CONCLUSION.
Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.--The
late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.--The Pleiocene
Mammalia.--Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene
Species.--Antiquity of Man in Europe.--Man lived in India
in Pleistocene Age.--Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India
related to those of Europe?--Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.--
Conclusion.
The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated in the last
three chapters, and we have discussed the inferences drawn from their
distribution as to the pleistocene climate and geography of Europe. It
remains for us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to
see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period.
_Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia._
The pleistocene period was one of very long duration, and embraced
changes of great magnitude in the geography of Europe, as we have seen
in the ninth and tenth chapters. The climate, which in the preceding
pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle Europe, at the
beginning of the pleistocene gradually passed into the extreme arctic
severity of the glacial period. This change caused a corresponding
change of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose
constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates, yielding
place to those which were better adapted to the new conditions. And
since there is reason for the belief that it was not continuous in
one direction, but that there were pauses or even reversions towards
the old temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals
would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled with each
other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical provinces must
naturally have varied with the season; and the competition for the
same feeding-grounds between the invading and retreating forms must
have been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore, from
the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might be expected to have been
extremely gradual in each area. The lines of definition between the
two are to a great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with
sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the tertiary and
post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or between the tertiary and
quaternary of French geologists. The principle of classification which
I have proposed[267] is that offered by the gradual lowering of the
temperature, which has left its mark in the advent of animals before
unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided the pleistocene
deposits into three groups.
1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had begun to disturb
the pleiocene mammalia, but had not yet supplanted the more southern
animals. No arctic mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs
the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit at St. Prest,
near Chartres.
2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had disappeared. The
even-toed ruminants are principally represented by the stag, the Irish
elk, the roe, bison, and urus. _Elephas meridionalis_ and _Rhinoceros
etruscus_ had retreated to the south. To this group belong the
brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit at
Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and a river-deposit in Auvergne.
3. The third division is that in which the true arctic mammalia were
among the chief inhabitants of the region; and to it belong most of the
ossiferous caves and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe.
These three do not correspond with the preglacial, glacial, and
postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata, in central and north
Britain; since there is reason to believe that all the animals which
occupied Britain after the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived
here in their southern advance before that maximum cold had been
reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and postglacial.
This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata south of
the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the arctic mammalia never penetrated.
_The Late Pleistocene Division._
The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with the reindeer
period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends also his other three periods;
for the spotted hyæna, the lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly
rhinoceros, the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated
together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain and the
continent that they do not afford a means of classification. The
arctic division of the mammalia, defined in the preceding chapter, was
then in full possession of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and
the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_ had disappeared.
With three exceptions, to be noticed presently, all the ossiferous
caverns of France, Germany, and Britain, belong to this division of the
pleistocene.
_The Middle Pleistocene Division._
The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may now be examined,
or that from which the characteristic pleiocene deer had vanished,
and were replaced by the invading forms from the temperate zones of
northern Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia obtained
from the lower brick-earths of the Thames valley, at Crayford, Erith,
Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock, by those from the deposit at Clacton, and
most probably by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the
_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston.[268] They consist of--
Man, _Homo_.
Lion, _Felis leo spelæa_.
Wild Cat, _F. catus_.
Spotted Hyæna, _Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa_.
Grizzly Bear, _Ursus ferox_.
Brown Bear, _U. arctos_.
Wolf, _Canis lupus_.
Fox, _C. vulpes_.
Otter, _Lutra vulgaris_.
Urus, _Bos primigenius_.
Bison, _Bison priscus_.
Irish Elk, _Cervus megaceros_.
Stag, _C. elaphus_.
Brown’s Fallow Deer, _C. Browni_.
Roedeer, _C. capreolus_.
Musk Sheep, _Ovibos moschatus_.
_Elephas antiquus._
Mammoth, _E. primigenius_.
Horse, _Equus caballus_.
Woolly Rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_.
_R. hemitœchus._
_R. megarhinus._
Wild-boar, _Sus scrofa_.
Hippopotamus, _Hippopotamus amphibius_.
Beaver, _Castor fiber_.
Water-Rat, _Arvicola amphibia_.
The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower brick-earths
of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the presence of the writer, in
April 1872, proves that man was living while these fluviatile strata
were being deposited.
If these mammalia be compared with those of the forest-bed or the
pleiocene age on the one hand, and with the late pleistocene on
the other, it will be seen that they are linked to the former by
_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and to the latter by the musk sheep. The
presence of the latter, the most arctic of the herbivores, in such
strange company is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the
remains belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which I found
at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the Museum of the Geological
Survey, rested in intimate association with the bones of other species,
is in the same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived
fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet obtained from the
lower brick-earths.
The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley of the Thames,
while the late pleistocene strata were being accumulated by the
river, and the abundance of remains of the stag, seem to me to point
backwards rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the lower
brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just as the absence
of the characteristic early pleistocene species shows that they are
not of that age. The evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a
stage intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is sufficiently
conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come to the conclusion that these
strata are of pleiocene date, and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they
belong to a late stage in the pleistocene.
During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley, and at Clacton,
the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and mammoth competed for the same
feeding-grounds with _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, _R. megarhinus_,
hippopotamus, and _Elephas antiquus_. Although all the characteristic
pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded that
area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the Irish elk, and Brown’s
fallow deer. The whole assemblage of animals, the musk sheep being
excepted, implies that the climate was less severe at this time, than
when the reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene
age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It may, indeed, be
objected that the classificatory value of the musk sheep is quite as
great as that of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_; but in the case of the lower
brick-earths, the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with
that of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the former is
altogether discordant.
There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent which can
be referred with certainty to this middle division. The machairodus,
however, of Kent’s Hole, and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see
p. 337), and the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of
Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate group of
animals held possession of the valley of the Thames, and of that now
sunk beneath the North Sea.
_The Early Pleistocene Mammalia._
The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which inhabited Great Britain
during the early pleistocene period, and before the maximum severity
of glacial cold had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the
forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores of Norfolk
and Suffolk, have for many years attracted the attention of naturalists
and geologists. The magnificent collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and
the late Rev. S. W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving that
the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed from that of any
geological period which we have hitherto discussed: and the careful
diagnosis of all the fossils from this horizon which I have been able
to meet with, shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being
closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and of Italy,
and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly pleistocene. The
following list is necessarily very imperfect, since the fragmentary
nature of the fossils renders a specific identification very hazardous;
and it only includes those which I have been able to identify with any
degree of certainty.
_Sorex moschatus._
_S. vulgaris._
_Talpa Europæa._
_Trogontherium Cuvieri._
_Castor fiber._
_Ursus spelæus._
_U. arvernensis._
_Canis lupus._
_C. vulpes._
_Machairodus._
_Cervus megaceros._
_C. capreolus._
_C. elaphus._
_Cervus Polignacus._
_C. carnutorum._
_C. verticornis._
_C. Sedgwickii._
_Bos primigenius._
_Hippopotamus major._
_Sus scrofa._
_Equus caballus._
_Rhinoceros etruscus._
_R. megarhinus._
_Elephas meridionalis._
_E. antiquus._
_E. primigenius._
From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture of pleiocene
and pleistocene species is evident. The _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus
Polignacus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _R.
megarhinus_, the horse, _Elephas meridionalis_, and _E. antiquus_
were living in the pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in
Norfolk. The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe,
stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as yet been discovered
in the continental pleiocenes, as judged by the standards offered by
the Val d’Arno and Southern France. They are more or less abundant in
the late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to me to
imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate between the two,
and, from the fact that only three out of the whole series, viz. _Ursus
arvernensis_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _Cervus Polignacus_, are
peculiar to the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied
to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene.
It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age was of
considerable duration; for in it we find at least two forms (and the
number will probably be very largely increased) which are unknown in
continental Europe, although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have
been diligently examined in France and Germany. The very presence of
the _Cervus Sedgwickii_ and _C. verticornis_ implies that the lapse
of time was sufficiently great to allow of the evolution of forms of
animal life hitherto unknown, and which disappeared before the middle
and late pleistocene stages. The _Trogontherium_ also, as well as the
_Cervus carnutorum_, both of which occur in the forest-bed and in the
gravel-beds of St. Prest, near Chartres, and which are peculiar to this
horizon, point to the same conclusion.
The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent
approximately the number of species: there are at least five, and
perhaps six, represented by a series of antlers, which I do not venture
to quote, because I have not been able to compare them with those of
the pleiocenes of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne.
Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar characters of the
fauna of the forest-bed is the presence of the mammoth; and the
evidence on which he considered the animal to be of preglacial age
in Europe has been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which
are now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated with _Elephas
meridionalis_ and _E. antiquus_, and are incrusted with precisely the
same matrix as the teeth and bones of those species.
No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar assemblage of
fossil animals.
_The Pleiocene Mammalia._
The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna is a question
of very great difficulty, because the latter has not yet been
satisfactorily defined, although Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have
given the more important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and
the Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof. Gervais’s
great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,” p. 349, the term
pseudo-pleiocene merely implying that the fauna differs from that of
the marine deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard.
_Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire._
_Hystrix refossa._
_Castor issiodorensis._
_Arctomys antiqua._
_Arvicola robustus._
_Cervus pardinensis._
_C. arvernensis._
_C. causanus._
_Sus arvernensis.
Lepus Lacosti._
_Mastodon arvernensis._
_Tapirus arvernensis._
_Rhinoceros elatus?_
_Bos elatus._
_Cervus polycladus._
_C. ardens._
_C. cladocerus._
_C. issiodorensis._
_C. Perrieri._
_C. etueriarum._
_Ursus arvernensis._
_Canis borbonidus._
_Felis pardinensis._
_F. arvernensis._
_F. brevirostris._
_F. issiodorensis._
_Machairodus cultridens._
_Hyæna arvernensis._
_H. Perrieri._
_Lutra Bravardi._
To these animals Dr. Falconer[269] adds _Hippopotamus major_, _Elephas
antiquus_, and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and he identifies _Rhinoceros
elatus_ with his new species _Rhinoceros etruscus_. Prof. Gaudry agrees
with me in the belief that _Hyæna Perrieri_ is identical with _H.
striata_ or the striped species.
Prof. Gervais also identifies the _Equus robustus_ of M. Pomel, from
the same locality, with the common Horse, _Equus fossilis_.
The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different from that of
Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor pleistocene, it must
belong to one of the intermediate stages of the pleiocene. It includes
_Semnopithecus monspessulanus._
_Macacus priscus._
_Chalicomys sigmodus._
_Lagomys loxodus._
_Mastodon brevirostris._
_Rhinoceros megarhinus._
_Tapirus minor._
_Antilope Cordieri._
_A. hastata._
_Cervus Cuvieri._
_C. australis._
_Sus provincialis._
_Hyænodon insignis._
_Hyæna ----?_
_Machairodus._
_Felis Christolii._
_Lutra affinis._
The _Mastodon brevirostris_ of this list is considered by Dr. Falconer
to be identical with _M. arvernensis_ of MM. Croiset and Jobert.
The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of Montpellier and of
Auvergne, and yet is considered by Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical
of the European pleiocene.[270] The animals identified by him in the
museums of Italy are as follow:--
_Felis._
_Hyæna._
_Machairodus cultridens._
_Mastodon arvernensis._
_M. Borsoni._
_Elephas antiquus._
_Elephas meridionalis._
_Rhinoceros etruscus._
_R. megarhinus._
_R. hemitœchus._
_Hippopotamus major._
All these animals, with the exception of _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, have
been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire, while the megarhine
rhinoceros and _Mastodon arvernensis_ are the only two which have been
obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The pleiocene animals,
therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy are more closely allied to those
of Auvergne than to those of Montpellier.
If these three localities be taken as typical of the pleiocene strata,
we shall find that several of the species range as far north as
Britain, and occur in deposits which from the evidence of the mollusca,
have been assigned to that age. _Mastodon arvernensis_, _Elephas
meridionalis_, and _Ursus arvernensis_, have been obtained from the old
land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the Norfolk Crag,
in company with many forms of deer and antelopes which have not yet
been identified, while the _Hipparion_ is found in the marine crags of
Suffolk.
The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene strata of
Europe are _Machairodus cultridens_, _Mastodon arvernensis_ and _M.
Borsoni_, besides the genus _Tapir_.
If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial forest-bed,
it will be seen that the difference between them is very great. The
pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the majority of the deer, and the antelopes
are replaced by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up to
that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals were able to hold
their ground against the pleistocene invaders, although, subsequently,
as I have already shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately
beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The progress of
this struggle has been used in the preceding pages as a means of
classification. This fauna has not been discovered in any cave.
_Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species._
The following are the salient points of the pleistocene age offered
by the study of the land mammalia in the area north of the Alps and
Pyrenees.
THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD.
A.--_The latest stage._
Palæolithic Man.
Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant.
Mammoth, abundant.
Reindeer, abundant.
Stag, comparatively rare.
Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps
and Pyrenees.
B.--_The middle stage._
Palæolithic Man.
_Machairodus latidens._
Stag, abundant.
Northern forms of life present, but not in force.
_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, still living.
Woolly Rhinoceros, present.
C.--_The early stage._
The following are animals peculiar to this stage:--
_Trogontherium Cuvieri._
_Cerus verticornis._
_Cervus Sedgwickii._
_C. carnutorum._
The following make their appearance:--The beaver, musk-shrew,
cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and bison, wild-boar, horse,
(2), mammoth, wolf, and fox.
The pleiocene _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus Polignacus_, _Rhinoceros
etruscus_, and _Elephas meridionalis_ still living.
THE PLEIOCENE.
_Mastodon arvernensis._
_M. Borsoni._
_Hipparion gracile._
No living species of European Deer.
The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply to the region
south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the northern group of animals
did not pass into Spain and Italy. In these two countries we find
southern and pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age,
which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier stages.
_Antiquity of Man in Europe._
No remains have been discovered up to the present time in any part of
Europe which can be referred with certainty to a higher antiquity than
the pleistocene age. The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in
Europe along with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling
here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the vast physical
and climatal changes, described in the last three chapters, finally
disappeared, leaving behind as their representatives the Eskimos
tribes of arctic America. There is no evidence that they were inferior
in intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the present
time, or more closely linked to the lower animals. The traces which
they have left behind tell us nothing as to the truth or falsehood of
the doctrine of evolution, for if it be maintained on the one hand,
that the first appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like
brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be answered that
the lapse of time between his appearance in the pleistocene age and
the present day, is too small to have produced appreciable physical
or intellectual change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have
merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man in Europe, and
not the general question of his first appearance on the earth, with
which it is very generally confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that
the _origines_ of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe, but in the
tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these we have no clue in the
present stage of the inquiry. The higher apes are represented in the
European meiocene and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in
some cases the characters of different living species, but they do
not show any tendency to assume human characters. It must indeed be
allowed, that the study of fossil remains throws as little light as the
documents of history on the relation of man to the lower animals. The
historian commences his labours with the high civilization of Assyria
and Egypt, and can merely guess at the steps by which it was achieved;
the palæontologist meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene
strata, and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by which
man arrived even at that culture which is implied by the implements.
The latter has proved that the antiquity of man is greater than the
former had supposed. Neither has contributed anything towards the
solution of the problem of his origin.
_Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age._
The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown that in ancient
times man, in the same stage of civilization as the palæolithic man of
Europe, lived in Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In
1868[271] Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements which were
discovered over a large area in the districts of Madras, either in the
red clayey deposit known as Laterite, or in such positions as implied
that they had been washed out of it. They all belong to the same rude
types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western Europe. A
small fragment of bone was the only fossil which had up to that time
been discovered in the Laterite, and this I was able to identify
in 1869 as a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic
variety, which has been described in the fifth chapter of this work,
from the European caves and tombs. The Lateritic deposits themselves
are strictly analogous to our river-strata and brick-earths in their
constitution, and in their resting at various levels above the sea,
and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under conditions different to
those which are now going on in that district. They prove that the
period of the sojourn of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided
from the present day by considerable geographical changes, such as the
elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking up of accumulations
which were once continuous. We have seen that somewhat similar
changes have happened in Europe, in the interval which separates the
palæolithic period from our own time.
The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of quartzite, of the
pointed oval shape common in the gravels of Britain and France,
published by Mr. Medlicott in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological
Survey of India,” proves further that man was a member of the
remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the Narbadá in ancient
times. It was dug out of reddish unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a
depth of three feet from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty
feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá near the
valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to the same fluviatile series as
that from which the mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer in
1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of fluviatile origin, by the
presence of fresh-water mussels of the varieties still living in the
adjacent river.
The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals. Among the
former are two kinds of elephant (_E. namadicus_) and (_E. stegodon
insignis_), one of which is closely allied to the European _E.
antiquus_, two species of hippopotamus, one (_H. palæindicus_) with
four incisors in front of the jaws like the African, and a second with
six incisors belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a
large ox (_Bos namadicus_), a deer and a bear. The living forms are
represented by the buffalo (_Bubalus namadicus_), which is identical
with the wild arnee from which the Indian domestic buffaloes have
descended, and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This
imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,[272] shows that there is
the same mixture of extinct with living forms in the valley of the
Ganges, while the clays and gravels were being accumulated, as we
have observed in the pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna
may therefore be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as
Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that age. The exact
correspondence of the quartzite implements with those which are so
abundant in the European river-strata of the same age, adds additional
weight to this conclusion.
_Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?_
It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing in 1865 of the
peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should have held the view that man was
living in India at that time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus
was handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking name of the
water elephant. “After reflecting,” he writes, “on the question during
many years in its palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning
is to the view that _Hippopotamus namadicus_ was extinct in India long
before the Aryan invasion, but that it was familiar to the earlier
indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.) This inference is proved to be
literally true by the discovery of the palæolithic implements in the
ossiferous strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long ages
for their accumulation and subsequent erosion.
We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man inhabited both Europe
and India in the pleistocene age. And possibly the identity of the
implements, in these two remote regions, may be accounted for in the
same manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view that their
fabricators may have come from the same centre of dispersal, by the
same routes as those which were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and
Aryan, invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be accepted or
not, it cannot be denied that the man who inhabited both these regions
was in the same rude stage of human progress, and played his part in
the same life-era.
_Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine._
The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,[273] of a palæolithic flint
implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the surface of a stratum
of gravel between Mount Tabor and the lake of Tiberias, lends great
weight to the view that the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose
implements are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the same
centre, since it bridges over the great interval of space by which
they were isolated. It is very probable, that future discoveries may
reveal the presence of a tolerably uniform priscan population, in the
pleistocene age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only been
explored by archæologists in a few isolated points, with the important
results recorded in the preceding pages.
_Conclusion._
It now remains for us to sum up the results of the exploration of
European caves, of which an imperfect outline has been given in this
work. Their formation, and filling up, have an important bearing on the
physical geography of the districts in which they occur, and reveal
the great changes which are going on, in the calcareous rocks, at the
present time. The study of the remains which they contain has led to
the recognition of the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe,
in ancient times, were altogether different from those of the present
day.
It has also made large additions to the history of the sojourn of man
in Europe. We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the
remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and
Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming
part of a fauna, in which northern and southern, living and extinct,
species are strangely mingled with those now living in Europe. In the
neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of
the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small,
dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They were rarely used in the
bronze age. When we arrive within the borders of history in Britain,
we find them offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their
enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and throwing great light
on the fragmentary records of those obscure times. In treating of these
questions, it has been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied
interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some of which
have been partially solved, while others await the light of the higher
knowledge which will be the fruit of a wider experience.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX I.--P. 30.
ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.
Instruments used in Cave-hunting.--The Search after Bone-caves.--
The three modes of Cave-digging.--Stalagmitic Floors to be broken
up.--Preservation of Fossil Bones.
_Instruments used in Cave-hunting._
The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself
have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart from the tools of the
workman, are as follow:--
1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long, inserted into
a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge in the same plane
as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces, and seven inches in length.
2. A steel chisel ten inches long.
3. A prismatic compass.
4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and water.
5. An aneroid.
6. A steel measuring tape.
7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line for
plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles.
In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line by
a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work proceeds,
indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points of
measurement, with paint or wooden pegs.
8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s girth at
the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures, so that
the explorer may be let down without any great danger. No large unknown
caves should be explored without a rope, or by a party less than three
in number. In exploring the caves of Burrington Combe we used a rope
sixty feet long. The descent into Helln Pot, described in the second
chapter, p. 41, was effected in the following manner. A strong platform
of timber was made over the open fissure, and from it a square “cage”
or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was let down for the
first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from twisting round by two
guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we had two ladders eight feet
long, and a rope, without which we should have been unable to reach the
bottom.
[Illustration:
| | a | |
--+-----+--------------+-----+--
g | ... | | ... | g
| | | |
b | e | c d c | e | b
| | | |
g | ... | | ... | g
--+-----+--------------+-----+--
| | a | |
]
9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes
sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may be used,
such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the navigation of the
great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a platform supported on
barrels and built as follows: A frame of stout poles was made; two,
_a a_, being eight feet long, with four others, _b_, _c_, lashed
firmly across, each four feet in length. The space _d_ was converted
into a platform by nailing boards across, and this was buoyed up by
a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace _e_. The barrels were
attached to the raft by two loops of rope _g_, passing over from _b_
to _c_, and thus kept in place, although they freely twisted and
turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage over iron hoops for
the attachment of the barrels, because when they were tightened the
platform was raised above the water, when they were loosened it was
lowered, and thus the raft could be adjusted to the weight to be
carried, to the depth of the water, and the distance of the water-line
from the roof. A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is
sufficiently light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker
made his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern,
and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would allow me
to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting. Mr. Parker found
by experience that a raft made of boards nailed on the top of two
beer-barrels was too unstable to be of any use. In making his way
across subterranean pools the cave-hunter ought to be prepared for
accidents, for the depth is very uncertain, and the water sufficiently
cold to cause cramp. For the exploration of ordinary water-caves a
raft is unnecessary, but no attempt should be made without a rope. In
Yorkshire and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in
the subterranean water-courses.
10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common
composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection that they
gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused light, and the
smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in turpentine or tar is
intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the beauties of the higher roofs.
_The Search after Ossiferous Caves._
Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the neolithic
and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by débris which has
been accumulated from the surface above during the long lapse of ages.
In their discovery I have found rabbits, foxes, and badgers of the
greatest service, since these animals generally make their burrows
in such places. And where their earths are met with at the base of a
vertical wall of rock, I have very generally found a cave. They were
my sole guides to the discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi
Chwareu, described in the fifth chapter, in a district in which up to
that time caves were not known to exist.
The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations the
sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots which commanded a
wide view, and, therefore, their remains are to be looked for in those
places, rather than on the cold and sunless sides, or where an enemy
might approach without observation.
_The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging._
The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy to be
of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel caves, or those
extending horizontally into the rock, by one of the three following
methods which may be adapted to the local conditions:--
The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance,
and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so as to
obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the hyæna-den
at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through the cave-earth
which extended from the roof to the floor, and then removed the earth
on either side in blocks, until ultimately the chamber and passages
described in the eighth chapter were cleared of their contents. Our
work was measured every evening, and each bone and object found was
labelled with the date which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical
sections were also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented
by constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate to
satisfy the demands of scientific research.
The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata was very
distinct, was explored, while the work was under my direction up
to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion. It was, however,
impossible on account of the great depth of the deposits to cut a
passage down to the rock at the entrance. We therefore examined the
superficial strata throughout the cave, merely gauging the thickness of
those below by sinking three shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high
to allow of the work being carried on, it is better to clear out one
stratum before another is disturbed.
The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is that
which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole, under the
superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as follows:[274]--
“The following is the method of exploration which has been observed
from the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and
correct method of determining the exact position of every object which
has been found.
“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the
surface was carefully examined and removed.
“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were
blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern.
“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally from a
fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber.
“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum-line,
and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to
divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed ‘parallels.’
“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had
covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmite breccia,
so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.
“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side
across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel
into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep.
“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each three
feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line as an axis
of abscissæ.
“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels
four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad,
where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each parallel is taken
out in levels one foot high, and in each level in horizontal prisms
three feet long and a foot square in the section, so that each contains
three cubic feet of material.
“This material, after being carefully examined _in situ_ by
candlelight, is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after
which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated
to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the objects of
interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each having a label
containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its
contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary of the committee,
by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes.
The labels are numbered and packed with the specimens to which they
respectively belong, and a record of the day’s work is entered in a
diary.
“The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould,
and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in
these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards.”
A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be taken daily
on the spot.
_The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up._
In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic
breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if necessary,
blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently conceals the
pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in Kent’s Hole many feet
thick, often contains the traces of man and wild animals. Sometimes it
is very difficult to distinguish the breccia from the rocky floor.
Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be worked
on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft. To dig into it
from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous, because of the
large imbedded stones which fall sometimes without any warning.
_The Preservation of Fossil Remains._
The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost their
gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces in drying,
should be gradually dried, and from time to time saturated with a weak
hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate of soda, sometimes called
“liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not the oil), may also be used for
the same purpose. If the bones are extremely soft, they may be rescued
from destruction by letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them
and the matrix with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the
latter. In this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is
now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street, London.
APPENDIX II.--P. 40.
_Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in
the Ingleborough Cave._ Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manch. April
1873.
The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation
of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that made by Mr. James
Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and
published by Prof. Phillips in the “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of
Yorkshire” (second edition, 1855, pp. 34-35). The stalagmite of which
the measurements were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey
Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about two
and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate of lime,
brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin at its top, and
flow over the general surface. On March 13th, 1873, in company with
Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I was enabled by the kindness of Mr.
Farrer to take a set of measurements, to be recorded for use in after
years.
For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three holes
were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges of brass
wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table being that on
the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side. The curvilinear
dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or with a steel measure;
and the circumferential around the base along a line marked by the
three gauges. The measurements 2, 3, and 4 of the table were taken on
the 15th of March, by Mr. Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by
the fact that they coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days
before.
The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the Manchester
Museum, the Owens College, for future observers.
In the following table I have given my own measurements and compared
them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.
TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.
+--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+--------+
| | 13th | | | |Rate of |
| | Mar. | |30 Oct.| Increase |Increase|
| | 1873. | 1839. | 1845. | since | per |
| |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|1839.|1845.| annum. |
| | | | | | | Inches |
+--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+
| 1 Basal circumference at | | | | | |·2941- |
| Gauges |128 |118 |120 | 10 | 8 | ·2857 |
| 2 Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2 | 52·625| | | | | |
| 3 ” 2 ” 3 | 35·0 | | | | | |
| 4 ” 3 ” 1 | 40·375| | | | | |
| 5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre| | | | | | |
| of basin at apex| 30 | | | | | |
| 6 ” 2 ” ” | 29·5 | | | | | |
| 7 ” 3 ” ” | 31·4 | | | | | |
| 8 Height from Gauge No. 1 | 20·9 | | | | | |
| 9 ” ” 2 min | 20·4 | | | | | |
|10 Maximum | 29·7 | | | | | |
|11 Tape measurement on slope | | | | | | |
| Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex| 26·7 | | | | | |
|12 ” No. 2 ” ” | 26·6 |21·0 | | 5·6 | | |
|13 ” ” maximum ” | 36·0 |32·0 | 35·0 | 4·0 | 1·0 | |
|14 Roof to apex of Jockey Cap | 87 | | 95·25 | | 8·25|·2946 |
|15 Roof to tip of stalactite | | | 10 | | | |
|16 Stalactite to apex of Jockey | | | | | | |
| Cap | | | 85·25 | | | |
+--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+
Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots where the
stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the only measurement
which affords any trustworthy data for estimating the rate of increase
is number 14. With regard to this, the only possible ground of error
is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone, of which
the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this
is so small as to be practically inappreciable. We have, therefore,
evidence that the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an
inch per annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued
it will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this
comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the
growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being formed in
place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and has since been
accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may
be the result not of the continuous but of the intermittent drip of
water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and that,
therefore, the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past
or future condition. Its possible age in 1845 was estimated by Prof.
Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that the grain of carbonate
of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present
rate it may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and
stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further back than the
time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken as a measure of the rate
of deposition.
INDEX.
A.
Abbeville, flint implements of, 16.
Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, 428, 429.
Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, 52.
Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, 377;
finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, 378.
Adriatic Sea, the, 388.
Africa, mainland of, 379;
moraines in, 387;
physical geography of, in pleistocene age, 370;
species of European mammalia found in, 380.
African animals in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
elephant, the, 372, 376.
Age of cavern deposits, test of, 410.
Albert Cave, the, Settle, 101.
Alessi, Canon, cited, 376.
Algeria, fossil mammalia in, 379.
Alps, the, animals living to the North of, 359, 360;
glaciers of, 403.
Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, 401;
panther in, 403.
America, animals in, 396-399.
Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, 16.
Anatolia, the glaciers of, 383-385.
Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, 376.
Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, 209.
Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, 130, 131;
classificatory value of, 78;
domestic, derived from Asia, 137;
evidence of, as to climate, 392;
extinct species of, 400;
historic, 75, 76;
living under the care of man, 77;
migration of, 366;
northern group of, 395;
pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, 359-361;
unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, 266;
prehistoric, 265;
probable cause of association of species, 397;
southern group of, 393;
temperate group of, 399.
_Antelope saiga_, the, 336, 348, 399.
Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, 370.
Antiquity of Man in Europe, 424.
Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, 354, 355;
palæolithic hunters in, 347;
the people of, 356, 357.
Ardennes, rock denuded from the, 61.
Arenaceous rocks, caves in, 24.
Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, 218.
Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
Art of the Eskimos, 356.
Arthur’s cave, King, 290.
Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, 354, 356.
Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, 137;
the lion in, 393.
Ass, the, 77.
Atlantic Ocean, the, 380;
shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, 365.
Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, 386.
Aurignac, the cave of, 19;
bones found in, 246;
discovery of, 243;
interment in, 242;
skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, 245.
Austen, Mr. Godwin- (_see_ Godwin-Austen).
Auvergne, palæolithic men in, 21.
Avison, cave of, 18.
Axe, the river, 29.
Aymard, M., cited, 330.
B.
Badger, the (_see_ _Meles taxus_).
Banwell, cave at, 293.
Basques, the, eastern derivation of, 227, 228;
elements of, in British and French populations, 225;
in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, 215;
the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, 213;
the oldest neolithic population, 223.
Baumann’s Hole, 12.
Baume, the cave of, animals found in, 337.
Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, 379.
Bear, the, 75, 79, 131, 146;
in Germany, 278;
in the care of Kühloch, 27;
the cave, 138, 278, 401;
the grizzly, 278, 348, 376, 399.
Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, 15, 33;
explorations of, 292.
Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, 29;
on fungoid structures, 69.
Beaver, the, 76, 79, 132.
Behrens, Dr., cited, 12.
Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, 228;
caves in, 20, 347;
dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 215.
Bell, Professor, on the ass, 77.
Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, 175.
Billaudel, M., cited, 18.
Birkbeck, Mr., cited, 35;
descends into Helln Pot, 43.
Bishofferode, cave at, 4.
Bison, the, 80, 266, 359.
Blackmore, Dr., cited, 268, 269.
Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, 68.
Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, 144.
Blyth, Mr., cited, 393.
Boar, the wild, 76, 79.
Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, 305-307.
Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, 408;
exploration of, in Great Britain, 13;
in Southern Europe, 21, 370, 373, 375, 377;
the three classes of, 10.
Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, 111.
Bones gnawed by hyænas, 282.
Bonney, Rev. T. G., cited, 28.
_Bos longifrons_, 78, 88, 125, 131, 133, 136, 144, 150, 166, 194,
256, 262, 269.
_Bos namadicus_, 428.
Bosco’s Den, 288.
Boulder clays, 403.
Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, 199, 219;
British, 193, 199;
French, 199, 202, 203;
represented by Celts, 229.
Bradley, Mr., cited, 190.
Brandt, Professor, cited, 399;
on the Irish Elk, 401.
Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, 335.
Bristol Channel, the, 290.
Britain, cave exploration in, 13;
during the second ice age, 406;
historic caves in, 81;
historic period in, 75;
inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, 191;
in the pleistocene age, 366;
mammalia in, during the second ice age, 406;
population of in time of Cæsar, 224;
raids of Picts and Scots in, 105;
range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, 194;
Roman dominion in, 103;
two periods of glaciation in, 401;
wild animals in, 75.
British brachy-cephali, 198, 199.
Brit-Welsh caves, 129, 130.
Brixham, caves at, 16, 319;
implements and animals in, 320;
history of deposits in, 321.
Broca, M., cited, 156;
on Basque crania, 213;
on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200, 201;
derivation of the Basques from Africa, 227, 228;
on platycnemic _tibiæ_, 175;
sepulchral cave of Orrouy, 202.
Brome, Captain, researches of, 21, 204.
Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, 141;
armlet from Thor’s cave, 128;
articles from Heathery Burn, 142.
Brooches found in the Victoria cave, 98.
Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, 128.
Browne, the Rev. G. F., explorations of, 26;
on the temperature of caves, 72.
Bruniquel, cave of, 40;
description of, 247;
interments of doubtful age in, 248.
Bryce, Dr., cited, 405.
Brysgill, cave of, 160.
_Bubalus namadicus_, 428.
Buckland, Dr., cited, 13, 18, 30, 120, 240, 293, 295, 300;
on Gailenreuth cave, 273, 274;
Kirkdale, 14, 280, 281, 283;
Kühloch, 276;
Paviland, 234.
Buffalo in Italy, 81.
Busk, Professor, cited, 13, 120, 155, 162, 189, 259;
on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, 166-179;
human remains from Cefn tumulus, 180-186;
human skull from caves of Césaroda, 146, 147;
skulls found in Spain, 208, 209;
the Berbers, 212;
the fauna of Mentone, 373;
researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-208, 371.
C.
Calcareous rocks, caves in, 25.
Caldy, cave of, 62, 63;
cave-pearls in, 66;
fungoid stalagmites in, 67;
island of, 289.
Campbell, Dr., cited, 196.
_Canis familiaris_, 131, 144, 150, 157, 166, 256;
_lupus_, 166;
_vulpes_, 131, 150, 166.
Capellini, Professor, cited, 258;
on the Grotta dei Colombi, 259.
_Capra hircus_, 131, 150, 166.
Carbonate of lime, circulation of, 71;
in Thames water, 70;
removed by streams, 69.
Cartaillac, M., cited, 247.
Carte, Dr., cited, 335.
Cat, Caffir, 394; domestic, 77, 81.
Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, 145.
Cave-pearls, 66.
Caves, biological division of, 6-9;
classification of palæolithic, 351;
conclusions as to prehistoric, 261;
containing remains of doubtful age, 232;
contents of historic, 131;
deposits in valleys and in, 272, 273;
exploration of European, 11;
filling up of, 61;
formation of, 50;
historic, in Britain, 81;
in the region of Craven, 106;
legends and superstitions of, 2;
not generally found in line of faults, 57;
of bronze age in Britain, 141;
of neolithic age, 149;
physical division of, 5;
physical history of, 23, 65;
relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, 27, 54;
results of the exploration of European, 430;
temperature of, 71;
test of age of deposits in, 410;
used as places of refuge, 102;
various ages of, 58;
Albert, 101;
of Andalusia, 208, 209;
Aquitaine, 347, 354;
Aurignac, 243;
Avison, 18;
Banwell, 293;
Baumann’s Hole, 12;
Baume, 337;
Belgium, 347;
Bishofferode, 4;
Black Rock, 68;
Bosco’s Den, 288;
Britain, 278;
Brit-Welsh, 130;
Brixham, 319;
Bruniquel, 247;
Brysgill, 160;
Caldy, 62;
Canary Isles, 211;
Cat-Hole, 145;
Cavillon, 257;
Cefn, 164, 166, 286;
Césareda, 145;
Chauvaux, 215;
Colombi, 258;
Crawley Rocks, 288;
Cro-Magnon, 249;
Denbighshire, 18;
Derbyshire, 284;
Devonshire, 317;
Dowkerbottom, 101;
Dream, the, 284;
Engis, 234;
Fingal, 24;
France, 336;
Franconia, 12;
Gailenreuth, 273;
Gatekirk, 50;
Gendron, 239;
Genista, 205, 371;
Gibraltar, 204, 371;
Goatchurch, 31-34;
Gower, 288;
Heathery Burn, 141;
Hutton, 292;
Ingleborough, 36;
Ireland, 365;
Kelko, 101;
Kent’s-Hole, 324;
King Arthur, 290;
King’s Scar, 112;
Kirkdale, 280;
Kirkhead, 125;
Kühloch, 276;
Laugerie Basse, 339;
L’Homme Mort, 198, 200;
Llandebie, 194;
Llanamynech, 34;
Lombrive, 256;
Longberry Bank, 133;
Long Churn, 41;
Lunel-viel, 336, 375;
Maccagnone, 376;
Maghlak, 377;
Malta, 377;
Moustier, 341;
Naulette, 349;
Neanderthal, 240;
North Wales, 286;
Oban, 195;
Orrouy, 202;
Paviland, 232;
Peak, 34;
Pembrokeshire, 289;
Périgord, 337;
Perthi-Chwareu, 152, 157, 167;
Plas Heaton, 160, 287;
Poole, 34, 126;
Provence and Mentone, 373;
Reggio, 148;
Rians, 373;
Rhosdigre, 156, 166, 188;
San Ciro, 376;
Sclaigneaux, 218;
Sicily, 375;
South Wales, 288;
Thor’s, 127;
Uphill, 294;
Victoria, 81, 110, 118, 121, 284, 411;
Weathercote, 47;
Whitcombe, 140;
Woman’s, 210;
Wookey, 17, 29;
Yorkshire, 101, 278.
Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200.
Cavillon, cave of, 257;
palæolithic skeletons in, 257;
strata in, 374.
Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, 382.
Cefn, caves at, 286;
chambered tomb near, 161;
discovery of bones at, 15, 159;
Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, 180-184;
on skull from, 184-167.
Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, 229.
_Cervus alcis_, 137;
_capreolus_, 131, 150, 166;
_carnutorum_, 419, 424;
_elaphus_, 131, 150, 166;
_Polignacus_, 418, 419, 424;
_Sedgwickii_, 419, 424;
_verticornis_, 419, 424.
Césareda, caves of, 145;
evidence of cannibalism in, 147.
Chautre, M., cited, 403.
Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, 49, 56.
Chauvaux, cave of, 20, 215.
Chester, sack of, 110.
Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, 148.
Chillingham ox, the, 77, 90.
Christol, M. de, cited, 376.
Christy, Mr., cited, 19;
on the caves of Périgord, 337.
“Cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.
Classification of pleistocene strata, 412-414.
Classificatory value of historic animals, 78.
Close, Rev. H. M., cited, 402.
Climate, evidence of animals as to, 392, 401;
pleistocene, 398.
Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, 362.
Cochrane, Sir James, cited, 208.
Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, 93.
Corsica, absence of cliffs in, 390.
Crania from Genista cave, 207.
Cranial terms, definition of, 190.
Craven, caves near, 106.
Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, 288.
Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, 416.
Cro-Magnon, cave of, 249;
ornaments found in, 254;
position of human skeletons in, 253;
section of deposits in, 250;
the human _tibiæ_ of, 176;
traces of occupation in, 251.
Cuvier, Baron, cited, 12, 13, 18.
D.
Dalebeck, the, course of, 49.
Dana, Professor, on caverns, 58.
Darbishire, Mr. R. D., reference to, 93.
Dauphiny, the hills of, 404.
Delgado, Senhor J. L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, 145,
146.
De Luc, M., cited, 12.
Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, 18.
Denny, Mr., cited, 120.
Derbyshire, caves of, 284.
Desnoyers, M., cited, 25, 26, 28;
on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, 57;
relation of caves to ravines, 55.
Devonshire, caves of, 317.
Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, 80.
Dog, the (_see_ _Canis familiaris_).
Dolicho-cephali, British, 191, 192;
their range in Britain and Ireland, 194-197;
cognate with the Basque, 218;
of Gibraltar, 204-207.
Dormouse of Malta, the, 267.
Dowkerbottom cave, 101, 102.
Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, 284.
Dubrueil, M., cited, 18.
Dupont, M., cited, 216, 237, 239;
discoveries of, 21, 235;
investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, 348;
on the Trou de Naulette, 349.
Durdham Down, fissures of, 291.
Dürnten, the lignite bed of, 404.
E.
Eagle, the, 150.
“Ebur fossile,” 11.
Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, 273.
Elephant, the African, 21;
found near Madrid, 372;
in Sicily, 376, 394.
_Elephas antiquus_, 266, 281, 373, 376, 400, 404, 417;
_melitensis_, 378, 400;
_meridionalis_, 266, 379, 419, 422, 424;
_namadicus_, 427;
_primigenius_ (_see_ _Mammoth_);
(_stegodon_) _insignis_, 427.
Elk, the, 79, 137.
Elmet, conquest of, 109.
Enamels in the north of England, 100;
mentioned by Philostratus, 101.
Engis, cave of, 234.
English invasion, the, 107.
Enniskillen, Lord, cited, 273.
_Equus fossilis_ of pleiocene age, 421.
Eskimos, art of the, 356;
implements of the, 354;
in Europe, 425;
probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, 358;
relation of cave-dwellers to, 353.
Esper, cited, 273.
Europe, Antiquity of man in, 424;
climatal changes on the continent of, 403;
pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, 404;
species of mammalia in Africa, and, 380;
Southern, bone-caves of, 370;
fauna in caves of, 368.
Evans, Mr. John, cited, 17, 147, 158, 243, 248, 267;
on coins, 94;
on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, 139;
on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, 351.
Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, 380.
F.
Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, 63, 64.
Falconer, Dr., cited, 17, 21, 156, 175, 281, 288, 316, 362, 404,
416, 418, 421, 425, 427;
on bones from San Ciro, 376;
on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
on the fauna of the forest bed, 420;
on the hippopotamus, 377;
on the _Hippopotamus namadicus_, 428, 429;
researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-207.
Fallow deer, the, 77;
in Britain, 131;
in France, 80;
in Spain and Africa, 380.
Falsan, M., cited, 403.
Farrer, Mr., explorations of, 36;
on coins, 102;
on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, 113;
stalagmite, 39.
Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, 362;
changes in the, of Great Britain, 78;
of Montpellier, 421;
of Southern Europe, 368, 373;
the pleiocene, 420;
the pleistocene, 393, 417;
the prehistoric, 136, 137.
_Felis caffer_, the, 138, 266, 388;
in Iberian peninsula, 372;
in Somerset, 394.
Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, 164.
Fibulæ, enamelled, 99.
Fingal’s cave, 24.
Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, 400.
Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, 416.
Fisherton, valley-gravels at, 268.
Fissures, 37, 58;
of Durdham Down, 291;
of Mentone, 373;
of Windmill Hill, 371.
Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, 339;
in caves of Mentone, 373;
in Perthi-Chwareu, 166;
Wookey Hole, 298.
Florus on the Aquitani, 7.
Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, 156;
on flint implements from Madras, 426.
Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, 364, 365.
Foville, M., cited, 170.
Fowl, the domestic, 77, 80.
Fox, the Arctic, 348, 396, 400.
Fraas, Professor, cited, 350, 409.
France, Basque peoples in, 226;
caves in, 18, 242, 336;
skulls from tumuli in, 203;
the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, 198.
Franconia, caves of, 12.
Franks, Mr., cited, 206;
on drawings of palæolithic hunters, 345;
on enamelling, 100;
on “late Celtic” art, 96, 99.
Freeman, Mr. E. A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of
Ecgberht, 130;
on the Norman Conquest, 108.
Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, 269.
Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, 240.
G.
Gailenreuth, cave of, 12, 240, 273;
filled by a stream, 275.
Garonne, valley of the, 366.
Garrigou, M., cited, 316.
Gatekirk cavern, 50.
Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, 376.
Gaudry, Professor, cited, 421;
on fossil remains at Pickermi, 369.
Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, 220.
Gautier, M., cited, 247.
Geikie, Mr. James, cited, 263.
Geikie, Professor A., cited, 405.
Gendron, cave of, 239.
Genista, caves, the, 205;
articles in, 206;
human remains in, 207, 371.
Geography, pleistocene, 398.
German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, 364.
German race, the ancient, 230.
Germany, bears in, 278;
cave-exploration in, 11, 12.
Gervais, M., cited, 19;
list of pleiocene mammalia by, 420;
on _Equus robustus_, 421;
on mammalia from Algeria, 379.
Gesner, Dr., cited, 11.
Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, 204, 371;
the Straits of, 389.
Gildas on the character of the English conquest, 104, 108.
Glacial period, the, 407;
the relation of palæolithic man to, 409.
Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, 401.
Glaciers of Alps, 403;
of Anatolia, 383;
of Lebanon, 382;
in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, 387;
of Pyrenees, 404.
Glutton, the, 206, 275, 396;
jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, 287.
Goat, the (_see_ _Capra hircus_).
Goatchurch cave, 31, 32;
legend of the dog at, 34.
Goldfuss cited, 18, 273.
Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, 263, 388, 405;
on the fresh-water mussel, 364;
researches of, 15.
Gosse, M., cited, 170, 193, 350.
Gower, caves of, 288.
Great Britain, cave-exploration in, 13;
historic period in, 75.
Green, Rev. J. R., on the conquest of Britain, 96.
Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, 195.
Grey clays in Victoria cave, 116.
Grotto di Maccagnone, 376;
dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, 258;
thigh-bone of child from, 260.
Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, 211.
Gunn, Rev. John, cited, 418.
H.
Harkness, Professor, cited, 402.
Hamy, Dr., cited, 349, 352;
on the cave-bear, 352.
Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, 150, 166;
in Suabia, 395;
mentioned, 266, 348;
used for food in neolithic times, 165, 217, 373.
Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
Heathery Burn, cave of, 141;
bronze articles in, 144.
Heaton, Mr., cited, 287.
Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, 137.
Helln Pot, descent into, 41;
description of, 45;
exploration of, 43.
Hipparion found in Suffolk, 422;
_gracile_, 424.
Hippopotamus, 266;
_amphibius_, 138, 370, 394, 395, 417;
_liberiensis_, 377;
_major_, 377, 418;
_namadicus_, 428;
_palæindicus_, 427;
_Pentlandi_ (pigmy), 267, 377, 378, 400.
Historic animals, 75, 78;
period, definition of, 75;
period, difference between, and prehistoric, 134.
History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, 220.
Hooker, Dr., cited, 386;
on the cedars of Lebanon, 382, 383.
Horse, the, 136, 150, 166, 399, 418.
Horseflesh, the use of, 132.
Howel Dha, the laws of, 77.
Hughes, Professor, cited, 287.
Hull, Professor, cited, 402.
Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, 367.
Hutton, cave of, 292.
Huxley, Professor, cited, 144, 155, 179;
on brachy-cephalic skulls, 193;
on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 195;
on the classification of crania, 190;
on the skull from Engis cave, 235;
on the skull from Neanderthal cave, 241.
Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, 310;
bones gnawed by, 282, 316;
gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, 313;
man coeval with, in Somerset, 300;
_Perrieri_, 421;
the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, 118;
_spelæa_ (spotted), 138, 266, 372, 375, 394;
striped, 266, 336, 394.
Hyæna-den, characters of a, 314;
Kirkdale, 279.
I.
Iberian peoples, 225;
peninsula, the mammals in, 372.
Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, 212.
Ice period in Britain, 402, 406, 408.
Implements used by palæolithic hunters, 340, 366.
India, man in, in pleistocene age, 426.
Ingleborough cave, 36, 37.
Ireland, caves in, 335;
dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 194-197.
Irish-Celtic art, 97.
Irish Elk, the, 79, 137, 278, 401.
Iron age, the, cave of, 140, 141.
Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, 420.
Italy, animals in the museums of, 422.
J.
Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, 81, 84.
Jamieson, Mr., cited, 405.
Jeanjean, M., cited, 18.
Jewellery in Victoria cave, 95.
Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, 350.
K.
Kelko cave, 101.
Kent’s Hole cavern, 14, 17, 324, 325;
age of _machairodus_ of, 330;
deposits in, 326, 327;
the breccia in, 328, 329.
King, Rev. S. W., researches of, 246.
King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, 112, 195.
Kirkdale cave, 14, 279.
Kirkhead cave, 125.
Kühloch cave, 276, 277.
L.
Laing, Mr., cited, 178;
skulls obtained by, 195, 196.
Lagneaux, M., cited, 238, 239.
Lances used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
Laugerie Basse, cave at, 339.
Lartet, Professor E., cited, 19, 340, 414;
explorations of, 244;
on fossil remains found near Madrid, 372;
on the cave of Aurignac, 243;
on the cave of Périgord, 337;
on palæolithic caves, 351.
Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, 250-252.
Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, 247.
Lebanon, the glaciers of, 382, 383.
Ledbury Hill, skull found near, 242.
Leibnitz, cited, 12.
Lemming, the, 138, 237, 266, 348.
_Lepus cuniculus_, 146, 150, 166, 373;
_timidus_ (_see_ Hare).
Ligurian tribes, the, 220, 222.
Limestone, caverns in, 26;
composition of, 51;
erosion of, 52.
Lion, the, 266, 348, 373;
extinct in Europe, 80;
range of, 393.
_Littorina littorea_ found in Cro-Magnon cave, 254.
Llanamynech, caves at, 34.
Llandebie, cave of, 194.
Lloyd, Mr., cited, 15, 286.
Lombrive, cave of, 256.
Longberry Bank, cave of, 133.
Long Churn cavern, the, 41.
Lortet, M., cited, 344.
Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, 365.
Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 243, 359;
on the stone age, 139.
Lunel-viel, cave of, 336, 375.
Lunier, Dr., cited, 170.
Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 19, 235, 257, 267, 333, 402;
on the cave of Aurignac, 243, 245;
on the glacial period, 408.
Lynx, the, 146, 266.
M.
Maccagnone, Grotto di, 376.
_Machairodus cultridens_, 266;
_latidens_, 400, 417;
a pleiocene species, 332;
at Kent’s Hole, 324, 334;
in the cave at Baume, 337;
probable age of, 330.
Mackay, Mr., cited, 195.
Madras, flint implements found near, 426.
Madrid, fossil animals near, 372.
Maghlak cave, 377.
Malham Cove, 55.
Malta, bone-caves of, 377.
Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, 412-415;
early pleistocene, 417;
evidence of, as to climate, 392;
in Algeria, 379;
in Britain during the second ice-age, 406;
in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
the pleiocene, 420.
Mammoth, the, 266, 278, 359, 401;
figure of, 346.
Man, antiquity of, in Europe, 424;
coeval with hyænas in Somerset, 300;
in India in pleistocene age, 426;
in Palestine, 429.
Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, 420.
_Mangousta Widdringtoni_, the, in Spain and Africa, 380.
Marcel de Serres, cited, 18, 336, 375.
Marmot, the, 337, 395;
the pouched, 395.
Marion, M., cited, 373.
Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of
Andalusia, 209.
_Mastodon arvernensis_, 331, 332, 422-424;
_Borsoni_, 423, 424;
_brevirostris_, 422.
Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, 389;
on glaciers of the Atlas, 386;
on level in the Sahara, 390.
McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the _Machairodus latidens_ in Kent’s
Hole cavern, 330;
manuscripts of, 15.
McPherson, Mr., cited, 210.
Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, 369, 390.
Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, 381,
388;
the shores of, 382.
Medlicott, Mr., cited, 427.
_Meles taxus_, 131, 144, 150, 166.
Mendip Hills, the, 59;
the caves of, 292;
the district of, 314.
Mentone, bone-caves of, 373.
Metcalfe, Mr., cited, 35;
descends into Helln Pot, 43.
Mineral condition of deposits in caves, 273.
Moggridge, Mr., cited, 373;
on the exploration of Mentone, 374.
Montpellier, the fauna of, 421.
Moraines in Anatolia, 384.
Morris, Mr. J. P., explores Kirkhead cave, 125.
Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, 353;
on pottery in the palæolithic age, 347.
Moustier, cave of, 341.
Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, 209.
Musk sheep, the, 138, 266;
at Crayford, 416;
range of, 396.
_Myoxus Melitensis_, 377.
N.
Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, 349.
Neanderthal cave, the, 21;
human skull found in, 240.
Neolithic age, interments of, 158.
Neolithic caves of France, 198;
of Gibraltar, 204;
of Spain, 208;
of Wales, 159, 166.
Neolithic races, range of, 189.
Nilsson, Professor, cited, 163;
on dwarfs, 2;
on origin of chambered tombs, 164, 165.
North Wales, the caves of, 286.
O.
Oban, remains in a cave at, 195.
Oreston cave, 13, 317;
_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of, 415.
Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, 202.
Owen, Professor, cited, 196, 324;
on the cave of Bruniquel, 247, 248.
Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, 194;
molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, 378.
P.
Palæolithic art, 257;
caves, classification of, 351, 352;
hunters, instruments used by, 340;
hunters, not cannibals, 347;
implements, 354, 366;
man in Europe, 395, 429;
man, relation of, to glacial period, 409;
man in India, 426;
man in Palestine, 429;
man of the river-gravels, 351;
tribes, hunting grounds of, 367.
Palestine, palæolithic man in, 429.
Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, 383-385.
Panther, the, 266, 400.
Parker, Mr. James, cited, 30, 141, 194.
Paviland cave, 232.
Peak, cavern of the, 34.
Pembrokeshire, caves in, 289.
Pengelly, Mr., cited, 333;
on Brixham cave, 16, 323;
on Cavillon cave, 258;
on Devonshire caves, 317.
Pennington, Mr., cited, 126, 285.
Périgord, caves of, 19;
articles found in the, 337-339.
Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, 16, 17.
Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, 157;
Professor Busk on human bones from, 167-179;
refuse heap at, 149;
remains of animals at, 151, 153-155, 187;
remains of man at, 153-155;
sepulchral caves at, 152.
Phahlbauten, the Swiss, 165.
Phillips, Professor, cited, 284, 405, 411;
on formation of caves, 53;
on stalagmite, 39, 40;
on the Ingleborough cave, 36;
on the origin of caves, 26.
Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, 363;
of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, 381.
Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, 105.
Pickermi, fossil remains at, 369.
Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, 160, 287.
Platycnemic leg-bones, 173-176.
Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, 177-179.
Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, 423;
species in Europe, mixture of, 418.
Pleiocene mammalia, the, 420;
period, the, 424;
species, _machairodus_ a, 332, 333.
Pleistocene age, the, 10;
animals living in, 359-361;
physiography of Mediterranean in, 381, 388;
remains of animals before the, 60;
climate and geography, 395;
coast-line of North-Western Europe, 362;
divisions, early, 417;
divisions, late, 414;
divisions, middle, 415;
relation of, to prehistoric period, 264, 265;
strata, classification of, 412.
Po, the river, 389.
Poole’s cavern, 34, 126.
Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.
Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, 380;
found in Belgium, 395.
Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, 138;
conditions of life in, 262;
difference between the historic and, 134;
relation of pleistocene to, 264.
Prestwich, Mr., cited, 267, 271, 416;
on Brixham cave, 321, 322;
on carbonate of lime in Thames water, 69;
on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 17;
on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, 61;
on palæolithic man, 410.
Provence, bone-caves of, 373.
Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, 193.
Prunières, Dr., cited, 200.
_Purpura lapillus_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.
Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, 359-361;
glaciers of, 403.
Q.
Quatrefages, M. de, cited, 238.
R.
Rabbit, the (_see_ _lepus cuniculus_).
Ramsay, Professor, cited, 402.
Rat, the common, migrations of, 76.
Rattonneau, island of, 373.
Ravines, 54.
Reggio, cave of, in Modena, 148.
Reindeer, the, 76, 79, 278;
absence of, in middle pleistocene division, 416;
engraving of, 345, 356;
in the cave of Lombrive, 256;
in the caves of Périgord, 338;
in the Trou du Frontal, 237;
--period of M. Lartet, 414;
range of, 396.
Rhætic age, fossils of, 59.
_Rhinoceros etruscus_, 418, 419, 424;
_hemitœchus_, 281, 288, 372, 400, 417;
_megarhinus_, 266, 334, 400, 404, 415, 416-418;
_tichorhinus_ (woolly), 119, 138, 278, 400.
Rhosdigre cave, 188;
contents of, 166;
greenstone celt from, 156.
Rians, cave of, 373.
Richard, the Abbé, cited, 429.
Rivière, M., explorations of, 257, 373, 375.
Roedeer, the, 76.
Rolleston, Dr., cited, 195;
discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, 378.
Roman dominion in Britain, 103, 104.
Rosenmüller, cited, 12, 13, 273.
Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, 136, 404.
S.
Sahara, the, changes of level in, 309.
Samian ware in the Victoria cave, 92;
in the Dowkerbottom cave, 102.
San Ciro, cave of, 376.
Schaaffhausen, M., cited, 147;
on the skull from Neanderthal, 241.
Schmerling, Dr., cited, 395;
researches of, 20, 234, 347.
Sclaigneaux, cave of, 218;
platycnemic tibia from, 219.
Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, 31, 63, 140, 293, 307, 394.
Second ice or glacial period, 406.
Selsea, remains found at, 405.
Serres, M. de, cited, 19.
Serval, the, 21, 372, 394.
Sicily, bone-caves of, 21;
the Iberians in, 222;
species from, 376.
Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, 199;
from Perthi-Chwareu, 171;
of doubtful antiquity, 236;
table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, 197.
Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, 83.
Smith, Rev. G. N., on Tenby bone-caves, 289.
Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, 344.
Somerset, hyænas in, 301;
mammalia in the caves of, 366.
Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, 216.
Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, 380.
South Wales, caves of, 288;
mammalia in, 366.
Southern Europe, bone-caves of, 21.
Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, 208;
historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, 220-222.
Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, 21, 377.
Spring, Dr., discoveries of, 20;
on the cave of Chauvaux, 215, 216.
Stag, the, 76, 138.
Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, 39.
Stanley, Rev. E., cited, 286.
_Sus Indica_, the, 137.
_Sus palustris_, 262.
_Sus scrofa_, 131, 150, 166.
Switzerland, caves of, 350.
Symonds, Rev. W. S., explores King Arthur’s cave, 290, 291.
T.
Tapir, the 423.
Temperature of caves, 71.
Tenby, cave of Caldy near, 62;
the Black Rock near, 68.
Thames water, carbonate of lime in, 69, 70.
Thomas, Rev. D. R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, 163.
Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, 127;
occupied by Brit-Welsh, 129.
Thurnam, Dr., cited, 144;
on classification of crania, 190;
on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, 191;
on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 192;
on skulls from cave of Orrouy, 202.
Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, 85, 122.
Troglodytes, name of, 6.
_Trogontherium cuvieri_, 419, 424.
Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, 400.
Trou du Frontal, 236;
crania in, 238.
Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, 25.
Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, 195.
_Turritella communis_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.
Tuto, islands of, caves in, 59.
Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, 188.
U.
Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, 147.
_Unio pictorum_ dredged from bottom of English Channel, 364.
Uphill, cave of, 294; skull from, 194.
Urus, the, 77, 80, 136, 373, 399.
_Ursus arctos_, 166, 335.
_Ursus arvernensis_, 418, 419, 422, 424.
_Ursus spelæus_, 375.
V.
Val d’Arno, fauna of the, 422.
Valleys, change in physical conditions of, 271;
deposits in caves and, 272;
in limestone districts, 54;
strata of sand and gravel in, 267, 268.
Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, 88;
Brit-Welsh stratum in, 87;
bronze articles in, 90;
coins in, 93;
date of neolithic occupation in, 115;
discovery of, 81;
exploration of, 85;
grey clays in, 116;
human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, 411;
implements and ornaments in, 83, 95;
miscellaneous articles in, 90;
period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, 110;
pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, 118, 284;
pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, 121-123, 411.
Vivian, Mr., cited, 15.
Virchow, Professor, cited, 238;
on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 217.
Vogt, Professor, cited, 257.
W.
Water, action of, in caves, 62.
Water caves of Derbyshire, 34;
of Somersetshire, 29;
of Yorkshire, 35, 50.
Weathercote, caves at, 47.
Whidbey, Mr., cited, 13.
Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, 140, 141.
Willett, Mr., cited, 295, 303.
Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, 292.
Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, 59.
Williamson, Rev. J., cited, 295, 296.
Wilson, Professor, cited, 196.
Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, 192.
Winwood, Rev. H. H., cited, 163;
discovers remains of animals at Freshford, 269;
explores the cave at Longberry Bank, 133.
Wolf, the, 400;
in Britain, 131;
in Spain, 146;
last, in Scotland, 76.
Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, 210.
Wood, Colonel, cited, 17.
Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, 17, 295, 301, 302;
ashes and implements found at, 308;
bone-beds at, 305;
flint implements found at, 298;
hyæna den of, inhabited by man, 313;
legend of the dog at, 34;
the water cave of, 29.
X.
Xenophon on the panther, 80.
Y.
Yorkshire, caves in, 101, 278.
THE END.
LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.
FOOTNOTES
[1] The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa),
translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree, 1670,
p. 41.
[2] Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112.
[3] Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term
“Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,” 4th
edition, 1873.)
[4] Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.”
[5] Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417. See
Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some of the
dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe.
[6] Hercynia Curiosa.
[7] See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq.
[8] The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in
Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified.
[9] Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176.
[10] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association.
1868-9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town Hall, 1872.
[11] Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649-50, et 1864, p. 230.
[12] Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859.
[13] Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861.
[14] Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498.
[15] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865-72.
[16] The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.),
Desnoyers (Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle),
Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude,
1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches
sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868-9-70).
[17] An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv.
[18] Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.
[19] Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la
Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio.
[20] Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427,
1853; 2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866.
[21] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant
sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872.
[22] Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans.
[23] D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article
“Grottes.”
[24] Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312.
[25] When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they
translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of
Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring hill,
called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case being
used to specify a particular object. There are many other instances of
the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors of the Celts.
In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech, near Oswestry, there is a cave
called “The Ogo.”
[26] Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1.
[27] The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing.
[28] Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is
lighted with gas.
[29] The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J.
Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty.
[30] Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34.
[31] On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot.
[32] Op. cit. Article Grottes.
[33] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant
sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871.
[34] The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful
examination.
[35] I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of
mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre,
as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is
generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive
layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates
from the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the
circumference.
[36] Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361.
[37] Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84.
[38] Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731.
[39] “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296.
[40] Leges Walliæ.
[41] Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386.
[42] The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found
in Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the
Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont. Soc.
1874).
[43] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129.
[44] Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G. C. Lewis,
“Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5.
[45] See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51-2. Lenz,
“Zoologie der Alten.”
[46] Fig. 19, A.
[47] Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844. It
is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire and
Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol. and Polytechnic
Soc. of West Riding, 1859.
[48] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70.
[49] The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following
writers:--Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;--Roach Smith
and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;--Denny,
Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire,
1859;--Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire, May 11,
1865;--Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British Assoc. Reports,
1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop. Institute,
1871;--Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;--Boyd Dawkins and Tiddeman, British
Assoc. Reports, 1872;--Tiddeman, Geol. Mag., Jan. 1873;--Boyd Dawkins,
Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., Feb. 1873;--Brockbank, Proceed.
Manch. Philosophical Soc., March 1873.
[50] See Palæont. Society, 1874--Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise,
Chapter II.
[51] R. D. Darbishire, Proceed. Manchester Numismatic Society, Part II.
1865: “On some Autonomous Coins of Ancient Spain.”
[52] Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi.
[53] I have to thank the Rev. J. R. Green for allowing me to quote this
passage from his work, which is now in the press.
[54] Antiquités Suisses, Second Supplement; Lausanne, 1867, p. 15, Pl.
xii. figs. 3, 4.
[55] La Seine Inférieure, 4to., 1867, p. 203.
[56] See Kemble, “Horæ Ferales,” 4to.; Description of Plates by A. W.
Franks, p. 64.
[57] ταῦτα φασι τὰ χρώματα τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους ἐγχεῖν τῷ χάλκῳ
διαπύρῳ, τὰ δὲ συνίστασθαι καὶ λιθοῦσθαι, καὶ σώζειν ἃ ἐγράφη (Icon.
lib. i. c. 28). The art was evidently unknown in Rome at this time.
[58] Notice des Émaux du Musée du Louvre, 1857, pp. 25, 26.
[59] Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Hist. Soc. Lancashire and Cheshire, 1866.
Limestone Caves of Craven.
[60] Proc. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire,
1859, p. 45 _et seq._
[61] Denny and Farrer, op. cit. 1864-5, 414 _et seq._; Farrer, Proc.
Soc. Antiq. vol. iv.
[62] The authorities for this paragraph are Gildas, Nennius, and
others, printed in “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” folio, Rolls
Publication.
[63] “Repellunt nos Barbari ad mare, repellit nos mare ad Barbaros;
inter hæc oriuntur duo genera funerum; aut jugulamur aut mergimur.”
GILDAS, xvii.
[64] “Britones de ipsis montibus, speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis
continue rebellabant.” GILDAS, xvii. Bæda, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. i. cxiv.
[65] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, _passim_.
[66] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 449. “From Anglia, which has ever
since remained waste between the Jutes and Saxons, came the men of East
Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and all North-humbria.” The MS. A, from
which this was taken, ends in A.D. 975. The passage was taken from Bæda
who lived in the 8th century.
[67] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i.
[68] “Confovebatur ... de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis
sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus, et finitimas quasque civitates populans,
qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insulæ superficiem,
rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum linguâ delamberet.”--xxiv.
[69] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
[70] On the date of the conquest of Lancashire see “Manchester Phil.
and Lit. Soc. Proc.” 1873, p. 25. In working out this somewhat
difficult question, I am indebted to the Rev. J. R. Green for most
valuable aid.
[71] Gildas, Nennius, the Annales Cambriæ, Bæda, and the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle are the authorities for these statements.
[72] The section of the Victoria Cave published by Mr. Tiddeman in the
Geological Magazine expresses the relation of the clay with boulders
to the cave-earth with greater clearness than I could observe on the
ground. The laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy such a large
area in the cave, or to be so regularly deposited, or so clearly
defined. It occurs at _various_ levels in the mass of the grey clay
in the section (to be seen on May 21, 1873), above and below the
cave-earth.--“The Older Deposits in the Victoria Cave,” Geol. Mag. x.
p. 11.
[73] See Essays by the writer in “Pop. Sci. Rev.” Oct. 1871: “On the
relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial period.” “On the
Classification of the Pleistocene Strata of Europe by means of the
Mammalia;” Quart. Geol. Journ. June 1872.
[74] Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6^e Sér.
tome v. 1849, Pl. xiii. Fig. 1.
[75] See my “Pleistocene Mammals of Yorkshire,” Geol. and Polytechnic
Soc. of West Riding of Yorks. Leeds, Aug. 6th, 1866.
[76] See Brit. Ass. Reports, Bradford, 1873.
[77] Mem. Anthrop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 358.
[78] Sussex Archæol. Coll., 1863.
[79] Trans. Midland Sci. Ass., Sess. 1864-5, pp. 1-6, 19, 29, Plates
1-15, “Report on the Exploration of Thor’s Cave,” by E. Brown, Esq.
[80] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. p. 43.
[81] Preliminary Treatise on the Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia
to those now living in Europe. Palæont. Soc. 1874, chap. ii.
[82] “Equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum
in orientalibus facit.” Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Ecclesiastical
Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland,” vol. ii. p. 459.
[83] Laing, “Norway,” p. 316. Mr. Laing justly argues that the habit
of eating horseflesh in Norway, where pasturage is scant, must have
been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of Central Asia by the
ancestors of the Scandinavians.
[84] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, Pertz. Mon.
Germ., vol. vi. p. 117.
[85] “Pleistocene Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1866. Introd. Internat.
Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Paris, and Norwich volumes.
[86] These questions are treated in detail in my Preliminary Treatise,
“Brit. Pleist. Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1874.
[87] “Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 2.
[88] Somerset Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Soc. 1864. “On the Caverns of
Burrington Combe.”
[89] Elliott, “Geologist,” 1862, p. 34, ditto p. 167. Huxley, ditto, p.
205. Carter Blake, ditto, p. 312. Mackie, “Proceed. Soc. Antiq.” 2nd
Series, vol. ii. p. 177.
[90] This woodcut, as well as Figs. 33 and 35, have been kindly lent by
the Council of the Society of Antiquaries.
[91] Commissao Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geoligicos. Da Existencia
do homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudos des
cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticea ácerca das Grutas da Césareda. Por
J. F. N. Delgado com a versao em Francez por M. Dalhunty.
[92] Ethnol. Journ. N.S. 7, p. 43.
[93] For definition of these terms, see p. 190.
[94] International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Norwich Volume,
p. 84.
[95] International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 159.
[96] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 363.
[97] Burial in the contracted posture, which is so characteristic of
the neolithic age, was probably due, as is suggested by my friend Mr.
John Evans, F.R.S., to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not
at full length on a bed. The body was not laid out after death, but
may have been folded together, as in the case of the ancient Peruvian
mummies. No regularity, however, in the contracted posture could be
observed in the many tumuli and caves which I have explored, although
very generally the corpse had been interred on its side.
[98] Edinburgh New Phil. Soc. (1833), No. 27, p. 40.
[99] For the definition of the term, see p. 190.
[100] Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. New
Series, No. 1, April 1870, p. 45, pl. vii. fig. 3.
[101] Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” translated by Sir J. Lubbock.
[102] These are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and
bones which were discovered.
[103] Amongst the Keiss crania described by Prof. Huxley, this most
closely resembles his No. 5; but it is of the same type as No. 3 and
No. 7, and not very far from that of the Towyn-y-capel cranium, through
which the transition to the Mewslade form (“Nat. Hist. Rev.” vol. i. p.
174, pl. v.) is very easy.
[104] The forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from
Keiss are Nos. 3 and 7.
[105] Déformation du crâne resultant de la méthode la plus générale de
couvrir la tête des enfans. Paris, 1834.
[106] Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne, par L. A.
Gosse, de Genève. Paris, 1855.
[107] Recherches sur quelques déformations du crâne observées dans le
Département des Deux-Sêvres (“Ann. Médico-psychologique”). Paris, 1852.
[108] This index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the
length of the bone.
[109] “Mémoires sur les ossemens des Eyzies.” Paris, 1868. “On the
Human Skulls and Bones found in the Cave of Cro-magnon,” Reliquiæ
Aquitanicæ, p. 97.
[110] But these are by no means extreme instances of the Gibraltar
_tibiæ_.
[111] As regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls, it would seem
that the Welsh crania stand high in the scale--quite as high as any of
the existing races of mankind. I have made the comparison in a rough
way in the following manner:--
If the numbers representing the _length_, _breadth_, and _height_
of the skull are added together, a number is obtained which will,
of course, in some measure, indicate the gross dimensions of the
skull. From the rather numerous data furnished by my own Tables of
Measurements I obtained the results stated in the subjoined list,
in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania are
contrasted.
1. Scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch 18·88
2. Esquimaux and Greenlanders 18·81
3. Perthi-Chwareu skulls 18·65
4. Modern European 18·58
5. Various ancient and priscan skulls 18·55
6. Burmese 18·55
7. Caffres and Zooloos (extratropical negroes) 18·45
8. Derbyshire tumuli 18·42
9. Tasmanian 17·95
10. Hottentot 17·80
11. Negroes (intertropical) 17·67
12. Australian 17·58
13. Bushmen 17·48
14. Veddahs 17·09
15. Andamanese 17·00
[112] “Notes on the Human Remains from Keiss,” p. 85.
[113] _Loc. cit._ p. 114.
[114] Vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.
[115] The stature is obtained, according to Prof. Humphry’s method,
from the length of the femur, which is 27·5 of stature taken as 100.
[116] Ορθος straight, γναθος jaw, with profile vertical, as opposed to
προγναθος, with projecting jaws, or “snouty.”
[117] “Anthropological Memoirs,” vols. i. and iii.; Huxley and Laing,
“Prehistoric Remains in Caithness.”
[118] “Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester,” vol. v. p. 213.
[119] “Anthrop. Mem.” vol. i. p. 144.
[120] Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, p. 160, “On Human and Animal Bones and
Flints, from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire,” by Prof. Turner.
[121] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 119 _et
seq._
[122] “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.”
[123] The evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems
to me to be doubtful.
[124] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 182.
[125] Bull. Soc. Anthrop. iv.
[126] Anthrop. Mem. i. 490.
[127] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.
[128] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.
[129] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, “Antiguedades Prehistoricas de
Andalucia.” Madrid, 1868. 8vo.
[130] “The Woman’s Cave,” 4to. Parts I. and II. 1870-1. Cadiz, Federico
Joly y Velasco.
[131] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, _op. cit._
[132] Ethnological Journ. N.S. vii. p. 107.
[133] Broca, “Bull. Soc. Anthrop.” s.s. t. i. p. 470; t. ii. p. 10-30;
s.s. t. iii. p. 43-101. The cephalic index in the preceding Table
differs slightly from that given by M. Broca. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.”
iii. p. 64 _et seq._
[134] These skulls are preserved in the Museum of the Anthropological
Society at Paris, where by the kindness of Dr. Broca I was allowed
to study them in the autumn of 1873. Some were marked with the “tête
annulaire.”
[135] Laing and Huxley, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”
[136] Spring, “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” 1 sér. l. xx. p. 427; 2
sér. l. xviii. p. 479; l. xxii. p. 187.
[137] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Âges de la Pierre dans les environs
de Dinant sur Meuse,” 2d edit. p. 222.
[138] Soreil, “Sur Nouvelle Exploration de la Caverne de Chauvau,”
Congrès Intern. Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Prehistoriques, p. 381
_et seq._ Bruxelles, 1872.
[139] International Congress, Bruxelles, 1872, p. 370.
[140] Cæsar, i. 50.
[141] “Bull. Soc. Anthrop de Paris,” 2 sér. t. 111., p. 118.
[142] “Diodorus Siculus,” iv. 6; v. 39. Steur, “Ethnographie des
Peuples de l’Europe,” p. 31 _et seq._; Donaldson, “Varronianw.” p.
70 _et seq._ Dion. Hal. i 22. See also Niebuhr and Mommsen. The
documentary evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the
Ligurians that scarcely any two writers agree. “Quot homines tot
sententiæ.”
[143] Thucydides, vi. 2.
[144] Tacitus, “Agricola,” xi.
[145] Cæsar, i. 12.
[146] Prof. Huxley brings them into relation with the ancient
Egyptians, the “Melanochroi” of India, and the Australians, “Critiques
and Addresses,” p. 134; Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, p. 92 _et
seq._
[147] See Prof. Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167.
[148] For a masterly account of the varying stature in Britain and
Ireland, see Dr. Beddoe’s Essay, “Anthrop. Soc. Mem.” iii. p. 384-573.
[149] “τοὺς μὲν Ἀκυϊτανοὺς τελέως ἐξηλλαγμένους οὐ τῇ γλώττῃ μόνον ἀλλὰ
καὶ τοῖς σώμασιν, ἐμφερεῖς Ἰβήρεσι μᾶλλον ἢ Γαλάταις· τοὺς δὲ λοιποὺς
Γαλατικοὺς μὲν τὴν ὄψιν, ὁμογλώττους δ’ οὐ πάντας, ἀλλ’ ἐνίους μικρὸν
παραλλαττόντας ταῖς γλώτταις.”--Lib. iv. c. 1, §1.
[150] The correspondence of my map, Fig. 68, with that of M. Broca, is
one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in arriving
at truth, for his most admirable essay on the Ethnology of France did
not come into my hands until my own map was engraved. M. Broca takes a
different point of view to that advanced in these pages, holding that
the Celts were dark and the Belgic were blue-eyed tall Kymri or Cimbri.
The Celts known to history were undoubtedly a tall fair race.
[151] In treating this difficult subject, I have purposely omitted to
use the uncertain light of philology. We may expect to derive as much
knowledge as to the relations between Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Basque, and
other obscure non-Aryan peoples from the study of languages, as we have
already obtained of the Aryans by the same means. It is very probable
that, like the Sanscrit, the Basque roots will be found widely spread
both in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe, and N. Africa.
[152] “Anthrop. Mem.” Vols. i. and iii. (Crania Britannica.)
[153] See Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167 _et seq._
[154] “Rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam
originem asseverant.” Agricola, c. xi.
[155] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 82 _et seq._
[156] Schmerling, “Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles découverts
dans les Cavernes de la province de Liége.” 4to. 1833-4, p. 29 _et seq._
[157] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les âges de la Pierre, dans les environs
de Dinant-sur-Meuse,” p. ix. The implements are palæolithic (see p.
22), but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as
the human remains. They may be, and probably are, much older.
[158] “Man’s Place in Nature,” chap. iii. Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,”
1st edition, p. 63.
[159] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 56.
[160] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels, 1872, p. 549 _et seq._
[161] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”
[162] Intern. Congress, Brussels Volume, p. 549.
[163] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 140.
[164] Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 135. These specimens are in
the Oxford Museum, and are identified by Lord Enniskillen as having
been derived from Gailenreuth.
[165] Schaaffhausen, translated by Busk, “Nat. Hist. Review,” April
1861. Huxley, “Man’s Place in Nature,” iii. p. 156-171. Lyell’s
“Antiquity of Man,” 1st edition, p. 75.
[166] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 115.
[167] Compare Lyell, 1st edition, p. 182 _et seq._, with 4th edition,
p. 122 _et seq._
[168] Phil. Trans. 159, p. 517.
[169] Vogt, “Lectures on Man,” pp. 329-380. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.” i.
501.
[170] It has been dug out in its natural position, and is now to be
seen in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where I studied it in the
summer of 1873.
[171] Pengelly, “The Cave Man of Mentone,” Trans. Devon Ass. 1873.
Moggridge, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1873.
[172] Prehistoric Congress, Bologna Volume, p. 391, 1873.
[173] See on this point a valuable essay by Mr. Hyde Clark, “Palestine
Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement,” N.S. April 1871, p. 97 _et seq._
[174] The authorities for these facts will be found in my “Preliminary
Treatise,” Palæont. Soc. 1874. The prehistoric age of the forest is
to be fixed by the presence of the goat and _Bos longifrons_, both of
which were unknown in Europe in the pleistocene age.
[175] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 188 _et seq._
[176] See Prestwich, “Phil. Trans.” 1860, p. 277, and 1864, p. 247, and
“Quart. Geol. Journ.” _passim_ 1859-70.
[177] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ.” 4to. 1824, p. 133.
[178] I am indebted to Lord Enniskillen, who explored Gailenreuth along
with Sir Philip Egerton, for several corrections in Buckland’s section.
[179] Op. cit. p. 137.
[180] Op. cit. p. 1. _et seq._
[181] Op. cit. p. 38.
[182] Buckland, op. cit. p. 61.
[183] “Edinburgh New Phil. Soc.” No. 27, p. 40. Falconer, “Palæont.
Mem.” ii. p. 541. I have examined nearly all the contents of these
caves.
[184] Anthrop. Institute Meeting, 9 Dec. 1873.
[185] Buckland, op. cit. 80.
[186] Op. cit. p. 80.
[187] Falconer “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 498.
[188] “On the Tenby Bone Caves,” by a Pembrokeshire Rector. London:
Kent and Co.
[189] See “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. “Geol. Mag.” viii. 433.
[190] Buckland, _op. cit._ p. 60.
[191] Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, “Delineations of Somerset,” p. 100.
[192] See Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, _op. cit._
[193] See “Catalogue of Mammalia, in Taunton Museum,” by W. A. Sanford,
Esq. Som. Archæol. Soc.
[194] Rutter gives a very good section of this cave (_op. cit._ p. 78).
[195] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1862: On a Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole. Also
“Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1863.
[196] An incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the
attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger. In our
lodging at Wells there was a beautiful Scotch deerhound, named “Luna,”
whose master was away at the time. Luna persisted in being with us
day and night. In the morning she walked with us to the cave, and
lay watching at the entrance till we came out, for she was afraid to
venture into the darkness. In the evening she returned home with us.
She continued to do this the whole time of that year’s excavations. It
was only natural to suppose that when we left she would, like other
dogs, pick up new friends. But she did nothing of the kind. When we
inquired the next year upon our return, we were told that poor Luna
refused food the day we left, and gradually pined away and died.
[197] Possibly it may have belonged to _Elephas_, but its more compact
texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros.
[198] Bone needles were found in Kent’s Hole and in many foreign caves
of this age.
[199] These woodblocks were used in my essay on Hyænas in the “Natural
History Review,” and have been lent by the kindness of Messrs. Williams
and Norgate.
[200] Pengelly, “Literature of the Oreston Caverns,” Trans. Dev. Ass.
1872. Buckland, _op. cit._
[201] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxvi. 457, _et seq._
[202] “The Literature of the Caverns near Yealmpton, South Devon,” by
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.S.A. Trans. Devon Ass., 1870.
[203] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 486, 591.
[204] Proceed. Royal Soc. xx. p. 514. “Report on the Exploration of
Brixham Cave,” by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., G. Bush, F.R.S., John Evans,
F.R.S., and Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. This report was delayed by the
death of Dr. Falconer.
[205] “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 46-8.
[206] “Proceed. Royal Soc.” 1872, vol. xxii. p. 523-4.
[207] “Trans. Devon Ass.” On the Introduction of Cavern Accumulations.
[208] “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1870.
[209] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Hole:” Trans. Ass. Devon. 1868
9-70. Godwin Austen, “Proceed. Geol. Soc.” iii. 286-7. “Trans. Geol.
Soc.” vi. p. 433, _et seq._ Vivian, “Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1847, p. 73.
[210] The committee consisted of Sir C. Lyell, Prof. Phillips, Sir John
Lubbock, Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, to
which subsequently Mr. George Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Ayshford
Sanford were added.
[211] For Figs. 96 to 100 I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Evans.
[212] See Evans’ “Ancient Stone Implements,” Fig. 388. It is
unnecessary to describe the implements.
[213] For an account of Machairodus, see “Brit. Pleistocene Mammalia,”
Palæont. Soc., _Felidæ_, cxxii. p. 184.
[214] Gervais, “Zool. et Paléont. Françaises,” 1859, p. 251. “Animaux
Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles,” 1867-9, p. 78, pl. xviii. Lartet,
Prehistoric Congress, Paris Volume, 1868, p. 269.
[215] These figures have been kindly lent by the Palæontographical
Society.
[216] “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” ii. p. 344.
[217] “Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,” x. p. 147. “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.”
ii. p. 352.
[218] Scott, “Geol. Soc. Dublin,” Feb. 10, 1864.
[219] An account of the numerous caves of France will be found in the
works of M. de Serres, “Revue Archéologique” and in the “Matériaux pour
l’Histoire de l’Homme.”
[220] Boyd Dawkins, “Brit. Pleist. Mam. Palæont. Soc.” 1872, p. 189.
[221] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés,” p. 78, pl. xviii.
[222] Lartet, International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 269.
[223] “Cavernes du Périgord,” “Revue Archéologique,” 8vo. 1864.
“Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” 4to. 1865-74. This magnificent history of the
researches, in the prosecution of which Mr. Christy lost his life, was
published at his expense under the editorship of Prof. Rupert Jones,
F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress
and engravings quoted in this book.
[224] The same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into Britain
from South America for the manufacture of buttons.
[225] Boyd Dawkins, “Range of the Mammoth,” Pop. Sc. Rev. July, 1868.
[226] “Recherches sur les oss. foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de
Liége.” 4to.
[227] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs
de Dinant-sur-Meuse.” 2nd edit. p. 187.
[228] Dupont, _op. cit._ “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” xxii. p. 20.
Hamy, “Paléontologie Humaine,” p. 231.
[229] The discovery will shortly be published by Prof. Heine, of Zurich.
[230] “Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme,” May 1869, p. 272.
[231] “Ancient Stone Implements.”
[232] “Ann. des Sc. Nat.” 4th sér. t. 15, p. 231.
[233] Hamy, _op. cit._ Lubbock, “Prehistoric Man.”
[234] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” June 5, 1872.
[235] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 432. “Mém.
Anthrop. Soc. de Paris,” 2nd sér. t. 6, p. 170.
[236] “Eskimos in the South of Gaul.” Saturday Review, December 8th,
1866. Edinburgh Review, “Prehistoric Times.” October 1870.
[237] The authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in
the “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 424. The British animals have been
determined principally by myself and Dr. Falconer.
[238] “Classification of the Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Geol. Journ.
Nov. 1872, p. 410.
[239] Godwin Austen, “Quart. Geol. Journ.” vol. i. p. 69. De la Bêche,
“Theoretical Researches,” p. 190. Lyell, “Antiquity of Man,” 4th edit.
p. 328.
[240] The accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area
of the excavation was enormous.
[241] “Les Oss. Foss. de Pikermi,” 4to.
[242] Some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the
“Popular Science Review,” March 1873.
[243] “Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. p. 554. Busk, Prehistoric
Congress, Norwich volume, 1869.
[244] “Comptes Rendus,” xlvi. 1858.
[245] Prehistoric Congress, Paris volume, p. 96.
[246] “Brit. Ass. Reports,” Edinburgh, 1871.
[247] “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871.
[248] _Découverte d’une Squelette Humaine de l’époque Paléolithique
dans les Cavernes de Baoussé-Roussé, dites Grottes de Menton_, 1873;
also Prehistoric Congress, Brussels volume. M. Rivière adds the Wapiti,
or large variety, and the _Cervus Corsicanus_, or small variety of the
stag, the chamois, and the woolly rhinoceros (the two last of which
may be perhaps identical with the ibex and _R. hemitœchus_, determined
by Prof. Busk, as neither is mentioned by M. Rivière), and the _Capra
primigenia_ of Gervais, a large goat commonly found in neolithic caves.
[249] The depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute,
the estimates varying from seven feet (Pengelly) to (6·55 m.) 21·49
feet (Rivière). Pengelly, _Cave man of Mentone_, “Trans. Devon Ass.”
1873, pp. 10 and 13.
[250] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. p. 543.
[251] It is of the same species as the bear from Grays Thurrock.
[252] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 552. Spratt, “Quart. Geol.
Journ.” xxiii. p. 293.
[253] “Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr.” 2^e sér. t. xi. p. 340.
[254] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés Vivants et Fossiles,” 4to. p. 88.
[255] Hooker, “Nat. Hist. Review,” II. p. 12, 1861.
[256] _Nature_, vol. v. p. 444; vol. vi. 536.
[257] “A Journey to Morocco, and the Ascent of the Great Atlas,” 8vo.
Slater, Troubridge, Salop.
[258] “Geological Notes on a Journey from Algiers to Morocco.” Geol.
Soc. Feb. 25, 1874.
[259] See “British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. _Felis spelæa_,
c. xviii.
[260] “_Ovibos moschatus_,” Palæont. Soc. 1872, p. 27, _et seq._
[261] This is treated at greater length in my “Essay on
Classification,” Quart. Geol. Journ. Nov. 1872, and in the
“Introduction to British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc.
[262] Mr. James Geikie’s view (“The Great Ice-Age,” 8vo. 1874) that the
mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the destruction of
ossiferous strata by streams, which subsequently deposited remains of
widely different ages together, is rendered untenable by the fact that
they are generally preserved in the same mineral state. It would have
been impossible for this to have taken place without leaving decided
traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition of the older
series, such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and meiocene
fossils in the Red Crag of Suffolk.
[263] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxii. 391.
[264] See Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.”
[265] I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professors Hull
and Harkness, Mr. Kinahan, and the Rev. H. M. Close, in correlating
the Irish with the English glacial deposits. The reader will find the
glacial period most ably treated in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.”
[266] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxi. 161.
[267] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 410.
[268] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 457.
[269] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 49.
[270] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. pp. 189, 190.
[271] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxiv. p. 484. “International Congress,”
Norwich volume. See also “Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 570.
[272] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 642, _et passim_.
[273] This implement was exhibited before the Meeting of the British
Association at Edinburgh, in 1871.
[274] Brit. Ass. Reports, 1865, p. 18.
Transcriber’s Notes
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