THIRD BOOK OF THE WAR IN GAUL.--CÆSAR SUBDUES THE WESTERN TRIBES OF
GAUL.--B.C. 56.
In the first few lines of the third book we learn that Cæsar had an eye
not only for conquest, but for the advantages of conquest also. When he
went into Italy at the end of the last campaign, he sent one Galba,
whose descendant became emperor after Nero, with the twelfth legion, to
take up his winter quarters in the upper valley of the Rhone, in order
that an easier traffic might be opened to traders passing over the Alps
in and out of Northern Italy. It seems that the passage used was that of
the Great St Bernard, and Galba placed himself with his legion at that
junction of the valley which we all know so well as Martigny. Here,
however, he was attacked furiously in his camp by the inhabitants of the
valley, who probably objected to being dictated to as to the amount of
toll to be charged upon the travelling traders, and was very nearly
destroyed. The Romans, however, at last, when they had neither weapons
nor food left for maintaining their camp, resolved to cut their way
through their enemies. This they did so effectually that they
slaughtered more than ten thousand men, and the other twenty thousand
of Swiss warriors all took to flight! Nevertheless Galba thought it as
well to leave that inhospitable region, in which it was almost
impossible to find food for the winter, and took himself down the valley
and along the lake to the Roman Province. He made his winter-quarters
among the Allobroges, who belonged to the Province,--a people living
just south of the present Lyons. How the Allobroges liked it we are not
told, but we know that they were then very faithful, although in former
days they had given great trouble. Their position made faith to Rome
almost a necessity. Whether, in such a position, Cæsar’s lieutenants
paid their way, and bought their corn at market price, we do not know.
It was Cæsar’s rule, no doubt, to make the country on which his army
stood support his army.
When the number of men whom Cæsar took with him into countries hitherto
unknown to him or his army is considered, and the apparently reckless
audacity with which he did so, it must be acknowledged that he himself
says very little about his difficulties. He must constantly have had
armies for which to provide twice as large as our Crimean
army,--probably as large as the united force of the English and French
in the Crimea; and he certainly could not bring with him what he wanted
in ships. The road from Balaclava up to the heights over Sebastopol, we
know, was very bad; but it was short. The road from the foot of the Alps
in the Roman province to the countries with which we were dealing in the
last chapter could not, we should say, have been very good two thousand
years ago, and it certainly was very long;--nearly a hundred miles for
Cæsar to every single one of those that were so terrible to us in the
Crimea. Cæsar, however, carried but little with him beyond his arms and
implements of war, and of those the heaviest he no doubt made as he
went. The men had an allowance of corn per day, besides so much pay. We
are told that the pay before Cæsar’s time was 100 _asses_ a-month for
the legionaries,--the _as_ being less than a penny,--and that this was
doubled by Cæsar. We can conceive that the money troubled him
comparatively slightly, but that the finding of the daily corn and
forage for so large a host of men and horses must have been very
difficult. He speaks of the difficulty often, but never with that
despair which was felt as to the roasting of our coffee in the Crimea.
We hear of his waiting till forage should have grown, and sometimes
there are necessary considerations “de re frumentariâ,”--about that
great general question of provisions; but of crushing difficulties very
little is said, and of bad roads not a word. One great advantage Cæsar
certainly had over Lord Raglan;--he was his own special correspondent.
Coffee his men certainly did not get; but if their corn were not
properly roasted for them, and if, as would be natural, the men
grumbled, he had with him no licensed collector of grumbles to make
public the sufferings of his men.
And now, when this affair of Galba’s had been finished,--when Cæsar, as
he tells us, really did think that all Gaul was “pacatam,”
tranquillised, or at least subdued,--the Belgians conquered, the Germans
driven off, those Swiss fellows cut to pieces in the valley of the
Rhone; when he thought that he might make a short visit into that other
province of his, Illyricum, so that he might see what that was like,--he
is told that another war has sprung up in Gaul! Young Crassus, with that
necessity which of course was on him of providing winter food for the
seventh legion which he had been ordered to take into Aquitania, has
been obliged to send out for corn into the neighbouring countries. Of
course a well-instructed young general, such as was Crassus, had taken
hostages before he sent his men out among strange and wild barbarians.
But in spite of that, the Veneti, a maritime people of ancient Brittany,
just in that country of the Morbihan whither we now go to visit the
works of the Druids at Carnac and Locmariaker, absolutely detained his
two ambassadors;--so called afterwards, though in his first mention of
them Cæsar names them as præfects and tribunes of the soldiers. Vannes,
the capital of the department of the Morbihan, gives us a trace of the
name of this tribe. The Veneti, who were powerful in ships, did not see
why they should give their corn to Crassus. Cæsar, when he hears that
ambassadors,--sacred ambassadors,--have been stopped, is filled with
shame and indignation, and hurries off himself to look after the affair,
having, as we may imagine, been able to see very little of Illyricum.
This horror of Cæsar in regard to his ambassadors,--in speaking of which
he alludes to what the Gauls themselves felt when they came to
understand what a thing they had done in making ambassadors
prisoners,--“legatos,”--a name that has always been held sacred and
inviolate among all nations,--is very great, and makes him feel that he
must really be in earnest. We are reminded of the injunctions, printed
in Spanish, which the Spaniards distributed among the Indians of the
continent, in the countries now called Venezuela and New Granada,
explaining to the people, who knew nothing of Spanish or of printing,
how they were bound to obey the orders of a distant king, who had the
authority of a more distant Pope, who again,--so they claimed,--was
delegated by a more distant God. The pain of history consists in the
injustice of the wolf towards the lamb, joined to the conviction that
thus, and no otherwise, could the lamb be brought to better than a
sheepish mode of existence! But Cæsar was in earnest.[7] The following
is a translation of the tenth section of this book; “There were these
difficulties in carrying on the war which we have above shown.”--He
alludes to the maritime capacities of the people whom he desires to
conquer.--“Many things, nevertheless, urged Cæsar on to this war;--the
wrongs of those Roman knights who had been detained, rebellion set on
foot after an agreed surrender,”--that any such surrender had been made
we do not hear, though we do hear, incidentally, that Crassus had taken
hostages;--“a falling off from alliance after hostages had been given;
conspiracy among so many tribes; and then this first consideration, that
if this side of the country were disregarded, the other tribes might
learn to think that they might take the same liberty. Then, when he
bethought himself that, as the Gauls were prone to rebellion, and were
quickly and easily excited to war, and that all men, moreover, are fond
of liberty and hate a condition of subjection, he resolved that it would
be well, rather than that other states should conspire,”--and to avoid
the outbreak on behalf of freedom which might thus probably be
made,--“that his army should be divided, and scattered about more
widely.” Treating all Gaul as a chess-board, he sends round to provide
that the Treviri should be kept quiet. Headers will remember how far
Treves is distant from the extremities of Brittany. The Belgians are to
be looked to, lest they should rise and come and help. The Germans are
to be prevented from crossing the Rhine. Labienus, who, during the
Gallic wars, was Cæsar’s general highest in trust, is to see to all
this. Crassus is to go back into Aquitania and keep the south quiet.
Titurius Sabinus, destined afterwards to a sad end, is sent with three
legions,--eighteen thousand men,--among the neighbouring tribes of
Northern Brittany and Normandy. “Young” Decimus Brutus,--Cæsar speaks of
him with that kind affection which the epithet conveys, and we remember,
as we read, that this Brutus appears afterwards in history as one of
Cæsar’s slayers, in conjunction with his greater namesake,--young
Decimus Brutus, the future conspirator in Rome, has confided to him the
fleet which is to destroy these much less guilty distant conspirators,
and Cæsar himself takes the command of his own legions on the spot. All
this is told in fewer words than are here used in describing the
telling, and the reader feels that he has to do with a mighty man, whose
eyes are everywhere, and of whom an ordinary enemy would certainly say,
Surely this is no man, but a god.
He tells us how great was the effect of his own presence on the shore,
though the battle was carried on under young Brutus at sea. “What
remained of the conflict,” he says, after describing their manœuvres,
“depended on valour, in which our men were far away the superior; and
this was more especially true because the affair was carried on so
plainly in the sight of Cæsar and the whole army that no brave deed
could pass unobserved. For all the hills and upper lands, from whence
the view down upon the sea was close, were covered by the army.”
Of course he conquers the Veneti and other sea-going tribes, even on
their own element. Whereupon they give themselves and all their
belongings up to Cæsar. Cæsar, desirous that the rights of ambassadors
shall hereafter be better respected among barbarians, determines that he
must use a little severity. “Gravius vindicandum statuit;”--“he resolved
that the offence should be expiated with more than ordinary punishment.”
Consequently, he kills all the senate, and sells all the other men as
slaves! The pithy brevity, the unapologetic dignity of the sentence, as
he pronounced it and tells it to us, is heartrending, but, at this
distance of time, delightful also. “Itaque, omni senatu necato, reliquos
sub coronâ vendidit;”--“therefore, all the senate having been
slaughtered, he sold the other citizens with chaplets on their
heads;”--it being the Roman custom so to mark captives in war intended
for sale. We can see him as he waves his hand and passes on. Surely he
must be a god!
His generals in this campaign are equally successful. One Viridovix, a
Gaul up in the Normandy country,--somewhere about Avranches or St Lo, we
may imagine,--is entrapped into a fight, and destroyed with his army.
Aquitania surrenders herself to Crassus, after much fighting, and gives
up her arms.
Then Cæsar reflects that the Morini and the Menapii had as yet never
bowed their heads to him. Boulogne and Calais stand in the now
well-known territory of the Morini, but the Menapii lie a long way off,
up among the mouths of the Scheldt and the Rhine,--the Low Countries of
modern history,--an uncomfortable people then, who would rush into their
woods and marshes after a spell of fighting, and who seemed to have no
particular homes or cities that could be attacked or destroyed. It was
nearly the end of summer just now, and the distance between, let us say,
Vannes in Brittany, and Breda, or even Antwerp, seems to us to be
considerable, when we remember the condition of the country, and the
size of Cæsar’s army. But he had a few weeks to fill up, and then he
might feel that all Gaul had been “pacified.” At present there was this
haughty little northern corner. “Omni Galliâ pacatâ, Morini Menapiique
supererant;”--“all Gaul having been pacified, the Morini and Menapii
remained.” He was, moreover, no doubt beginning to reflect that from the
Morini could be made the shortest journey into that wild Ultima Thule of
an island in which lived the Britanni. Cæsar takes advantage of the few
weeks, and attacks these uncomfortable people. When they retreat into
the woods, he cuts the woods down. He does cut down an immense quantity
of wood, but the enemy only recede into thicker and bigger woods. Bad
weather comes on, and the soldiers can no longer endure life in their
skin tents. Let us fancy these Italians encountering winter in undrained
Flanders, with no walls or roofs to protect them, and ordered to cut
down interminable woods! Had a ‘Times’ been then written and filed,
instead of a “Commentary” from the hands of the General-in-chief, we
should probably have heard of a good deal of suffering. As it is, we are
only told that Cæsar had to give up his enterprise for that year. He
therefore burned all their villages, laid waste all their fields, and
then took his army down into a more comfortable region south of the
Seine, and there put them into winter quarters,--not much to the comfort
of the people there residing.