REFLECTIONS ON MONEY-MAKING.
WE have little faith in reflections. If a man cannot draw an inference
for himself, it is little use anyone attempting to draw it for him. The
reader of the preceding pages must have been taught, by example, how to
get money. The art of money-making is a very simple one. If your income
is twenty pounds, and you spend nineteen pounds, nineteen shillings, and
elevenpence-three-farthings, you will never be troubled about money
matters; and, in the course of years, may have a fortune commensurate
with so modest an expenditure. Having thus acquired a small amount of
capital, you must not part with it to mining-brokers or stock-brokers,
however plausible the tale they tell, and however friendly you may be
with them. They are bound to do business, and for the sake of that, will
help their nearest friend to an investment of the rottenest character.
Stock-brokers may have a sense of honour—may be gentlemen; but I question
much whether a money-broker has any feeling for his clients, I have known
little money made by outsiders speculating on the Stock Exchange or in
mines. I have known many reduced to beggary and want by such means.
Commerce, in our day, is the high road to wealth. You must begin at the
bottom, and work your way up to the top. It is not talent that makes a
man succeed in business, but the intense determination which carries a
man through every obstacle till the desired end is attained. It was thus
George Moore became a great man. The first elements in his character
were simplicity and directness. He was prompt, energetic, precise; doing
at once what he had to do. He never cavilled about trifles. There was
no shuffling about him—no humbug. The only thing he could not tolerate
was the drone. He held strong opinions on most subjects, and he adhered
to them firmly. He never did anything by halves; he went into it body
and soul, with the whole of his nature; he went straight to the point.
When he had settled a thing he left it as something done; when two sides
of a question were presented to him, he was quick to decide, and he was
usually right in his decision.
Dr. Smiles writes—“The successful merchant is not merely the man who is
most fertile in commercial combinations, but the man who acts upon his
judgment with the greatest promptitude.” Mr. Crampton, George Moore’s
partner, says—“I never knew him make a mistake in judgment.”
Another fact to be observed is, that it is the country lads who, as a
rule, are the most successful. At first they fail in accuracy, and
quickness, and promptitude. They are slow compared with town-bred boys.
“The City boy,” writes Dr. Smiles, “scarcely grows up; he is rushed up;
he lives amid a constant succession of excitements, one obliterating
another. It is very different with the country boy; he is much slower in
arriving at his maturity than the town boy, but he is greater when he
reaches it; he is hard and uncouth at first, whereas the town boy is worn
smooth by perpetual friction, like the pebbles in a running stream. The
country boy learns a great deal, though he may seem to be unlearned; he
knows a good deal about nature, and a great deal about men. He has had
time to grow. His brainpower is held in reserve; hence the curious fact,
that, in course of time, the country-bred boy passes the City-bred boy,
and rises to the highest positions in London life. Look at all the great
firms, and you will find that the greater number of the leading partners
are those who originally were country-bred boys. The young man bred in
the country never forgets his origin.” “There is,” says Rochefoucauld,
“a country accent, not in his speech only, but in his thought, conduct,
character, and manner of existing, which never forsakes him.”
George Moore had a brother. He was far apter than George; he had a
better education; he had read extensively, and was well versed in
literature; but he wanted that which his brother George had—intense
perseverance. Hence the failure of the one, and the success of the
other. It is thus the determined, persevering man who succeeds. It was
thus Warren Hastings won back the broad lands of his ancestors.
“In New York,” says an American writer, “fortunes are suddenly made, and
suddenly lost. I can count over a dozen merchants who, at the time I
began to write this book, a few months ago, were estimated to be worth
not less than 250,000 dollars—some of them half a million—who are now
utterly penniless. At the opening of this year (1868), a merchant,
well-known in this city, had a surplus of 250,000 dollars in cash. He
died suddenly in July. He made his will about three months before his
death, and appointed his executors. By that will he divided 250,000
dollars. His executors contributed 1,000 dollars to save a portion of
his furniture for his widow, and that was all that was left her out of
that great estate. He did what thousands have done before him—what
thousands are doing now, and will do to-morrow. He had money enough; but
he wanted a little more. He was induced to go into a nice little
speculation in Wall Street; he put in 50,000 dollars. To save it he put
in 50,000 dollars more. The old story was repeated, with the same
result.” I knew a gentleman who began the world as an advertising agent;
he managed to get a share in a newspaper, which eventually became an
immense commercial success. His share of the profits amounted to some
thousands a-year; but this was not enough—he must have more. He turned
money-lender, borrowing at 5 per cent., to lend money on bad security at
a high rate of interest. He died in the prime of life, a bankrupt, and
of a broken heart.
It is not every one who knows when to leave off money-making; but there
is a time when a wise man will remain satisfied with what he has won. I
knew a gentleman in the Corn Exchange, who was worth £80,000. That was
not enough for him, though to many it would have been a fair fortune. He
was determined to make one grand _coup_ before finally retiring from
business, and enjoying the fruits of his industry and enterprise. He did
so against the entreaties of his friends. The grand coup was a failure,
and he died as poor as Job. Such men are to be met in London every day.
A man who died very rich, was very poor when he was a boy. When asked
how he got his riches, he replied—“My father taught me never to play till
all my work for the day was finished, and never to spend money till I had
earned it. If I had but half-an-hour’s work to do in a day, I must do
that the first thing, _and in half-an-hour_. After this was done I was
allowed to play. I early formed the habit of doing everything in its
time, and it soon became perfectly easy to do so. It is to this habit
that I owe my prosperity.”
Sir Titus Salt, the millionaire, who made a fortune by the introduction
of alpaca-wool-cloth into the country, was a very early riser. At
Bradford, where he first commenced business, before he had built his
grand manufactory at Saltaire, it used to be said—“There is Titus Salt;
he has made a thousand pounds before other men were out of bed.”
It was industry that helped to make Franklin a successful man of
business. This industry was, he tells us, a source of credit.
“Particularly I was told, that mention being made of the new
printing-office at the Merchants’ Every-Night Club, the general opinion
was that it must fail, there being already two printers in the
place—Kermer and Bradford. But Dr. Baird gave a contrary opinion: ‘for
the industry of that Franklin,’ he said, ‘is superior to anything I ever
saw of the kind. I see him still at work when I go from the club, and he
is at work again before the neighbours are out of bed. This struck the
rest, and he soon after had offers from one of them to supply us with
stationery; but as yet he did not choose to engage in shop business.’ I
mention this,” adds Franklin, “more particularly, and the more
emphatically, though it seems to be talking in my own praise, that those
of my posterity who shall read it, may know the use of that virtue
(industry) when they see its effects in my favour throughout this
relation.”
Again, let us see how men lose money; for the art of keeping money is of
greater importance to a man than that of making it. The great house of
Overend and Gurney fell, and threw all London into a panic, because the
house did not know how to keep money, but went into all sorts of ruinous
speculations, which ultimately brought it to the ground. “In a little
room in one of the by-streets of New York, up a narrow, dingy flight of
stairs, may be seen a man,” says an American writer, “doing a little
brokerage which his friends put into his hands. That man at one time
inherited the name and fortune of a house which America delighted to
honour. That house was founded by two lads who left their homes to seek
their fortunes in a great city. They owned nothing but the clothes they
wore, and a small bundle tied to a stick, and thrown over their
shoulders. Their clothes were home-spun, were woven under the parental
roof, and cut and made by motherly skill and sisterly affection. They
carried with them the rich boon of a mother’s blessing and a mother’s
prayers. They were honest, industrious, truthful, and temperate. They
did anything they found to do that was honest. They began a little
trade, which increased in their hands, and extended till it reached all
portions of the civilised world. They identified themselves with every
good work. Education, humanity, and religion blessed their munificence.
The founders of the house died, leaving a colossal fortune, and a name
without a stain. They left their business and their reputation to the
man who occupies the little chamber that we have referred to. He
abandoned the principles on which the fame and honour of the house had
been built up. He stained the name that for fifty years had been
untarnished. He fled from his home; he wandered about the country under
an assumed name. Widows and orphans who had left trust-money in their
hands, lost their all. In his fall he dragged down the innocent, and
spread consternation on all sides. A few years passed, and after
skulking about in various cities abroad, he ventured back. Men were too
kind to harm him. Those whom he had befriended in the days of his
prosperity, helped him to a little brokerage to earn his bread, and so he
lingered on, and died, poor and forgotten, and obscure;—a warning to the
prosperous, not to forget that honesty is the best policy after all.”
A fast man in business, sooner or later, comes to grief. A young man in
New York represented a New England house of great wealth and high
standing. He was considered one of the smartest and most promising young
men in the city. The balance in the bank, kept by the house, was very
large, and the young man used to boast that he could draw his cheque any
day for 200,000 dollars, and have it honoured. The New England house
used a great deal of paper, and it could command the names of the best
capitalists to any extent. He was accustomed to sign notes in blank and
leave them with the concern, so much confidence had he in its soundness
and integrity. Yet, strange to say, these notes, with those of other
wealthy men, with nearly the whole financial business of the house, were
in the hands of the young manager in New York. In the meanwhile he took
a turn at Harry Hill’s to relieve the pressure of business. Low
amusements, and the respectable company he found, suited him. From a
spectator he became a dancer. From dancing he took to drinking. He then
tried his hand at play, and was cleaned out every night, drinking deeply
all the while. He became enamoured of a certain class of women, clothed
them in silk, velvets, and jewels, drove them in dashing teams in the
Central Park, secured them fine mansions, and paid the expenses of their
costly establishments, all the while keeping the confidence of his
business associates. In his jaded, wan, and dissipated look, men saw his
attention to business. The New England manager of the house was the
father of the young man. His reputation was without a stain, and
confidence in his integrity was unlimited. In the midst of his business
he dropped down dead. This brought things to a crisis, and an exposure
immediately followed. The great house was bankrupt, and everybody ruined
that had anything to do with it. Those who supposed themselves well off,
found themselves quite the reverse. Widows and orphans lost their all.
Men suspended business on the right hand and the left. In gambling,
drinking, and dissipation, this young fellow had squandered the enormous
sum of 1,400,000 dollars. It is an old familiar moral to be learnt from
the story of that man’s decline and fall.
But to return to money-making. “I find,” said a shrewd merchant, “I make
most money when I am least anxious about it.”
The distinguished American, James Halford, rose, step by step, up the
ladder of fortune till he reached the top. Some twenty years before he
had stood at the bottom, and it was curious to hear what the world said.
“It is all luck,” cried one. “Nothing but luck. Why, sir, I have
managed at times to get up a step or two, but have always fallen down ere
long; and now I have given up striving, for luck is against me.”
“No, sir,” cried another, “it is not so much luck as scheming; the
selfish schemer goes up, while more honest folk remain at the foot.”
“Patronage does it all,” said a third. “You must have somebody to take
you by the hand, and help you up, or you have no chance.”
James Halford heard all these varied opinions of the world, but still
persisted in looking upwards, for he had faith in himself. He rose from
the lowest situation in a store till he became a trader for himself, and
amassed a large fortune.
Mr. Freedley’s unvarying motto was—“Self-reliance and self-dependence.”
He said—“My observations through life satisfy me, that at least
nine-tenths of those most successful in business start in life without
any reliance except upon their own heads and hands—_hoe their own_ row
from the jump.”
Nicholas Longworth, the Cincinnati millionaire, says—“I have always had
these two things before me:—Do what you undertake thoroughly. Be
faithful in all accepted trusts.”
Stephen Gerard’s motto was the well-worn one—“Take care of the cents, the
dollars will take care of themselves.”
Mr. Stuart, the merchant prince of New York, said—“No abilities, however
splendid, can command success without intense labour and persevering
application.”
David Ricardo had his three golden rules when on the Stock Exchange.
They were—“Never refuse an option when you can get it.” “Cut short your
losses.” “Let your profits run on.”
A man who had, by his own unaided exertions, become rich, was asked by
his friend the secret of success. His reply was—“I accumulated about
half my property by attending to my own business, and the other half by
letting other people’s entirely alone.”
According to the great Wedgewood, there was another—an eleventh
commandment; and it was—“Thou shalt not be idle.”
Let us string together, in this collection, a few of Poor Richard’s
maxims—
“I never saw an oft-removed tree,
Nor yet an oft-removed family,
That throve as well as those that settled be.”
Again, he wrote—
“He that by the plough would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive.”
Here is another—
“Many estates are spent in the getting,
Since women for tea forsook spinning and knitting,
And men for punch forsook hewing and splitting.”
One must be recorded here for the benefit of the reader who would achieve
commercial success—
“Women and wine, game and deceit,
Make the wealth small and the want great.”
Again, Poor Richard writes—
“Fond pride of dress is sure a curse;
Ere fancy you consult—consult your purse.”
A truthful warning is contained in the following lines—
“Vessels large may venture more,
But little boats should keep near shore.”
All should remember—
“For age and want save what you may,
No morning sun lasts a whole day.”
And this other—
“Get what you can, and what you get hold,
’Tis the stone that will turn all your lead to gold.”
One equally well worth remembering as any of Poor Richard’s, is—
“A penny saved is twopence clear,
A pin a day is a groat a year.”
Franklin, in a letter, finished by saying—“In short, the way to wealth,
if you desire it, is as plain as the market. It depends chiefly on two
words—industry and frugality; that is, waste neither time nor money, but
make the best use of both. Without industry and frugality nothing will
do, and with them everything. He that gets all he can honestly, and
saves all he gets, necessary expenses excepted, will certainly become
rich, if that Being who governs the world, to whom all should look for a
blessing on their honest endeavours, doth not, in His wise providence,
determine otherwise.”
Again, in a time of scarcity, as an infallible receipt for filling empty
purses, Franklin wrote—“First, let honesty and industry be thy constant
companions; and, secondly, spend one penny less than thy clear gains.”
Samuel Budgett, well-known as the successful merchant, when about ten
years of age, began, at Coleford, to lay the foundation of his fame and
fortune. He thus describes how he first got money—“I went,” he said, “to
the mills of Kilmersdon to school, a distance of three miles. One day,
on my way, I picked up a horse-shoe, and carried it about three miles,
and sold it to a blacksmith for a penny; that was the first penny I ever
recollect possessing, and I kept it for some time. A few weeks after,
the same man called my attention to a boy who was carrying off some dirt
opposite his door, and offered, if I would beat the boy by doing it
quicker, he being a bigger boy than myself, to give me a penny. I did
so; he made a mark upon it, and promised me that if I would bring it to
him that day fortnight he would give me another. I took it to him at the
appointed time, when he fulfilled his promise, and I thus became
possessed of threepence; since then I have never been without, except
when I gave it all away.” “One,” writes his admiring biographer, the
Rev. W. Budgett, “would not have imagined, in seeing the little schoolboy
stop and look at the old horse-shoe, that the turning-point of his life
had come; but so it was; he converts that horse-shoe into his first
penny, and never more wants a penny. Those men whom we see often without
a penny, have all of them passed by the horse-shoe in their path when
they were boys; and those other men who, from nothing, are rising
rapidly, have all had the sense to pick up the horse-shoe, and turn it
into the foundation of a fortune. Paths vary; but every boy, if his eyes
are open, will certainly find the horse-shoe in his path at one point or
another.”
Again we fall back on Franklin. “Remember,” he wrote, “that money is of
a prolific generating nature. Money can beget money, and its offspring
can beget more, and so on. Five shillings turned is six; turned again it
is seven-and-threepence, and so on, till it becomes a hundred pounds.
The more there is of it, the more it produces every turning, so that the
profits rise quicker. He that kills a breeding sow, destroys all her
offspring to the thousandth generation. He that murders a crown,
destroys all that it might have produced, even scores of pounds.”
Our last words must be of advice to young persons upon entering the
world.
Select the kind of business that suits your natural inclinations and
temperament.
A business man must keep at the hold, and steer his own ship.
Do not take too much advice.
If you prosper in business, do not make too much show.
Work on positive facts. Do not let hope predominate too much. Don’t be
visionary.
Don’t put too much reliance on friends in business.
Never accept a bill for a friend. You stand a chance of losing money and
friend.
Speak very little in business. Pump others rather than be pumped
yourself.
Consult wisely, and resolve firmly.
Hesitation in business is bad; resolution, after proper consideration, is
omnipotent and healthy.
Time, money, and judgment are three essential things for a speculation.
Go with the tide.
Consider everybody sharper than yourself in order to be yourself on your
guard. Take the meaning of people, not their words, as a guide in
business. Seek an interview rather than communication by letter, and
observe the person’s expression by his eyes.
Keep your books posted up systematically.
Beware of little expenses. A small leak will sink the ship.
Make the best of a bad bargain.
A policy of life assurance is the cheapest and safest mode of making
provision for a man’s family.
Finally, as Matthew Henry wrote—“Hope the best, get ready for the worst,
and then take what God sends.”
A spendthrift, who had nearly wasted all his patrimony, seeing an
acquaintance in a coat not of the newest cut, told him he thought it had
been his great-grandfather’s coat. “So it was,” said the gentleman; “and
I have also my great-grandfather’s land, which is more than you can say.”
A gentleman, whose place of business was not a thousand miles from the
Exchange, was annoyed, as many business men are, by impecunious
individuals desiring small loans. He adopted the following method of
dealing with them. He would listen amicably to the long preface to the
request to “Just lend me a sovereign for a few days,” and answer,
“Certainly;” and then, turning to a clerk, say: “James, we have a
sovereign to lend, have we not?” “Yes, sir,” says the well-trained
James. “Well, lend it to Mr. Beat.” “It is not in, sir; you loaned it
to Mr. Bummer the day before yesterday.” “Ah, yes; so I did. Well, when
it comes in lend it to Mr. Beat;” and bowing to the borrower, the
merchant resumes his business, and the needy one walks dejectedly out to
try a more profitable place.
A man who would thrive should get married. A good wife is a true
helpmeet in fighting the battle of life. This is the hidden gem “of
purest ray serene.” Dr. Crosby says—“The true girl is to be sought for.
She does not parade herself as show goods. She is not fashionable
generally; she is not rich. But, oh! what a heart she has when you have
found her! So large, and pure, and womanly! When you see _her_ you
wonder if those showy things outside were really women. If you gain
_her_ love, your two thousand are a million. She’ll wear simple dresses,
and turn them when necessary. She’ll keep everything neat and tidy in
your sky parlour, and give you such a welcome when you come home, that
you’ll think your parlour higher than ever. She’ll entertain true
friends on a dollar, and astonish you with the thought how very little
happiness depends on money. She’ll make you love home (if you are not a
brute), and teach you how to pity while you scorn a poor fashionable
society that thinks itself rich, and _vainly tries to think itself
happy_. Now do not, I pray you, say any more, ‘I can’t afford to marry.’
Go, find the true woman, and you can! Throw away that cigar; and avoid
intoxicating drinks, the GRAVE of home comforts; be sensible yourself,
and seek your wife in a sensible way.”
Look carefully to your expenditures. No matter what comes in, if more
goes out, you will always be poor. The art is not in making money, but
in keeping it; little expenses, like mice in a barn, when they are many,
make great waste. Hair by hair heads get bald; straw by straw the thatch
goes off the cottage; and drop by drop the rain comes in the chamber. A
barrel is soon empty if the tap leaks but a drop a minute. When you mean
to save, begin with your mouth; many thieves pass down the red lane. The
ale-jug is a great waste. In all other things keep within compass.
Never stretch your legs farther than the blankets will reach, or you will
soon take cold. In clothes, choose suitable and lasting stuff, and not
tawdry fineries. To be warm is the main thing; never mind looks. A fool
may make money, but it needs a wise man to spend it. Remember, it is
easier to build two chimneys than to keep one going. If you give all to
back and board, there is nothing left for the savings-bank. Fare hard
and work hard when you are young, and you will have a chance to rest when
you are old.
“A successful business man told me there were two things which he learned
when he was eighteen, which were ever afterwards of great use to
him—namely, ‘Never to lose anything, and never to forget anything.’ An
old lawyer sent him with an important paper, with certain instructions
what to do with it. ‘But,’ inquired the young man, ‘suppose I lose it;
what shall I do then?’ ‘You must not lose it!’ ‘I don’t mean to,’ said
the young man; ‘but suppose I should happen to?’ ‘But I say you _must
not_ happen to; I shall make no provision for any such occurrence; you
must not lose it!’
“This put a new train of thought into the young man’s mind, and he found
that if he was determined to do a thing, he could do it. He made such a
provision against every contingency, that he never lost anything. He
found this equally true about forgetting. If a certain matter of
importance was to be remembered, he pinned it down on his mind, fastened
it there, and made it stay. He used to say—‘When a man tells me that he
forgot to do something, I tell him he might as well have said, ‘I do not
care enough about your business to take the trouble to think of it
again.’ I once had an intelligent young man in my employment who deemed
it sufficient excuse for neglecting any important task to say, ‘I forgot
it.’ I told him that would not answer. If he was sufficiently
interested, he would be careful to remember. It was because he did not
care enough that he forgot it. I drilled him with this truth. He worked
for me three years, and during the last of the three he was entirely
changed in tins respect. He did not forget a thing. His forgetting, he
found, was a lazy and careless habit of the mind, which he cured.”
While we write, the great orator of the age has lectured the people of
Hawarden in particular, and of England in general, on the virtues of
thrift. The subject is worthy of his genius. Thrift lies at the
foundation of all individual or national greatness. The _Times_ notes
that Mr. Gladstone only harps on an old string when he says that
Englishmen are lacking in thrift. The failing is commonly admitted, and
it is by no means confined to a single class. It pervades the whole
community. We may be more industrious than our neighbours, but we
certainly are more extravagant. We earn strenuously, but it is in order
that we may spend freely. In our choice of food and its preparation, in
our dwellings, in our comforts and luxuries, and in our recreations, we
are lavish as compared with other nations. There is probably no single
class in this country which does not, as a rule, live nearer to the
margin of its income than the corresponding class in France. The French
peasant is almost the slave of his land and his family, and labours
unceasingly for the one while he saves ungrudgingly for the other. Our
own labourers work as hard no doubt, and probably harder, but they are
much more extravagant in their habits. Their food is far more solid and
expensive, and it is dressed with far less thrift and skill. The case is
not very different with the classes higher in the social scale. Their
industry and perseverance are unrivalled, but these virtues are too often
made to do duty for prudence and economy as well. Mr. Gladstone is, no
doubt, light in attributing to friendly societies an influence which
tends in some degree to counteract the evil consequences of individual
prodigality. They do not directly encourage a more frugal mode of life
among the masses, but they develop a social feeling of common welfare
which at least counteracts individual selfishness. Thus, independently
of their purely economical advantages, they are by no means despicable
instruments of political and social education. But, after all, it is on
the individual himself that it depends whether he shall be thrifty, and
get on in the world, or shall be careless, and indolent, and extravagant,
and finally sink down to the bottom, a burden to the rest of the
community. “The way to wealth,” says an old writer, “is as plain as the
way to market. It depends chiefly on two plain words—industry and
frugality; that is, waste neither time nor money, but make the best use
of both.”
As we go to press, we find a meeting held at the Mansion House, London
(the Earl of Shaftesbury in the chair), to hear Miss Emily Faithfull
lecture against the extravagance of modern life. Ladies (she said) were
sometimes accused of being the direct means of wild expenditure; and what
answer could be made to their accusers? They had only to walk in any
fashionable resort to see a great deal of prodigal display in dress,
which could be accounted for only by the explanation that many of its
wearers were living beyond their means. This state of things arose
because women were ranked by what they wore, and not by what they were.
Men and women seemed to have lost the faculty of enjoying inexpensive
pleasures. The same extravagance was to be found among high and low,
master and man. The reason of the outcry about bad servants was, because
all those of the present day wished to be like their betters;
fine-ladyism had descended from the drawing-room to the kitchen. Of the
various causes of this, one was the love of money, more deeply rooted in
the minds of the people of England than in those of any other nation in
the world. Another was the modern fusion of classes—people finding
themselves in a position in which they were compelled, by the tyranny of
custom, to “make an appearance” beyond their legitimate means. One of
the most crying evils of these times was the credit system, and its
twin-brother debt, well described as the curse of the middle classes, and
which, like drink, was carried on in a blind, stupid, reckless fashion.
The meaning of the word “economy” was continually being falsely made to
imply the saving of money, whereas it only meant the best possible
administration of time, labour, and money.—Mr. Thomas Hughes, Q.C., said
that the great dangers for this country were unthrift and intemperance;
and unless we could make it sober and thrifty it would soon become
insolvent.
ADVERTISEMENTS. {0}
A PRACTICAL BOOK FOR PRACTICAL MEN.
THE INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD.
A Complete Course of Technical Education for the
Artizan and the Manufacturer.
_Fully Illustrated with Diagrams and Portraits_.
* * * * *
In 30 parts, price 1s. each; 15 parts, price 2s. each, or in 5 divisions
(Cloth Backs), price 6s. 6d. each; also in 2 vols. (Cloth Gilt), price
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FOOTNOTES.
{0} Advertisements on the inside cover of the physical book have been
moved to the end.—DP.
{76a} Oil from _rape_ seed or _sesame_ seed, which last is a favourite
oil in the East for cooking, and is procurable in London at half the
price of olive oil; it much resembles almond oil.
{76b} The object of the tartar was to take the place of ripe fruit as a
vegetable acid.
{83} Vegetarians usually admit a diet including milk, cheese, butter,
and eggs.