider. Under the new method nothing is taken from the cider but the
water, and the resultant product is a thick liquid which contains all
the apple-juice products and which can be restored to excellent sweet
cider by the simple addition of four parts of water. The shippers and
consumers, therefore, avoid paying freight on the water in ordinary
cider. In addition, the product, when properly barreled, because of its
higher amount of sugar, keeps better than raw cider, which quickly turns
to vinegar.
The process, as described by the department's specialists, consists of
freezing ordinary cider solid. The cider ice is then crushed and put
into centrifugal machines such as are used in making cane sugar. When
the cider ice is whirled rapidly the concentrated juice is thrown off
and collected. The water remains in the machine as ice.
At ordinary household refrigerator temperatures this syrup-like cider
will keep perfectly for a month or six weeks, and if kept at low
temperatures in cold storage will keep for prolonged periods. At
ordinary house temperatures it, of course, will keep a shorter time.
To make the concentrated syrup, the cider mill must add to its equipment
an ice-making machine and centrifugal machinery, so that the process is
not practicable on a small scale. The specialists are hopeful, however,
that the commercial test soon to be inaugurated in Oregon will show that
it will be possible for apple growers to concentrate their excess cider
and ship it profitably to the far South or to other non-producing
regions. The specialists also believe that it will enable apple
producers to prolong the market for cider.--U.S. Dept. of Agri., Oct.,
1914.
How Mr. Mansfield Grows Tomatoes.
MRS. JENNIE STAGER, SAUK RAPIDS.
Somewhere around 1870 Mr. Wm. Mansfield, of Johnsons Creek, Wis.,
commenced to apply what Gov. Hoard, of Wisconsin, told him was
"persevering intelligence," to the propagating and improving of the
tomato, and he soon found out that the tomato was capable of almost
unlimited improvement. He has made a specialty of the tree tomato, of
which he says he has demonstrated to the world that in the Mansfield
tree tomato he has produced one of the greatest wonders of the age. All
who have seen them, tasted or grown them, with even a small degree of
good sense, are loud in their praise for their good qualities: wonderful
growth of tree, beauty of fruit, smoothness, solidity, flavor,
earliness, etc.
In giving directions how to grow them he says you should remember that
if your brightest child is raised among Indians he is not likely to
become president. Neither will the tree tomato if thrown on a brush
pile, or just stuck in a poor, dry place and left to care for itself, be
ready to jump on your table, on the Fourth of July, or any other month,
a ripe, delicious, two-pound tomato.
He says first get your seed of some reliable person, who can warrant it
pure and all right. Then at the proper time, which in this climate would
be some time in March, get some rich old earth for boxes in your house,
hotbeds or greenhouse. Sow the seed, cover lightly, wet down every day
and keep warm, with all the sun possible. When up ten days transplant to
other boxes, six inches apart, and not less than four inches deep. Keep
wet and give all the light and sun you can, and by the time it is safe
to set them outside they should stand from twelve to twenty-four inches
in height, with bodies half an inch thick.
_To prepare the ground._--First select a place as near water as
possible, and also, if you can, let your rows run east and west. Throw
out dirt two spades deep, then put in three or four inches of night soil
if you can get it, if not use hen manure and wood ashes, equal parts, or
some other strong manure, in the bottom of trench. Then fill up the
trench with the best dirt you can get, mixed with well rotted stable
manure, as no fresh manure must come near the roots or bark to rot them.
Now set out your plants without disturbing the dirt about the roots. Set
eighteen inches apart in the row and have the dirt in the trenches a
little lower than at the sides. Place a strong stake at each plant or a
trellis and tie them to it as fast as set. Then if it does not rain use
hard, soft, cold or warm water and give plenty each day. As your plants
commence to grow, just above each leaf will start a shoot. Let only the
top of the plant, and only one or two of the best branches grow, so as
to have not over one or two of the best stems to run up. Now the buds
for blossoms show themselves on the tops of the vines, and a few inches
below. Just above each leaf, a shoot starts; nip off every one of these
just as soon as they appear. As the lower leaves get brown and old pick
them off. Train the fruit as it grows to the sun. Tie often and well.
Let no useless wood grow. Give all the sun possible and water, water and
then water. Then you can take the cake on tomatoes.
[Illustration: Wm. Mansfield and his big tomatoes, Casselton, N.D.]
Mr. Mansfield's record twenty-six years ago, at Johnsons Creek, Wis.,
was: Height of tomato tree, eleven feet. Weight of single tomato, two
pounds six ounces. He says, since he has moved to North Dakota, his
tomato has in no wise deteriorated.
Annual Report, 1915, Central Trial Station.
PROFS. LE ROY CADY AND R. WELLINGTON, UNIVERSITY FARM.
Since the coming of Prof. Wellington to the Station to take up the
pomological and vegetable divisions the work of this Station, has been
divided, Prof. Wellington taking the fruit and vegetable experimental
work, while Prof. Cady continues the work in ornamentals, and on that
basis the reports will be made this year.
_Ornamentals._--The campus of University Farm has been very much
enlarged this year by the building of the Gymnasium, and consequent
parking about it, and the grading of an athletic field. This will call
for considerable planting work next spring.
The season has been exceptionally good for the growth of all ornamental
stock. All came through last winter in good shape. A late frost killed
many of the early flowering plants, and this prevented the forming of
fruit on such plants as barberry and wahoo. About 400 seedling paeonies
flowered again this year. Some of these are promising. An excellent
block of aquilegia was flowered. A trial ground of some hundred or more
annuals was maintained and proved very interesting. It is hoped that
many more annual novelties may be tried out this year. The perennial
garden established last year was added to and furnished something of
interest the whole season. It will be the aim of the Division to have in
this garden all the annuals and perennials of value in this section.
Some new shrubs were added by purchase and through the Bureau of Plant
Industry. The hedges have proved an interesting exhibit again this year,
and it is planned to add a number of new ones to the group next season.
About seventy-five varieties of chrysanthemums were flowered this autumn
and were much enjoyed by our visitors.
_Fruit._--This year has been a very poor fruit year owing to the freeze
on May 18, when the thermometer dropped to 26 degrees Fahrenheit. At
that time a very promising crop of apples was frozen on the trees.
Currants and gooseberries were also frozen on the bushes, and the young
shoots were frozen on the grape vines. Later the grape vines sent out
secondary shoots which bore a small crop of late maturing fruit.
Regardless of the heavy freeze an apple was found here and there
throughout the orchard, although no one variety seemed to be
particularly favored. On one-year-old Compass and Dyehouse cherry trees
a few fruits were borne, and a similar amount of fruit was produced on
one-year-old Sapa and Skuya plums. The old plum seedling orchard, which
is located to the south of the college buildings and is partially
protected by a wooded hill to the north, gave about five per cent of a
crop. The one-year-old raspberries and blackberries bore a small crop,
and the new strawberry bed, containing over 150 varieties, yielded a
good crop. Records were made on the blossoming dates of practically all
the varieties grown at the Station, and complete descriptions were made
of all the strawberry flowers, fruits and plants.
[Illustration: Class in propagation at work at Minnesota State
Agricultural College.]
Plants were taken from the strawberry bed and used for setting out a new
bed, which is located on level and uniform ground. By another year
sufficient data should be at hand to report on the performance of the
varieties tested.
The aphids were very numerous and unfortunately caused the defoliation
of all the currants with the exception of the blacks. A new sidewalk
through the currant patch necessitated the transplanting of about
one-half of the varieties, and so the prospect for a good currant crop
next season is poor. The mildew attacked the Poorman gooseberry very
severely but did practically no damage to the native varieties, as the
Carrie and Houghton. Blight was a negligible factor, and what little
appeared was removed as soon as noted. This year's rest, especially as
it has been coupled with a good growing season, should be very favorable
for an abundant crop in 1916.
In summing up the varieties at the Trial Station, it is of interest to
note that the following number are under observation: 235 apple, 1
apricot, 15 cherry, 3 peach, 6 pear, 70 plum, 23 blackberry, 3 dewberry,
14 red currant, 3 black currant, 2 white currant, 13 gooseberry, 26
grape, 4 black raspberry, 22 red raspberry, 1 purple raspberry and 157
strawberry.
_Vegetables._--The vegetable work has been concentrated on the bean,
cucumber, lettuce, pea, onion, potato and tomato. The chief work with
the bean and pea has been to isolate desirable canning types from the
present varieties. Selection has also been carried on with the lettuce,
with the object of securing a head type which matures uniformly. Onion
bulbs of various types have self-fertilized, and desirable fixed strains
will be separated if possible. Incidentally, the inheritance of various
types and colors of the onion is under observation. In the tomato the
influence of crossing on yield and earliness has been studied. Increases
nearly as high as five tons have been obtained, and the prospects are
very bright for securing valuable combinations for gardeners who use
greenhouses and high-priced land. Results of this work will probably
soon be published in a station bulletin.
[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in flower in University Farm
greenhouses.]
A better type of greenhouse cucumber is being sought by combining the
European and White Spine varieties. From past experience the author
knows that a uniform type that is well adapted to market purposes can be
obtained, and the only question will be its productiveness.
Unfortunately hybridizing was not performed early enough in the season,
and disease prevented the making of crosses. This coming season the work
will be repeated.
The main work of the year has been on the potato, and the chief problem
has been on the determination of the cause of degeneracy. Incidentally,
many varieties have been tested, and the exchange of seed with the Grand
Rapids, Crookston and Duluth stations has been started. If possible, the
effect of varying climatic and soil conditions on the potato will be
noted.
A few vegetable varieties have been tested and among them the Reading
Giant, a rust-proof asparagus, has proved promising. Malcolm, the
earliest Canadian sweet corn, ripened very early and will be tested
further. Washington, a late sweet corn ripening between Crosby and
Evergreen, made an exceptionally good showing and may prove of much
value for market purposes. The Alacrity tomato was found to be similar
to the Earliana and superior in no way. Bonny Best and John Baer
tomatoes produced smooth, desirable fruit and are deserving of a wide
test.
The much advertised "seed tape" was given a trial, and it proved
satisfactory in most cases. For kitchen gardeners who are ignorant of
planting distances, methods of planting and varieties, and who can
afford to pay a higher price for their seed, the tape may prove of
value, that is, if a high grade of seed is maintained.
* * * * *
A CORRECTION.--In O. W. Moore's interesting article on
"Sexuality in Plants," which appeared in the November (1915) number of
The Horticulturist, two errors were present. The first is merely
typographical, as Kaelreuter's name, page 411, should be spelled
Kolreuter. The second, however, is misleading, as it states that the
process of fertilization is called "Mendel's Law." It is true that
Mendel's Law is based upon fertilization, but it concerns simply the
splitting up of certain characters into definite mathematical
proportions. For example, Mendel found that when he crossed a yellow and
green pea the first generation produced only yellow peas. These peas
when self-fertilized split up into practically three yellows to one
green. By self-fertilizing the progeny of the second generation it was
found that one-third of the yellows bred true for yellow, and two-thirds
of the yellows broke up into yellow and green, showing that they were in
a heterozygous condition, and that all the greens bred true for green.
At the present time this method of segregation has been proved to hold
for many easily differentiated characters in both the animal and plant
kingdom, but much more experimental work will have to be done before it
can be said to hold for all inheritable characters.--Prof. Richard
Wellington, University Farm.
Rose Culture.
MARTIN FRYDHOLM, ALBERT LEA, MINN.
(Annual Meeting, 1916, So. Minn. Hort. Society.)