Iriarte also revived the older Alexandrine, but without
hiatus:
Cuando veo yo algunos,--que de otros escritores
Á la sombra se arriman,--y piensan ser autores...
Recent poets have revived the old Alexandrine.[33] Thus,
Rubén Darío uses it, even retaining the hiatus between the
half-lines; but instead of grouping the lines in quatrains
with monorime, as the old monks did, he uses assonance
in alternate lines, which is, so far as I know, without
precedent:
Es con voz de la Biblia--ó verso de Withman
Que habría que llegar--hasta ti, ¡cazador!
Primitivo y moderno,--sencillo y complicado,
Con un algo de Wáshington--y mucho de Nemrod...
(p. 211, ll. 1-4)
[Footnote 33: For their use of this line with ternary
movement, see p. lxxix.]
Lines of five or six syllables usually have a mingled
binary and ternary movement:
Una barquera
Hallé bizarra,
De pocos años
Y muchas gracias.
(N. Moratín)
page lxviii
Salí á las diez
Á ver á Clori
(No lo acerté):
Horas menguadas
Debe de haber...
(L. Moratín)
Lines of 5+5 syllables (_versos asclepiadeos_) are
occasionally written:
Id en las alas--del raudo céfiro,
Humildes versos,--de las floridas
Vegas que diáfano--fecunda el Arlas,
Adonde lento--mi patrio río
Ve los alcázares--de Mantua excelsa.
(L. Moratín)
The Mexican poet Pesado used the same line in his
_Serenata_:
¡Oh tú que duermes--en casto lecho,
De sinsabores--ajeno el pecho,
Y á los encantos--de la hermosura
Unes las gracias--del corazón,
Deja el descanso,--doncella pura,
Y oye los ecos--de mi canción!
(P. 199, ll. 1-6)
The same measure appears in a patriotic song, _Himno de
Riego_:
En las cabezas--él proclamó
La suspirada--constitución,
Y enarbolando--marcial pendón,
Á los leales--acaudilló...[34]
[Footnote 34: It should be noted that these latter verses,
like most Spanish patriotic songs, are sung with ternary
movement, thus:
Èn las cabèzas--èl proclamò...]
page lxix
This 10-syllable measure is cantabile, and its phrases are
too short and too regular to make good recitative verse.
_Versos alcaicos_ differ from the _asclepiadeos_ in that
the former have, in a strophe, two lines of 5 + 5, one of
nine, and one of ten syllables. Thus, in these lines of
Victorio Giner (who probably introduced this strophe into
Spain in the second half of the nineteenth century):
Y si los nautas, cantando el piélago,
Con remos hieren y espumas alzan,
Se aduerme á los ecos sus penas
Y á los ecos su batel avanza.
Juan Luis Estelrich (_Poesías_, 1900) uses _versos
alcaicos_ with the first two lines of each strophe
_esdrújulo_, in imitation of Carducci:
Carmen, tu nombre trae al espíritu
Vuelo de aromas, susurro de árboles,
Los píos consorcios del cielo,
Y el cantar melodioso del Lacio.
(_Á Carmen Valera._)[35]
[Footnote 35: Cf. Mele, _op. cit._]
_Romances_ in lines of 6 + 6 (or 6 + 5) syllables occur
in popular Spanish verse, as in the Asturian _romance_ of
_Don Bueso_, beginning:
Camina don Bueso--mañanita fría
á tierra de moros--á buscar amiga...
(Men. Pel., _Ant._ X, 56: cf. also _Ant._ XI, 102)
This measure was also used in _endechas_, as in _Los
comendadores de Córdoba_ (fifteenth century), beginning:
¡Los comendadores,--por mi mal os vi!
Yo vi á vosotros,--vosotros á mí...
page lxx
The 9-syllable line was not well received in Spain, and it
has been little used. Iriarte, in his desire to vary the
metrical constructions of his fables, used it at least
once:
Sobre una mesa, cierto día,
Dando estaba conversación
Á un Abanico y á un Manguito
Un Paraguas ó Quitasol...
There is certainly no fixed inner rhythmic accent in these
lines. The fact seems to be that the 9-syllable line is
too long to be uttered comfortably in one phrase, or
breath-group, and it is too short to be regularly divided
into parts by cesura.
B. VERSE WITH TERNARY MOVEMENT
Verse with regular ternary movement may occur in lines of
any length, but it is commonly found only in lines of ten,
eleven or twelve syllables. Many ternary lines of five and
six syllables are found, but they are almost invariably
mingled with binary lines. This _rondel antiguo_ (Nebrija,
quoted by Men. Pel., _Ant._ V. 66) is ternary throughout,
it would seem:
Despide plazer
y pone tristura;
crece en querer
vuestra hermosura.
For mixed movements, see the _serranilla_ on p. 45, l. 9
f.
In lines with _regular_ ternary movement, properly
speaking, every primary stress receives a rhythmic accent,
and these accents are always separated by two page lxxi
atonic syllables, as in:
Yo no sè como bàilan aquì,
Que en mi tièrra no bàilan ansì...
Rarely one finds 6-syllable and 9-syllable lines with
regular ternary movement, and these are probably never of
popular origin. Thus:
Serèna la lùna
Alùmbra en el cièlo,
Domìna en el suèlo
Profùnda quietùd...
(Espronceda, _El reo de muerte_, II)
Y luègo el estrèpito crèce
Confùso y mezclàdo en un sòn,
Que rònco en las bòvedas hòndas
Tronàndo furiòso zumbò...
(Espronceda, _Estudiante de Salamanca_)
Formerly the Spanish 10-syllable line occurred usually in
combination with other lines, as in:
En la calle de Atòcha, ¡litòn!
Que vìve mi dàma;
Yo me llàmo Bartòlo, ¡litòn!
Litòque, vitòque, y[36] èlla Catànla.
--En la càlle del Sòrdo, ¡litòn!
Que vìve mi mòzo,
Pues á cuànto le pìdo, ¡litòn!
Litòque, vitòque, que sièmpre está sòrdo.
[Footnote 36: There is hiatus here.]
(Quiñones de Benavente, _Entremeses, bailes, loas y
sainetes_, quoted by Milá y Fontanals, _Obras completas_,
Vol. V, p. 324 f.)
page lxxii
Calderón used it in the _Viña del Señor_:
Á la vìña, á la vìña, zagàles;
Zagàles, venìd, venìd á la vìña.
Á la vìña, á la vìña, zagàles,
Y vàya de jìra, de bùlla y de bàile.
Zagàles, venìd, venìd á la vìña,
Y vàya de bàile, de bùlla y de jìra.
A recent number of the _Ilustración Española y Americana _
(15 Enero, 1911) contains lines of similar construction by
Don Rafael Torromé:
Al miràr su carìta sonriènte,
Tan dùlce y tan buèna,
Siempre obsèrvo que mi àlma presiènte,
Con duèlo y con pèna,
Que más tàrde este mùndo inclemènte
Trocarà en sentimièntos de hièna
Los pùros afèctos de su àlma inocènte.
Iriarte did not hesitate to write fables in these
10-syllable lines alone:
De sus hìjos la tòrpe Avetùrda
El pesàdo volàr conocìa...
And the romanticists of the nineteenth century used it not
infrequently:
Con inmòvil, irònica muèca
Inclinàron formàndo en redòr...
(Espronceda, _Est. de Sal._)
Del salòn en el àngulo obscùro,
De su duèño tal vèz olvidàda,
Silenciòsa y cubièrta de pòlvo,
Veìase el àrpa.
(Bécquer, _Rima_ VII)
page lxiii
In the nineteenth century this line came to be popular in
patriotic songs which are sung by the multitude, while the
crash of the drum marks the rhythmic accents:
Entonèmos festìvos cantàres,
Pues el dìa felìz ha llegàdo,
Que del yùgo servìl aliviàdo
Goza yà el Españòl libertàd.
(_La Constitución_)
Al combàte corrèd, Bayamèses,
Que la pàtria os contèmpla orgullòsa;
No temàis una muèrte gloriòsa,
Que morìr por la pàtria es vivìr.
(Cuban national hymn, cf. p. 251)
The commoner form of verse with 11-syllable ternary lines
is that popularly called "_de gaita gallega_" (Men. Pel.,
_Ant._, V, p. cxcv; X, 141. Cf. also Milá, _op. cit._),
the assumption being that this verse is intimately related
to that type of popular Galician poetry known as the
_muiñeira_, which was sung to the music of the bagpipe.
These lines are typical of the "_endecasílabos de gaita
gallega_":
Tànto bailè á la puèrta del cùra,
Tànto bailè que me diò calentùra;
Tànto bailè á la puèrta del hòrno,
Tànto bailè que me dièron un bòllo.[37]
[Footnote 34: Many Galician _muiñeiras_ have been
collected: cf. Milá, _op. cit._; Carolina Michaëlis de
Vasconcellos, _Cancioneiro de Ajuda_, Vol. II, Halle,
1904; José Pérez Ballesteros, _Cancionero popular
gallego_, Madrid, 1885.]
page lxxiv
Menéndez y Pelayo (_Ant._ X, 141) gives, in his collection
of _Romances tradicionales de Asturias_, the following one
in ternary 11-syllable lines:
=La tentación=
--¡Ày, probe Xuàna de cuèrpo garrido!
¡Ày, probe Xuàna de cuèrpo galàno!
¿Dònde le dèxas al tù buen amigo?
¿Dònde le dèxas al tù buen amàdo?
--¡Muèrto le dèxo á la orìlla del rìo,
muèrto le dèxo á la orìlla del vàdo!
--¿Cuànto me dàs, volverètelo vìvo?
¿Cuànto me dàs, volverètelo sàno?
--Dòyte las àrmas y dòyte el rocìno,
dòyte las àrmas y dòyte el cabàllo.
--No hè menestèr ni armàs ni rocìno,
no hè menestèr ni armàs ni cabàllo...
It should be noted that this poem has assonance of the
odd and of the even lines. Men. Pel. says of this popular
11-syllable _romance_ that «su aparición en la poesía
popular castellana es un fenómeno singular, aun en
Asturias misma, y hasta ahora no se ha presentado más
ejemplo que éste.» Note the apparent shifting of stress in
_armas_. Iriarte and L. Moratin did not scorn to use this
line.
Iriarte:
Cièrta criàda la càsa barrìa
Còn una escòba muy sùcia y muy vièja...
Moratin (in the chorus of _Padres del Limbo_):
Hùyan los àños con ràpido vuèlo;
Gòce la tièrra duràble consuèlo;
Mìre á los hòmbres piadòso el Señòr...
page lxxv
The 11-syllable line of ternary movement has had less
vogue in artistic verse than those of ten and twelve
syllables.[38]
[Footnote 38: In _Las hijas del Cid_ E. Marquina has used a
flexible 11-syllable ternary line beginning with either
[\-] - - [\-] or - [\-] - [\-]:
Sus nòmbres jùntos los llèvo en el alma,
Jùntos los guàrda tambièn mi memòria.
These are blank verses with occasional assonance.]
The Spanish ternary 12-syllable line was formerly used
chiefly in combination with lines of ten or eleven
syllables. Some examples of mingled 10-and 12-syllable
lines have already been given above. Another is:
Mancebìto, perdòne las hèmbras,
Que còmen y bèben y no tienen rèntas.
--Pues, mocìtas, maldìtas sean èllas,
Ó còsan ó làbren ó càiganse muèrtas.
A song of mingled 11-and 12-syllable lines begins thus:
Al pàsar la bàrca, me dìjo el barquèro:
Mòza bonìta no pàga dinero.[39]
[Footnote 39: Cf. Milá, _op. cit._ In singing _pasar_,
there is apparently a shifting of stress which is not
uncommon in songs.]
Efforts have been made from time to time to use the
ternary movements in erudite verse, but these, for the
most part, have proven futile. The most serious and the
most successful attempt appears in the use of the _copla
de arte mayor_ in the fifteenth century. The _copla
(metro, versos) de arte mayor_ consists of mingled 12-and
11-syllable lines arranged in strophes of eight lines,
each with consonantal rime according to some definite
scheme. The _arte mayor_ verse attained to its most
perfect form and its greatest popularity in page lxxvi
_El laberinto de la fortuna_ (1444?), by Juan de Mena, of
which the following is a strophe:
Amores me dieron corona de amores
porque mi nombre por más bocas ande;
entonçes no era mi mal menos grande,
quando me dauan plazer sus dolores;
vençen el seso sus dulçes errores,
mas non duran sienpre, segund luego plazen;
pues me fizieron del mal que vos fazen,
sabed al amor desamar, amadores.
(Strophe 106)
The old _arte mayor_ verse has these distinguishing
characteristics:
The line is divided into hemistichs, each of which may
have four, five or six syllables, thus:
(1) (-) - - - [/-] (-) | (-) - - - [/-] (-),
except that the final syllable of the first hemistich
and the initial syllable of the second may not both be
lacking. These arrangements may also occur (the third is
rare):
(2) (-) - - - [/-] - - | - - - [/-] (-)
(3) (-) - - - [/-] | - - - - - [/-] (-).
Examples of types:
(1) Las grandes fazañas | de nuestros mayores... (Str. 4)
Vayan de gente | sabidos en gente... (Str. 3)
Reconocerán | maguer que feroce... (Str. 274)
Assí que qualquiera | cuerpo ya muerto... (Str. 244)
Cuya virtud | maguer que reclama...
Sufren que passen | males e viçios... (Str. 232)
(2) E ví á Pitágoras | que defendía... (Str. 118)
Bien como médico | mucho famoso... (Str. 178)
(3) Quando el señor | es en neçessidad... (Str. 258)
page lxxvii
The initial unstressed syllable of the first hemistich is
lacking in approximately one-third of the lines of the
_Laberinto_. These lines resemble the 11-syllable _gaita
gallega_ verse, and the others resemble the popular
Galician 12-syllable ternary line, for in both the final
unstressed syllable of the first hemistich may fall,[40]
which seems to indicate that the appearance of the _arte
mayor_ verse in Castilian was due to Galician influence.
[Footnote 40: Cf. these Galician _muiñeiras_, cited by Milá
y Fontanals (_Romanía_, VI, p. 47 f.):
Càndo te vèxo | na bèira do rìo,
Quèda o meu còrpo | tembràndo de frìo;
Càndo te vèxo | d'o mònte n'altùra,
A tòdo o mon córpo | lle dà calentùra.
Ìsca d'ahì | galìña maldìta,
Ìsca d'ahì | non me màte la pìta;
Ìsca d'ahì | galìña ladròna,
Ìsca d'ahì | pra càs de tua dòna.]
Again, as in many Galician songs of this type, the ternary
movement of the old _arte mayor_ verse is not strictly
regular. Approximately nine-tenths of the lines in the
_Laberinto_ may be read with regular ternary movement:
(-) [/-] - - [/-] (-) | (-) [/-] - - [/-] (-),
by giving a rhythmic accent to a syllable with secondary
stress or to a middle syllable in a group of atonics, in a
not inconsiderable number of lines, as in:
Pòr las altùras, | collàdos y cèrros...
Assì que tu ères | la gòvernadòra...
In the remaining lines the commonest movement is:
(-) - [/-] - [/-] (-) | (-) - [/-] - [/-] (-),
as in:
Aquel claro padre, aquel dulce fuente... page lxxviii
In the second half of the sixteenth century and in the
seventeenth century, the _arte mayor_ verse was out of
fashion, although it appeared occasionally, as in these
lines of Lope de Vega (a variety of the Sapphic strophe),
with inner rime:
Amor poderoso en cielo y en tierra,
dulcísima guerra de nuestros sentidos,
¡oh, cuántos perdidos con vida inquiëta
tu imperio sujeta!
(From first act of _Dorotea_)
In the nineteenth century it was restored to favor by
the romanticists.[41] Good examples are: Espronceda,
_El templario_; Avellaneda, _Las siete palabras_; and
Zorrilla, _Á un torreón_ (part). Some writers used it even
in the drama (cf. Gil y Zárate, _Guzmán el bueno_). The
modern _arte mayor_ verse is written in 12-syllable lines,
usually with regular ternary movement. Thus:
¡Oh Antìlla dichòsa! | ¿qué màgicos sònes,
Qué lùz inefàble, | qué extràña alegrìa,
Del cièlo destièrran los nègros crespònes,
Prestàndo á esta nòche | la pòmpa del dìa?
¿Por qué tan ufàna, | tan bèlla la lùna
Con fàz refulgènte | comiènza su gìro,
Y no hày leve sòmbra | que crùce importùna
Su tròno esmaltàdo | de plàta y zafìro?
(Avellaneda, _Serenata de Cuba_)
[Footnote 41: Iriarte, of course, had written a fable or
two in _arte mayor_ verse. Cf. _Fábula_ XXXIX.]
page lxxix
Soldàdos, la Pàtria | nos llàma á la lìd;
Jurèmos por èlla | vencèr ó morìr;
Serènos, alègres, | valièntes, osàdos,
Cantèmos, soldàdos, | el hìmno á la lìd:
Ya nuèstros acèntos | el òrbe se admìre,
Y en nòsotros[42] mìre | los hìjos del Cìd;
Ya nuèstros acèntos | el òrbe se admìre,
Y en nòsotros mìre | los hìjos del Cìd.
(_Himno de Riego_: cf. p. 242)
[Footnote 42: Note in _nosotros_ the shifting of stress,
which the musical notation indicates clearly.]
Lines of fourteen and fifteen syllables with ternary
movement are never popular, and in artistic verse they
are exceedingly rare. Avellaneda used these measures in
_Soledad del alma_:
Sàle la auròra risuèña, de flòres vestìda,
Dàndole al cièlo y al càmpo variàdo colòr;
Tòdo se anìma sintièndo brotàr nueva vìda,
Càntan las àves, y el àura suspìra de amòr.
Huyèron velòces--cual nùbes que el viènto arrebàta--
Los brèves momèntos de dìcha que el cièlo me diò...
¿Por què mi existència, ya inùtil, su cùrso dilàta,
Si el tèrmino ansiàdo á su espàlda perdìdo dejò?
Some recent poets have attempted to write ternary
Alexandrine verse. Thus, the Peruvian poet, José S.
Chocano (1867-):
Los Estados Unidos, como argolla de bronce,
contra un clavo sujetan de la América un pie;
y la América debe, si pretende ser libre,
imitarles primero, é igualarles después.
page lxxx
Imitemos ¡oh Musa! las crujientes estrofas
que en el Norte se arrastran con la gracia de un tren,
y que giren las rimas como ruedas veloces
y que caigan los versos como varas de riel.
(_La epopeya del Pacífico_)
STROPHES
There are certain conventional combinations of line and
rime known by special names. Those used in modern Spanish
may best be considered under the heads (I) Assonance, (II)
Consonantal Rime, and (III) No Rime.
I. (1) The _romance_ is the most characteristic and
national of all Spanish meters. The proper _romance_
consists of 8-syllable lines with assonance in alternate
lines[43] (cf. pp. 1-8, 42, etc.). The structure of the
_romance_ line has already been treated (p. lxi). In the
old _romances_ there was no division into stanzas, but
poets from the end of the sixteenth century on regularly
employ a pause after every fourth line, thereby creating
a series of quatrains (pp. 42, 60, etc.), except in the
drama (p. 19).
[Footnote 43: Historically, of i6-syllable lines, all
assonating.]
(2) Alternate assonance may be employed with lines of
any length. With 11-syllable lines the verse is called
_romance heroico_ or _real_. Lines of seven syllables make
_versos anacreónticos_. The name _endecha_ is given to
some assonated verse of either six (p. 124) or seven
syllables. When the first three lines of a stanza are
of seven syllables and the last of eleven, the verse is
called _endecha real_. For examples of alternate assonance
in lines of various lengths, see pp. 122 (2 examples),
123, 137, 160, 177.
An _estribillo_, or refrain, may be used in any assonating
verse (p. 45).
page lxxxi
(3) The use of alternate assonance in lines of fourteen
syllables (pp. 211, 212) is a none too happy device of the
author.
(4) The _seguidilla_ is usually a stanza of seven lines of
seven and five syllables in length, in this order: 7, 5,
7, 5; 5, 7, 5. There is usually a pause after the fourth
line; lines 2 and 4 have one assonance and lines 5 and 7
another. The assonances change from one stanza to another.
See pp. 112 and 120. In some _seguidillas_ the stanzas
consist only of the first four lines described.
II. The native Spanish strophes are usually combinations
of 8-syllable or shorter lines. The 11-syllable line,
itself an importation from Italy, brought with it many
well-known Italian strophes. In none of the pure Italian
forms are lines ending in _agudos_ or _esdrújulos_
permissible.
(1) The _redondilla mayor_ consists of four 8-syllable
lines with the rime-scheme _abba_ (pp. 149, 167), or,
less commonly, _abab_ (p. 136). It is a common and
characteristic Spanish meter. The _redondilla menor_
has the same form expressed in lines of less than eight
syllables. The same rime-schemes are found with lines of
seven or of eleven (pp. 117, 207) syllables, and with
combinations of eleven and seven (p. 134), or eleven and
five (p. 86) syllables; but they are not properly called
_redondillas_.
(2) The _quintilla_ is a 5-line strophe, usually of
8-syllable lines. Only two rimes are used in one stanza,
and not more than two lines having the same rime should
stand together (pp. 26, 114). _Quintillas_ are sometimes
written with lines of other lengths. Examples with eleven
and seven syllables are found on pp. 128, 133 and 148. The
stanza used in _Vida retirada_ (p. 9) is termed _lira_:
cf. _Introduction_, p. xxiii.
page lxxxii
(3) The _décima_ (or _espinela_) is a 10-line strophe
of 8-syllable lines which may be considered as two
_quintillas_; but there should be a pause after the
fourth line, and the rime-scheme is usually as follows:
_abbaaccddc_.
(4) The _arte mayor_ line has already been described (p.
lxxv). The _copla de arte mayor_ is a stanza of eight such
lines, usually having the rime-scheme _abbaacca_.
(5) The _octava rima_ (Ital. _ottava rima_) is an Italian
form. Each stanza has eight 11-syllable lines with the
rime-scheme _abababcc_. Examples are found of octaves
employing short lines. A variety of the _octava rima_ is
the _octava bermudina_ with the rime-scheme _abbcdeec_,
the lines in _c_ ending in _agudos_.
(6) The _soneto_ (sonnet) is formed of fourteen
11-syllable lines. In the Siglo de Oro it appears as
a much stricter form than the English sonnet of the
corresponding period. The quatrains have the regular
construction _abba_, and the tiercets almost always follow
one of two types: either _cde, cde,_ or _cdcdcd_. See pp.
14, 18, 148, etc.
(7) _Tercetos_ (Italian _terza rima_), the verse used by
Dante in the _Divina Commedia_, are formed of 11-syllable
lines in groups of three, with the rime-scheme _aba, bcb,
cdc_, etc., ending _yzyz_. See p. 15.
(8) The term _canción_, which means any lyrical
composition, is also applied specifically to a verse
form in which the poet invents a typical strophe, with a
certain length of line and order of rimes, and adheres to
this type of stanza throughout the whole poem. The lines
are of eleven and seven syllables,--the Italian structure.
Of such nature are the poems on pp. 8, 20, 71, 137
(bottom), 174, 190.
The same procedure is employed with lines of any length, page lxxxiii
but the poem is not then called _canción_.
For strophes in 10-syllable lines, see p. 199; in
8-syllable lines, pp. 16, 51, 83, 151; in 7-syllables, p.
202.
(9) The _silva_ is a free composition of 11-and 7-syllable
lines. Most of the lines rime, but without any fixed
order, and lines are often left unrimed. See pp. 46, 54,
152, 214 (bottom), etc. A similar freely riming poem in
lines of seven syllables is Villegas' _Cantilena_ (p. 17).
(10) The Asclepiadean verse (p. lxviii) and the Sapphic
(p. lxiv) and Alcaic (p. lxix) strophes have already been
described. These may be rimed, or in blank verse.
(11) Numerous conventional names are given to poems for
some other characteristic than their metrical structure.
Thus a _glosa_ (gloss) is a poem "beginning with a text, a
line of which enters into each of the stanzas expounding
it." A _letra_ may be a short gloss. The name _letrilla_
is applied sometimes to a little poem in short lines which
may be set to music (p. 9), and sometimes to a strophic
poem with a refrain (p. 16). A _madrigal_ is a short
_silva_ upon a light topic, an expanded conceit. The term
_cantilena_ is given to any short piece of verse intended
to be set to music (p. 17). _Serranillas_, in which is
described the meeting of a gentleman with a rustic maiden,
are famous for the examples written by Juan Ruiz and the
Marquis of Santillana. A _villancico_ is a popular poem
with a refrain, usually dealing with an episode celebrated
in a church festival (p. 13).
III. _Versos sueltos, libres_ or _blancos_ (blank verse)
are formed, as in English, of 11-syllable lines, with
occasionally a shorter line thrown in. There is no rime,
but sometimes a couplet may mark the close of an idea. See
pp. 38 and 144, and cf. also p. lx.
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