exact. Medicine and law have a definite body of doctrine. Schools of
biology and political science have not, but granting all this, it
still remains true that exactly as the law student and the medical
student must have what is defined, established, and unmistakable in
the world of law and of life, so the student looking to journalism
needs and must have what is defined, established, and unmistakable in
economics and political science. Here, again, no one will pretend that
the usual college course in either of these branches is taught with
the same determination to keep within the same metes and bounds of
recorded, tested, and ascertained facts as is true of courses in
physics, chemistry, and biology. The boundary marked is less distinct.
The periodic law by which the atomic values of elements are
established is more definite than the periodic law under which wealth
is distributed through society, though in the end some Mendelleeff
will record the periodic law of social elements in their composition
and action. Research is needed and must be free. Theory and
speculation are as necessary to secure an experiment and observation.
The principle is clear, however, that the student who is to make
professional use of a topic needs to have a definite and established
instruction, not required in one to whom topic is incidental. The
medical student or law student who has a new view of economic results
or a new theory of the cause and purpose of our judicial and
constitutional system as organized to protect the few against the many
will work this off in the school of life, and is unaffected in his
professional work. The journalist within his first year's work must
apply his college economics and political science, and a wrong
starting point may have serious consequences to his own career in the
end, perhaps to society. Fortunately the work of the journalist so
brings him in contact with things as they are, that the body of
newspaper writers, taken as a whole, represents the stability of
society. The convictions and principles created by their daily work
tend this way. The labor union has few illusions to the reporter, and
it was the editorial writers of the land who carried the gold standard
in 1896, when many a publisher was hazy and scary. The causes of crime
grow pretty clear to a police reporter, and a few assignments in which
a newspaper man sees a riot convinces him of the value of public
order, rigidly enforced. None the less, the reporter should start
right on these sciences, basic in his calling; in the end, as the
medical school has steadied the college teaching of chemistry and
biology, so the school of journalism, the school of business, and the
school of railroad practice _et al_ will steady economics and
political science. But the duty of the college and university remains
clear, to be as watchful that the sciences of social action and
reaction shall be taught with the same adherence to the established
and the same responsibility to their professional use as the sciences
of physical, chemical, and biological action and reaction.
=Especially adapted content in social sciences to meet professional needs=
The college studies needed as preparation for journalism call for a
special proficiency and content as much as for a professional
viewpoint. The journalist makes precisely the same use of his
fundamental studies as does the medical student of his. If a future
lawyer neglects his chemistry and biology, it is of little moment. He
can get up what he needs of a case. A medical student who neglects
these studies will find that the best schools bar him. In time the
school of journalism will refuse the college passing mark for
admission. The newspaper man almost from the start has to use his
economics, his political science, and his history. Elementary
economics is in great measure given to theory, though a change has
begun. For the journalist, this course needs to be brought in close
contact with the actual economic working of society. The theory may be
useful to the man who expects in the end to teach economics. It is of
next to no value to the writer on public affairs. Of what possible use
is it to him to learn the various theoretic explanations of
Boehm-Bawerk's cost and value? The newspaper man needs to see these
things and be taught them as Bagehot wrote on them and Walker and
Sumner taught them.
=General science course of inestimable worth to the journalist=
In Columbia, this change is already recognized as necessary. So in
political science, the actual working of the body politic needs to be
taught, and this is too often neglected for explanatory theories and a
special interpretation. A single elementary course in chemistry,
physics, or biology presupposes two or three more courses which fill
out the special opening sketch. Newspaper works requires a general
account of science, derided by the scientist who is himself satisfied
in his own education with a similar sketch in history. These general
science courses are being smuggled in as "history of science," or
"scientific nomenclature." Much can be done in a year with such a
three-hour course, if the teaching be in exceptional hands; but
adequate treatment requires two years of three hours, one on organic
and one on inorganic science. The latter should give a view of
anthropology and the former dwell on the application of science in
modern industry.
=In history attention must be focalized on modern movements=
College history courses end thirty to fifty years ago. The journalist
needs to know closely the last thirty years, at home and abroad. Weeks
given to colonial charters in American history are as much waste as to
set a law student to a special study of the Year Books of Edward I
and II. College students have to put up with a good deal of this kind
of waste. If twelve hours can be assigned to history, three should be
on the classical period, three introductory to the modern world, three
to European history since 1870, and three hours for American history;
at least two of these three hours should go to American history since
Garfield.
=Recent progress in all subjects must be summed up for the student of
journalism=
The writing course should be used to supplement this by articles on
both these fields so that a student will learn the sources of history
for the last thirty years, its treaties, its elections, its movements,
its statutes, its reference works. He will need all this knowledge as
soon as he has to write as a correspondent, a feature writer, or an
editor, on the important topics of the day. Statistics need to
supplement economics and advanced courses, two, if possible, should
give knowledge and method in the approach to new problems in currency,
banking, trusts, and unions. At least one general course in philosophy
is needed, and Freud is as important for him here as Aristotle. The
contact of the newspaper man with book reviewing, book advertising,
and the selection of fiction and news in supplements and magazines
calls for the "survey course in English literature" and a knowledge of
the current movement in letters for thirty years back. In science, in
politics, in history, in economics, in philosophy, and in letters, it
is indispensable that the young newspaper man should be introduced by
lecture, and still more by reading, to the speaking figures of his own
day on affairs, political life, letters, the theatre, and art.
=The journalist must ever be a student of human affairs=
These things are indispensable. The man who knows them can learn to
write and edit, but the man who can only write and edit and does not
know them will speedily run dry in the newspaper, weekly and monthly.
News is today standardized. Each President, each decade, each great
war, the Associated Press and City Press Associations cover more
completely the current news. Presentation, comment, handling special
articles, grow each year more important and more in demand. The price
of supplement and magazine articles has trebled in the last twenty
years. The newspaper grows more and more to be a platform,
particularly the Sunday newspaper and popular magazine. If a man is to
be a figure in the day's conflict and on its wider issues, he needs
the special training just outlined, and when this outline is begun, he
will find the toil of the years in these fields has but begun. About
the safe harbors of journalism where men come and go, dealing with the
affairs of and ending the ready market of the day, are the reefs
strewn with the wrecks of ready and often "brilliant" writers whose
few brief years left them empty and adrift, telling all they meet that
no man can long earn a fair income and hold his own through the years
in journalism.
A school can ameliorate all this by one course which requires much
reading of the Bible and Shakespeare, by furnishing in the school
library abundant access to the best current prose and verse of the day
which will directly appeal to the young reader, since each decade has
its new gods in letters, and by selecting teachers for the
professional courses who have shown that they can write at least well
enough to be paid by newspapers and magazines for their work. The
teacher in writing whose work is not salable is not as likely to teach
students how to write so that their work can sell as one who has
earned his living by selling his stuff.
TALCOTT WILLIAMS
_School of Journalism, Columbia University_
XXVIII
BUSINESS EDUCATION
=Evolution of business education=
Business education of collegiate grade is a very recent development.
The world's first commercial college was established at Antwerp in
1852, while the forerunner of American institutions of this sort, the
Wharton School, was founded in 1881. Others followed in the nineties,
but the general establishment of schools of commerce as parts of
colleges and universities, as well as the inclusion of business
subjects in the curricula of liberal colleges, took place after 1900.
This sudden flowering at the top was preceded by a long evolution
quite typical of the development of education in all the branches of
learning to which institutions devote time because of their cultural
or professional worth.
Some practical end and not the desire for abstract knowledge prompted
early instruction and stimulated business education as well as
education in general through various stages of progress. Of course all
education is a process whereby technical operations and abstract truth
developed by many generations are systematized, compressed, and
imparted to individuals in a relatively short time.
The first stage in the evolution in a given field may be called the
_apprentice stage_. Just as physicians, lawyers, and in fact
practitioners in all the professions and crafts trained their
assistants in their establishments for the purpose of making them
proficient in their daily work, so did merchants at this stage give
apprentice training in commercial branches to their employees.
Traditional ways of carrying out certain transactions, convenient
rules of thumb, and habits of neatness and reliability were passed on
in a given establishment. As industry grew and guilds were formed, the
training tended to become more standardized and merchants joined in
establishing guild schools for their employees. Many such schools
were conducted in the various crafts, and their modern counterparts
are the well-known vocational or trade schools. This _vocational
training_ stage was developed by business men for persons not employed
as productive craftsmen but rather as workers in business offices
which administered production and directly attended to selling and
exchange, and for others looking forward to such employment. At this
stage there grew up also private schools, usually conducted by
teachers especially proficient in particular lines of service. Thus
inventors of shorthand systems, devisers of systems of penmanship, and
authors of methods of bookkeeping and accounting set up schools in
these specialties. Here we have training outside the business house
itself to prepare for participation in business, and the enterprises
flourish because there is a demand for the people they train. At this
stage rules of thumb are supplanted by systems based on principles,
and the way is paved for the _technical school stage_. The training
here is practical, but it is broad and based on scientific knowledge.
This stage is not reached in all fields of endeavor, for some stop at
the first or the second, while on the other hand the existence of a
higher stage of education does not preclude the continuation at the
same time of agencies carrying on instruction after the mode of the
lower stages. With the rise of the factory system and the extension of
capitalistic production and industrial integration in the form of "big
business," there came a demand in the business world for men widely
informed and thoroughly trained. Not only did men to meet this demand
have to have good foundations of general education, but they needed
technical preparation in the specialized field of business itself.
Business science is not only applied science, but it is secondary or
derived from a number of the fundamental sciences. It draws its
principles from the physical sciences of physics, chemistry, geology,
and biology; it utilizes the engineering applications of these
sciences; it derives valuable information from physiology and
psychology, and it makes use of the modern languages. Borrowing from
all the pure sciences and their applied counterparts, it formulates
its own regulations so that it may manage the work of the world
_economically_, so that it may bring about the production of goods
necessary to meet humanity's many, varied, and recurrent wants, and
make these commodities available in advantageous times and places with
individual title to them established according to existing standards
of personal justice and social expediency.
The final stage, the _cultural stage_, is reached when the educator
determines that the field in question is so much a part of the general
civilization or intellectual wealth of the world that it ought to
receive some consideration, not only by specialists in the field but
also by the student pursuing a well-planned course of a general or
non-technical character designed to enable him to appreciate and play
some role in the world in which he lives. It is because new branches
of human endeavor constantly blossom forth into this stage, while more
ancient branches wither and no longer bear fruit of contemporary
significance, that the very humanities themselves change as well as
realities.
Business as a field of human thought and activity has reached this
stage, and educators reckon with it in laying out courses of general
elementary, secondary, and collegiate study.
No one would contend that educators should in any way cease to offer
general or cultural courses, but they should insist that these general
courses embrace all of humanity's wealth, including that which modern
society contributed, and that they should with each addition reshape
their general offerings so that appropriate proportions will be
preserved.
=Definition of business education=
Before the development of modern highly organized production, business
training would have been synonymous with commercial training; that is,
training to prepare men to play their parts in the _exchange_ of
goods. This would embrace correspondence with customers, the keeping
of records of stock, the cost of stock, making out bills, and
attending to all financial operations which were associated with
marketing and exchange. Successful training would imply, of course,
the broad foundational grasp of arithmetic, reading, and writing of
the mother tongue and of such foreign languages as the nature of the
market might require, a grasp of various money values, banking
procedure, and other information concerning financial affairs, the
means of transportation, freight charges, etc. Manual skill had to be
developed in penmanship, in the technique of bookkeeping, general
office organization, and filing. With the invention of mechanical and
labor-saving office devices, facility in operating them was required
to supplement skill in penmanship.
Of course, with the development of the market the complexity of office
management increased. In modern times the business man concerns
himself not only with the duties of the merchant and exchanger, but
also with the organization of industry and economical procedure. The
modern business man, entrepreneur or manager, and all those assisting
him in the discharge of his duties, perform functions in two
directions: first, in the direction of the market in the establishment
of price, in the selling of his goods, and in attending to all matters
which flow therefrom, and secondly toward the production plant itself;
while he employs technicians who know how to perform operations
skillfully according to the laws of science, nevertheless he must know
how to buy labor and how to organize labor and materials and put them
in coordinate working relationship most economically.
We can therefore define business _education as education which
directly prepares people to discharge the business function: namely,
the economical organization of men and materials in production and the
most advantageous distribution and exchange of the commodities or
service for consumption_.
In the modern world it is hard sometimes to draw the line between the
field of technology in production and the field of business management
in production, but in general the two functions are fairly distinct.
The technician is interested in operations of production, while the
business manager is interested in their economical organization and in
their government with relation to market conditions. The very
engineers themselves must be selected, engineered, and paid by the
business man. The business manager is interested in keeping the total
price of his commodities above his total entrepreneur's cost. The
technician is interested in inventing and operating the machinery of
production, if and when the business man determines what operations
will be profitable.
=Aims and curricula of business education=
The aims of business education are, first and foremost, professional;
second, civic; and third, cultural. At no time can the three be
separated, but it is possible to devise a curriculum which stresses
one or two of the aims. It is also possible to treat a subject so as
to emphasize technical and practical skill or to promote philosophical
reflection.
The professional aim prompted the establishment of the first schools
or colleges of commerce, and it is kept to the fore not only in
institutions giving courses of study which lead to distinctive degrees
in commerce, but also in places which give specialized instruction in
particular fields. We shall consider curricula of the following types:
_Type I._ Curriculum designed to give the student training to meet a
definite professional requirement established by law.
_Type II._ Curriculum designed to make a student proficient in a
particular narrow field.
_Type III._ Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree in commerce
or business, vertical type.
_Type IV._ Curriculum leading to a baccalaureate degree in commerce or
business, horizontal type.
TYPE I. TECHNICAL COURSE, DESIGNED TO PREPARE STUDENTS TO MEET THE
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS
_Entrance requirements_ for students matriculating for the whole
course as candidates for a Diploma of Graduate in Accountancy--high
school graduation, college entrance or a State Regents' C.P.A.
Qualifying Certificate.
Non-matriculated students--mature persons wishing to pursue certain
subjects without academic credit.
_Prescribed_
Accounting, Theory, Practice and Problems
4 terms, 4 hours a week--256 hours
This course covers general accounting for the single proprietor,
partnerships and corporations, embracing financing,
manufacturing, and selling operations, with agencies and
branches, the formation of mergers, syndicates, holding
companies, etc.; dissolutions and reorganizations.
Cost accounting 1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Auditing 1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Public utilities accounting
1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Judicial (fiduciary) accounting
1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Advanced accounting, theory, and problems
2 term, 2 hours a week--64 hours
Commercial Law 3 terms, 3 hours a week 144 hours
Covering general principles of law, contracts, and all forms of
special contracts of interest to the business man, especially
those related to personal property, risk insurance, credit and
real property, and forms of business associations.
Economics
Economic principles
1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Economic development of the United States
1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Money and banking 1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
English--Written, Business English
2 terms, 2 hours a week--64 hours
Oral English--Public Speaking
4 terms, 1 hour a week--64 hours
_Additional electives_--one course of at least 96 hours in Government
and enough other elective subjects in technical commercial work or
Political Science to accrue at least a total of 1000 hours.
The available additional electives in accounting are advanced
courses in different special fields such as Advanced Cost
Accounting, Municipal Accounting--General and Departmental,
Systems for particular industries or forms of business, Public
Utilities Rate Making and Regulation, etc.
In Government the available electives include such subjects as
American Government and Citizenship, American Constitutional Law,
International Law, Political Theory, Comparative Government, State
Legislation and Administration, Municipal Administration, etc.
In Political Science, courses in Economics and Business, such as
Economic Problems, Business Organization and Management, Public
Finance, Foreign Trade, Foreign Exchange, Insurance, Advertising,
Salesmanship, etc., are available, while general and special
courses may be taken in Sociology and Statistics.
Courses of study of this sort in a specialized field are offered in
colleges usually at night for students who are in active business
during the day. With more or less extensive additions in scientific,
literary, and linguistic fields they become the curricula leading to
baccalaureate degrees as represented by Type III, to follow. Large
private institutes or schools conducted for profit and also
correspondence institutions offer similar courses. Other groups of
studies in particular fields are: in banking, in transportation or
traffic, in sales management, including advertising and salesmanship,
and in foreign trade.
A group in Foreign Trade will typify this sort of course of study,
which differs from the one in Accountancy just given because the
make-up will be determined wholly by each institution quite
independent of legally established professional standards.
TYPE II. TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR WORK IN A SPECIAL FIELD, FOREIGN
TRADE
Principles of economics
1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Economic resources of the U. S.
1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Commercial geography
1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Money and banking 1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Foreign exchange 1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Foreign credit 1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
International law 1 term, 3 hours a week--48 hours
Tariff history of the U. S.
1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
U. S. and foreign customs administrations
1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Export technique 1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Practical steamship operation
1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Marketing and salesmanship
General course 1 term, 2 hours a week--32 hours
Special courses as desired on South American Markets, Mediterranean
Markets, Russian Markets, Northwest Empire Markets, etc.
Foreign Languages:
Practical courses in Conversation and correspondence in French,
Spanish, Portuguese, German, Russian, etc., according to market in
which trade is specialized, at least
4 terms, 3 hours a week--192 hours
Total (in 2 years, with weekly schedule of 10 or 12 hrs.)
672 hours
A special course of this sort usually leads to a certificate but not a
diploma or degree. Obviously the technical aim is very prominent,
though civic and cultural benefits of no mean character will of
necessity be derived. New groups will be found as new fields of
business become important and develop definite, recognizable
requirements of a scientific sort. Naturally each such specialty goes
through the usual evolution and contributes its philosophical
distillation or essence to the cultural college course.
When we come to the construction of a curriculum leading to a
bachelor's degree in business, economics, or commerce, we have the
problems of the engineering schools. Just how far will specialization
be carried, in what sequence will the foundational subjects and the
specialties be taken up, and to what extent will other more general
subjects not directly contributing to a technical end be admitted? In
most institutions of good standards the degree is regarded as
representing not only technical proficiency in business but also some
acquaintance with science, politics, and letters in general. The
question (already an old one in schools of engineering) arises then
concerning the best way to arrange the special or distinctively
business subjects in relation to the more general. Although there are
a number of variations, two outstanding types are recognizable. We may
devise labels for them: the _vertical_ curriculum, which offers both
general and special courses side by side right up through the college
course, and the _horizontal_, which requires a completion of the whole
or nearly all of the general group during the first two years of
college before the special subjects are pursued in the last two.
TYPE III. VERTICAL TYPE OF UNDERGRADUATE CURRICULUM, LEADING TO THE
DEGREE OF B. S. IN ECONOMICS
_Entrance_: College entrance requirements.
_Requirement for graduation_: 74 units, of which 40 must be in general
business and in liberal subjects, with 34 in specialized fields of
business activity, to be taken after the freshman year.
A unit here represents successful work for one hour a week for
two semesters. Therefore the total 74 is equivalent to 148 of the
usual collegiate units.
_Freshman Required Work_
English composition 2 hours a week--2 terms
English, history of the language 1 hour a week--2 terms
English literature 1 hour a week--2 terms
Chemistry--general )
or } 3 hours a week--2 terms
Business law )
Physical education 2 hours a week--2 terms
Government--federal and state 3 hours a week--2 terms
Principles of economics 3 hours a week--2 terms
Economic resources 2 hours a week--2 terms
Accounting--general course 3 hours a week--2 terms
_Sophomore Required Work_
English literature and composition 3 hours a week--2 terms
Physical education 2 hours a week--2 terms
General history 2 hours a week--2 terms
_Required before End of Junior Year_
Additional political science 2 hours a week--2 terms
Physical education 1 hour a week--2 terms
_Required before Graduation_
Additional history 3 hours a week--2 terms
Physical education 1 hour a week--2 terms
A modern language beyond the
first year in college 3 hours a week--4 terms
Total required units 40 units
Elect after the Freshman year courses aggregating 34 additional units in
fields of
I. Business law 4 courses, 10 units available
II. Commerce and transportation 9 courses, 19 units available
III. Economics 8 courses, 15 units available
IV. Finance and accounting 20 courses, 53 units available
V. Geography and industry 11 courses, 26 units available
VI. Insurance 7 courses, 16 units available
VII. Political science 22 courses, 43 units available
VIII. Sociology 6 courses, 12 units available
Total required for the degree, 74 units
There is a school which grants a degree in Commerce for the equivalent
of 36 of these units or 72 of the usual college credits, if the
student has business experience, and for the equivalent of 48 of these
units or 96 of the usual college credits if he has not. The course is
essentially like Type I and includes no broad liberal requirements in
literature, foreign language, and history and on the other hand is not
so strictly prescribed as Type I. A strictly technical degree may be
desirable for such a short course, provided the prescription is severe
and includes languages. Generally it seems best to reserve degrees for
full college courses of four years or more which include a reasonable
general requirement in languages and science. This leads us to Type
IV, or the curriculum which requires the first regular two years of
the college course prescribed for one of the liberal degrees and
permits business specialization in the last two undergraduate years or
these with an additional postgraduate year. One institution requires
the first three years as a foundation for a two-year course in
business, and one conducts a postgraduate school of business
administration leading to the degree of Ph.D. in Business Economics.
No doubt postgraduate work will be continued mainly in the research
direction, but undergraduate day and continuation courses will be
devoted mainly to preparation for business.
It is not necessary to illustrate Type IV, because the first two years
consist simply of the Freshman and Sophomore work of any sort of
liberal college course, Classical, Scientific, or Modern Language,
while the succeeding years are made up of special work in Economics
and Business of more or less concentrated character.
The advantage of the type is obviously administrative. The whole
vexing problem of insuring fairly wide cultivation along with
opportunities for specialization is conveniently settled by giving
general training, most of it remote from business work, for two years,
after which the student is considered cultivated enough to withstand
the blighting effect of specialization. But there are serious
pedagogical objections to this arrangement which make the vertical
plan seem preferable. A student coming from one of our constantly
improving high schools of commerce is checked for two years and given
time to forget all the bookkeeping and other commercial work which he
has learned and on which advanced commercial instruction may be built,
while he pursues an academic course. It would be far better to
continue the modern languages, the mathematics, and natural sciences,
along with business courses. Furthermore there is much to be done by
educators in arranging such parallel sequences of subjects so that
advantage may be taken of vocational interest to stimulate broad and
deep study of related fundamentals. Considerable improvement could be
made over Type III, but that type seems better than the one we have
styled "horizontal."
In all these courses of study we quite properly find both the
philosophical and analytical courses, those which are historical and
descriptive and those of detailed practical technique; we find
economic theory, industrial history, business management, and
practical accounting; we find theory of money and banking, history of
banking in the United States, and practical banking; we find theory of
international exchange, tariff history, and the technique of customs
administration. Concerning methods of teaching particular subjects we
shall speak later.
Seldom do we find curricula drawn up with the purely civic end in
view, though many schools and associations throughout the country are
agitating the question of organized training of men for public
service. Strictly speaking, this kind of training is both professional
and civic because it is designed to make men proficient in carrying on
the business of the State. In New York City the municipal college
conducts courses of this sort for persons in the city service, while
private bureaus of municipal research conduct their own courses. So
far in America no courses are yet accepted officially for entrance
into public service or as the only qualification for advancement in
the service. Nevertheless, progress is being made in this direction.
The curricula offered include courses in Government and especially
Municipal Government, Public Finance and Taxation, the practical
organization and administration of various departments such as Police,
Charities, Public Works, the establishment and maintenance of special
systems of municipal accounts.
But the great civic benefit comes from general courses in business,
for the business man who has a real grasp of his work and sees it in
the light of general social welfare becomes a good citizen. Business
education gives some sense of the interdependence of industry,
personal ethics, and government. The broadly trained business man
realizes that he is in a sense a servant of the community, that his
property is wrapped up with the welfare of his fellow men, and that
what he has is a trust which society grants to him to be conducted
after the manner of a good steward. Such training reveals to him the
_raison d'etre_ of labor legislation, factory laws, the various
qualifications of the property right, the necessity for taxation, and
the importance of good government to all the citizens of the State
both as cooperative agents in production and as consumers. Continued
and improved business education will elevate the mind of the merchant
and the manager so that its horizon is no longer the profit balance
but the welfare of all society.
The cultural aim of business courses is consciously kept in mind by
the makers of curricula for colleges of liberal arts and sciences
which permit a rather free choice of electives in the department of
Economics and Business or of Political Science, according to the
departmental organization of the institution. Here, of course, we find
Economics, which bears to practical business much the relation which
Philosophy bears to active life in general. We find also courses in
Money and Banking, usually offered from the historical and descriptive
rather than the technical point of view. Recently, however, colleges
have included in this field of election practical courses in
Accountancy and Commercial Law. The tendency is in the direction of
including more and more of the practical and technical courses,
although the historical and philosophical courses are retained.
Nevertheless the cultural value is undiminished, unless one were to
maintain that nothing which is exact can be cultural.
=Methods of teaching=
The field of business is so wide and embraces so many subjects that
the methods of teaching giving the best results will be varied and
used in different combinations with different subjects. Those subjects
which are practical and largely habit forming, such as stenography,
typewriting, bookkeeping, and the manipulation of mechanical and
labor-saving office devices, are of course taught by some method of
training which will insure quick reaction. In these courses the object
is to cultivate habits of manual dexterity and habits of orderliness
and neatness. Here we find that exposition is reduced to a minimum,
lectures are few, recitations do not exist to any great extent, but
that practice,
1st, to secure proper form, and
2d, to secure speed,
is the controlling aim of the method. The teachers show their
ingenuity in devising exercises which will give accuracy of form and
then develop speed without sacrifice of accuracy.
In colleges these courses are reduced to a minimum because they are
usually cared for in lower schools, but for students who come directly
to the commercial college without them, preparatory courses of this
sort are often conducted.
Among the technical subjects the one which calls for the most practice
is, of course, Accountancy, first for the single proprietor, next for
the partnership, and finally for the corporation. Various methods of
presenting Accountancy have been suggested. Very few teachers employ
extensive recitation work in this field. It is found most desirable to
have periods of at least two hours' duration, so that the teacher can
give such exposition and lecture work at the beginning of the period
as he may see fit, and the class may then take up practice. In some
schools it is customary to have one course in theory, another course
in practical accounting, and another course in problems of accounting.
However, the tendency seems to be in the direction of making these
three aspects of the work mutually helpful, and the course is offered
as a course in Accounting, Theory, Practice, and Problems. The theory
is set forth in a lecture, practice is given with typical situations
in mind, and then related problems are taken up for solution. Many
excellent texts are now appearing and can be used in the customary
manner. Assignments in these books tend to make unnecessary many long
or formal lectures, but there still remains the need for classroom
talks and quizzes. As the course progresses, the problems become more
and more difficult and complicated, and the final problem work is
exceedingly difficult and calls for a considerable power of analysis,
clarity of statement, and care in arrangement on the part of the
student.
A complete course of this sort usually covers two and a half or three
years. At the end of the first year of general accountancy, special
subjects may be pursued parallel with the general course. The order in
which these specialties are introduced is usually Cost Accounting,
Auditing Systems, Judicial or Fiduciary Accounting, and then other
special branches such as Brokers' Accounts, Public Utilities
Accounting, Foreign Exchange Accounting, etc.
General Accounting is very important both as an instrument for the
business man to use and as a training to insure the grasp of general
business organization. It is the opinion of the writer that whether a
business man expects to become an accountant or not, he should have a
thorough and technical grasp of this subject. In these specialties it
is necessary to depend upon lectures rather than textbooks, not only
because textbooks here are few and other works are not well adapted to
teaching use, but also because the subject matter must be kept up to
date and in keeping with changing practice. The lecturers should be
practical experts in each particular field as well as acceptable
teachers.
Closely related to Accountancy is Commercial Law. Commercial Law
should, of course, be understood by every business man, not because he
expects to become a practitioner of law but because he wishes to avoid
unnecessary disputes and to shape his course wisely from a legal
standpoint in dealing with his employees, his business associates, and
his customers.
There are various methods of teaching Commercial Law. The one which
has been in vogue thus far has been the textbook method, in which the
principles of law of interest to the business man are set forth.
Lessons are assigned in the book, and recitations are held. The
lecture method also is advocated. In some universities which have both
law schools and schools of commerce, the commercial students receive
lectures in the school of law in such subjects as contracts, agencies,
insurance, etc. It seems to the writer that neither of these practices
is desirable but that the proper way to teach Commercial Law to the
commercial students is the case method, in which the principles of law
of interest to the business man are developed from an examination of
actual cases of business litigation. We may very likely look forward
to the publication of case books which can be used either alone or in
conjunction with textbooks on legal principles. Lectures on law to
commercial students should be reduced to a minimum, and then they
should confine themselves to very broad principles which need no
lengthy exposition or to fields in which the students may be expected
to have a general grasp but no very detailed knowledge. But such
subjects as contracts, agency, bankruptcy, sales, insurance,
negotiable instruments, and forms of business association should be
taught thoroughly to the student in the classroom through the case
method, in which each case is fully discussed by the class and from
which discussion legal principles are evolved. It is interesting to
note that the states which stand highest in the matter of Certified
Public Accountancy licenses are requiring very thorough preparation in
law. To meet such requirements a course in law covering at least three
semesters, three hours a week, with a case method is certainly
necessary.
The modern languages taught in schools of commerce should be by the
direct method, and always with the vocational end clearly before the
student. Actual business transactions, such as selling to a foreign
customer in the foreign language, correspondence, newspapers,
catalogues and other documents of business, should be the
supplementary reading and exercise material of the class. Facility in
conversation and writing should be developed as rapidly as possible,
and the grasp of the methodical rules should follow. It would probably
be presumptuous to take a strong position here on the question of
teaching modern languages, but experience with commercial students has
clearly indicated that greatest progress can be made if the language
is taught by a conversation or direct method from the very start, and
if paradigms and rules of syntax are evolved after some vocabulary has
been developed and some facility in speech has been acquired. We may
say here, incidentally, that it seems wise to teach the spoken
language for a while before taking up the problem of the written
language, especially where the foreign language assigns different
phonetic values to the printed symbols from those assigned in English.
While the various technical subjects offer different problems because
of differences in their character, we may say in general that the aim
of the school should always be to keep in touch with the actual
practice in the business world; to have the lecturer use material
which is up to the minute, and, where possible, to give the students
the advantage of field work or at least to take them on tours of
inspection in the different houses engaged in this or that line of
business.
The curriculum of any good commercial college or university department
of business includes courses in Economics, Commercial Geography,
Industrial History, Business Management, and similar subjects. No
doubt other chapters of this book discuss methods of teaching these
subjects. But it may not be out of place here to indicate that the
best approach to the study of Economics is through practical business
courses in Accountancy, Commercial Law, and Practical Management.
Economics is the Philosophy of Business, and it cannot be understood
by one who is unfamiliar with the facts of business. Certainly it
cannot be related to real business life by the academic student. It
would seem, therefore, best to reserve the course in Economic Theory
for the senior year of a business course and precede it with courses
in Accounting, Law, Industrial History, and Management. Then, when it
is taught, it should be presented through practical problems from
which the general principles may, by induction, be derived.
=Relations with the business world=
It is important that commercial education should not grow academic and
remote from the real world of affairs. Therefore schools of business
should keep in close contact with merchants' associations, chambers of
commerce, and such other bodies of business men as may be in the
neighborhood of the school. Committees from such associations should
have either a voice in the conduct of the school, or at least have
very strong advisory representation on committees. In France, Germany,
and in fact most European countries, colleges of commerce were
directly established by chambers of commerce and associations of
merchants, and the work is to a large extent conducted under their
direction. Whether the college of commerce in America be a private
institution or one supported by the public, it should form some
sympathetic contact with the leading business organizations. Of course
certain business associations have their own technical schools of
training. The American Bankers' Association conducts its own courses,
drawing upon various universities for lecturers in some subjects and
drawing upon experts in business for other kinds of technical work. So
also various corporations have their corporation schools which seek to
develop business executives by progressive courses of training for
those in the lower ranks.
Nevertheless, the collegiate institutions offering organized courses
in commerce will do well to keep in touch with business men. Another
way in which such schools and colleges can keep abreast of the times
is to employ lecturers who do not make teaching their main business of
life but who are expert in certain particular fields. Indeed, it is
almost impossible to teach certain of the very advanced and
specialized courses without employing men of this sort. They are
attracted to teaching not by the pay but by the honor of being
connected with an institution of learning, and by sincere desire to
contribute something to the development of the work in which they are
interested. These men, of course, can be scheduled only for a
relatively few hours a week, and sometimes they can be had only for
evening lectures, but in any event they are very much worth while.
Obviously the director of studies in the college should give these men
all possible assistance of a pedagogical sort, so that their
advantages as experts in business will not be offset by deficiencies
as teachers.
=Evening work in commercial courses=
This brings us to another consideration which is very important. It
seems to the writer that the ideal training for a student who has
reached the stage of entrance to college and who wishes to go into
business is as follows:
He should enroll in the college course which is preparatory for
business training and pursue his modern languages, Mathematics,
English, and the Social Sciences, and also take up such accounting and
technical work as he can have the first two years of his course. Then
he should enter the world of business itself, be in a business house
during the day, and continue his studies at night. It seems very
desirable that this parallel progress, in organized theory and
instruction, on the one hand, and in actual business with its
difficulties which arise almost haphazard, should be carried on. The
relationship is very helpful. Of course a substitute for this is the
cooperative plan, in which the student spends a part of his time in
college and a part of the time in a business house. Another
alternative in institutions which have the three-term year is to put
two terms in at college and one term in at business. The calendar
arrangement of any institution will suggest variations of this
suggested arrangement, the purpose of which will be to insure
progressive development in business practice and also in collegiate
instruction.
=Recent developments=
It is to be noticed that in the last few years business has become
more and more intense. The developments are in two directions. The
first direction is saving and efficiency through organization. This
tends to keep down cost. The other direction is in the stimulation of
the market and in perfecting advertising and selling methods.
Naturally there have been developments in the recording, accounting,
and clerical ends of the business, but scientific management in
production on the one hand, and scientific selling on the other, are
the two great developments. In both, engineering plays a prominent
part and dictates a close correlation of the business and the
engineering curricula of a college or university seeking to give most
effective training either to the student of business or the student of
engineering. On the selling side we are having the further
developments which come with the growth of foreign trade.
In order to meet the demand for men competent to organize production
wisely and from a business viewpoint, more courses will be given in
what we may call production management or commercial engineering.
Furthermore, the sales engineer must be trained. The curriculum of the
course of collegiate grade should be made up somewhat as follows:
A two years' prescribed course in the general sciences and in general
principles of business, followed by a two or three year curriculum in
technical business management, on the one hand, including especially
accounting, cost accounting, wage systems, employment management, and
some branch of engineering on the other hand. The engineering course
should be general but thorough. It should not go up into specialized
fields of design, but it should include all the fundamental courses of
engineering--of mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering. A
combination course in engineering and business management is needed
also to prepare men for places in banks as investment managers. The
banks must advance funds to industrial concerns, and such loans cannot
be made wisely save upon the advice of one who is thoroughly
acquainted with plant management, equipment, and mechanical operations
as well as costs of production and market possibilities. In addition,
such a man must be well acquainted with systems of accounting and
methods of preparing financial statements. In the field of
salesmanship, engineering training is growing in importance. In short,
the highly organized state of modern production and the tremendous
part played by engineering in modern industry indicate the need for a
close coordination of business and engineering education.
In conclusion we may say that business education is now at the stage
where it has its own technology, is in close touch with other fields
of technology, and is making its contribution to the general fund of
modern culture. Texts and scientific treatises in the field of
business are increasing, the pedagogy of the various included subjects
is receiving satisfactory attention, and schools of collegiate and
university grade are keeping abreast of the demands of the business
world for adequate general and specific training in business.
FREDERICK B. ROBINSON
_College of the City of New York_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
COOLEY, E. G. _Vocational Education in Europe._ Commercial Club of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 1912. Chapters on Vocational Education in
General, Commercial Schools, and the Conclusion.
FARRINGTON, F. E. _Commercial Education in Germany._ The Macmillan
Company, 1914.
HERRICK, C. A. _Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education_, and
other works in the Macmillan Commercial Series, 1904. There is an
excellent bibliography on the whole subject of commercial education as
an appendix to Herrick's Commercial Education.
HOOPER, FREDERICK, and GRAHAM, JAMES. _Commercial Education at Home
and Abroad._ The Macmillan Company, 1901.
There are numerous contributions on particular aspects and general
methods and special methods in commercial subjects. The best printed
bibliography of these is in the back of Herrick's book. A typical work
on methods is Klein and Kahn's _Methods in Commercial Education_.
INDEX
Accountancy. _See_ Business Education
Adapting course of study, 95-97, 202, 244, 480, 572
Adler, Felix, 323, 325
AEsthetic aim, in teaching, 52, 92;
in music, 470
Aims, in teaching, 48-51;
modified for different students, 54;
in organization of knowledge, 65;
in teaching biology, 88-94;
in teaching mathematics, 172;
in physical education, 184-190;
in teaching economics, 217-220;
in teaching American history, 218;
in teaching political science, 282-287;
in teaching philosophy, 304;
in teaching ethics, 320-328;
in teaching psychology, 337;
in teaching English literature, 380-384, 422-423;
in teaching classics, 405;
in teaching Romance languages, 426-427;
in teaching music, 460-462, 467;
of art instruction, 478;
in teaching engineering subjects, 508-511;
in teaching mechanical drawing, 525-527;
in business education, 559.
_See_ Civic, Disciplinary, Utilitarian
Allen, J. T., 411
Angell, J. B., 30
Application of knowledge, 72
Art, 475-497
Art instruction, 475
Athletics. _See_ Physical education
Author's life, in literary study, 385
Biological basis of education, 85-87, 94, 364
Biology, 85-109
Brown, E. E., 358
Brown University, 5
Business education, 555-577
Butler, N. M., 30, 404
Calkins, Mary W., 339
Canby, H. S., 42
Case method, in political science, 292;
in philosophy, 316;
in ethics, 329;
in psychology, 338-340;
in commercial law, 572-573
Cattell, J. M., 30
Chemistry, 108-125
Chronological viewpoint in history, 257
Citizenship, training for, 282
Civic aim in economics, 219
Classics, 404-423;
in Colonial colleges, 5-6;
status in college teaching, 404;
through the vernacular, 418;
through ancient authors, 421
Coeducation, 18-21
College teaching, why ineffective, 46-48
Collegiate Institute, 4
Colonial period, 3
Columbia University, 5, 8
Commercial education. _See_ Business education
Commercial law, 571-572
Committee on standards of American universities, 42
Comparisons in teaching, 70
Composition and journalism, 546
Composition teaching, status of, 390.
_See_ English
Correlation, 70, 151, 156-157, 297, 295-297, 314
Course of study, 477, 481-485, 486-490;
in biology, 95-98;
logical and psychological, 103;
in chemistry, 111;
in physics, 134-137, 138-139;
in geology, 153-156, 158;
in hygiene and physical training, 206;
in economics, 225;
in sociology, 244-246;
determined by community, 246;
in American history, 259-262;
in European history, 269-276;
in political science, 280-281;
in philosophy, 312-314;
in education, 353;
in English literature, 386;
in classics, 410;
in Romance languages, 431-436;
in German, 442-453;
in engineering, 502-504;
in mechanical drawing, 526-530;
in business education, 559-567
Cultural aim, 220, 336, 348, 382-384
Dartmouth College Case and college development, 8-9
Democracy, 259
Descriptive geometry, 530
Design in engineering, 517
Development method, 73, 75-76
_See_ Recitation
Dewey, J., 362-364
Dexter, E. G., 30, 355
Differentiated courses, 504-508
Direct method, 444
Disciplinary aim, 51-52;
in physics, 126-127;
in geology, 143-150;
in history, 264;
in psychology, 336;
in education, 349;
in literature, 382-384;
in Romance languages, 424;
in music, 467-468
Draper, A. S., 30
Duggan, S. P., 353
Economic viewpoint in history, 257
Economics, 58, 217-240
Education as college subject, 347-376
Educational and instructional aim, 50-51
Elective system, 11-14
Elementary language courses as college courses, 426
Eliot, Charles W., 11
Emotional reaction in literature, 384
Engineering subjects, 501-524
English, teaching of, 49, 379-388, 389-403.
_See_ Composition, Literature
Equipment for art instruction, 490
Ethics, 320-333
Evening session for business education, 573
Examination, 80. _See_ Tests
Experimental work in psychology, 342.
_See_ Laboratory method
Expressional limitations of college students, 545
Field work, 254, 298, 517
Finance, teaching of. _See_ Business education
Flexner, A., 30, 42
Foster, W. T., 30
Functional aspect in teaching, 292
Geology, 142-160
German, 440-453
German influence on American college, 14
Gradation of subject matter, 56, 387
Graduate schools, 14-15
Graves, 353
Habits, 91, 199.
_See_ Aims, Disciplinary aim
Handschin, C. H., 42
Harper, W. R., 30
Hart, 355
Harvard, 3
Health instruction, 197.
_See_ Physical education
Heuristic method. _See_ Development method, Recitation
High school preparation, in physical education, 190;
in music, 469, 485
History, of American college, 3;
of college mathematics, 167;
of sociology, 241;
of music as college subject, 357;
of teaching of journalism, 533-539;
of business education in the college, 555-557
Holliday, C., 42
Horne, H. H., 36, 42
Illustrations, 243
Immigration and status of English teaching, 394.
Informal aim in teaching, 51
Informal examination, 308
Introductory course, in ethics, 328;
in political science, 288, 298;
in philosophy, 307, 315;
in psychology, 334;
in mechanical drawing, 527-528
Jefferson and founding of American college, 7
Johns Hopkins University, 32
Journalism as college subject, 24, 533-554
Junior college, 26-27
King's College, 5
Kingsley, C. D., 30
Laboratory method, 73, 78;
in chemistry, 62, 114;
in biology, 99;
in physics, 132;
in geology, 157;
in psychology, 343;
in engineering, 516
Language as index of mentality, 388
Law, 17;
commercial, 571-572
Lecture method, 73;
in chemistry, 113-114;
in physics, 131, 133;
in mathematics, 175;
in economics, 227, 231-235;
in sociology, 242;
in history, 260, 265;
in philosophy, 308-310;
in psychology, 340-341;
in classics, 419-421;
in engineering, 511-513;
in commercial education, 568-572
Length of periods in accountancy, 569
Literary analysis, 386
Literary appreciation, 380.
_See_ Aims, Cultural, AEsthetic
Literary style, 386
Literature and the classics, 407-408, 415.
_See_ English
Logical association, 63-64
MacLean, G. E., 30
Mathematics, 59, 161-182
Mechanical drawing, 525-532
Medicine, 17
Mental development and acquisition of language, 388
Methods of teaching conditioned by aims, 98.
_See_ Aims
Mezes, S. F., 48
Modern languages, when introduced, 7;
in business education, 571
Modern literature and the classics, 412
Monroe, P., 353
Morrill Act, 10
Motivation in teaching, 55-56
Municipal research, 298.
_See_ Laboratory method, Sociology, Political science
Music in secondary schools, 465
Natural method in classics, 411, 416-417
Newspaper English, 541-542
Non-sectarianism in American colleges, 7
Notebook of students, 356
Oberlin and coeducation, 20
Oral composition in German, 447
Oral reading and English literature, 384
Ordinance of 1787, 9
Organization of subject matter, 62-66
Outlines in biology, 102
Parker, S. C., 355
Pennsylvania University, 4
Philosophy, 57, 70-71, 123, 127, 302-319
Physical education, 22, 183-314
Physics, 126-141
Pitkin, W. B., 46-50
Place in curriculum, of political science, 287;
of ethics, 328;
of psychology, 334, 344;
of history of education, 351;
of educational theory, 359;
of German, 440;
of art education, 475
Point of contact in teaching, 57-62
Political science, 279-301
Preparatory training, in chemistry, 109;
in physics, 129;
in mathematics, 164, 176-178;
in physical education, 190;
in German, 448;
for journalism, 549
Problem method, in economics, 228, 231-235;
in sociology, 248-251
Professional preparation, for women, 20;
through political science, 283
Prose composition and the classics, 414
Psychology, 57, 334-346, 364
Public service, training for, 284
Quiz, how to conduct, 118
Recitation, 118, 174, 513-516, 568-572
Reduction of college course, 27
Reference reading, 73, 76, 267, 514
Relating course to students, 128, 370;
in chemistry, 120;
in sociology, 245;
in philosophy, 309;
in ethics, 321-327, 331-332;
in psychology, 338;
in music, 459;
in business education, 572.
_See_ Adapting course of study
Relative importance in organization of knowledge, 64
Religious character of American college, 5-7, 22
Reporting, teaching art of, 547
Research, 285.
_See_ Reference reading, Problem method, Seminar
Research scholars as teachers, 105-106, 124, 137, 178
Robinson, M. L., 42
Romance languages, 424-428
Scholarship as preparation for teaching, 38
Science, teaching of, 61-64;
place of, in journalism course, 552
Scientific methods, in political science, 298;
in psychology, 343
Scope of course in educational theory, 361
Self-activity, 72
Self-government, 24
Seminar, 76
Senior college, 26-28
Sequence of courses in political science, 289
Skill to be developed in biology, 90
Smith, F. W., 55
Snow, L. F., 30
Social museum, the, 254
Social sciences, place in journalism course, 550
Sociology, 241-255
Socratic method. _See_ Recitation, Development method
Stanley, A. A., 465
Student Army Training Corps, 335
Summaries in teaching, 66
Teacher, as scholar, 105.
_See_ Research, Teacher training
Teacher training, 18, 31, 37-39, 256-257, 436, 468-470
Technical subjects in college curriculum, 16, 25-26, 479, 504-508
Technique, as aim in teaching, 52
Testing results of instruction, 136;
in economics, 244;
in history, 261, 268;
in psychology, 343;
in music, 473;
in art, 493-496;
in engineering subjects, 519-522
Textbook, in geology, 158;
in mathematics, 179;
in economics, 228, 231-235;
in sociology, 253;
in history, 259;
in ethics, 330
Theology, in separate school, 16
Thoroughness, 66-72, 104
Thwing, C. F., 30
Time to be given to subjects, 345, 486.
_See_ Place in curriculum
Topical method in history, 266
Types of instruction, 396-398
Undergraduate and graduate teaching, 388
Unified courses, 59, 302
Utilitarian aim, 217;
of physics, 126;
of geology, 142;
of political science, 286;
of psychology, 337;
of history of education, 348
Values, 355. _See_ Aims
Vernacular, in teaching German, 445
Viewpoint in teaching, a new, 69
Virginia, University of, 7
West, A. F., 30
William and Mary, 4
Wolfe, A. B., 36, 42
Women, education of, 18-21.
_See_ Coeducation
World War, effect on curriculum, 183
Yale, 4
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Transcriber's Notes:
Passages in italics indicated by underscore _italics_.
Sidenotes indicated by =sidenote=.
The note between footnotes 65 and 66 refers to footnotes 61-65.
The original text's usage of the Greek letter Sigma in a
formula has been trancribed in this text as "S".
Misprints corrected:
missing "By" added (Table of Contents)
"Asisstant" corrected to "Assistant" (Table of Contents)
"is is" corrected to "is" (page 198)
missing "to" added to sidenote (page 400)
"scupltors" corrected to "sculptors" (page 479)
"Cooperaton" corrected to "Cooperation" (page 496)
missing hyphens added as necessary
Additional spacing after some of the quotations is intentional to
indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new
paragraph as presented in the original text.