The special object of this arrangement is in some cases difficult to

determine; the raised end in all the examples on any one roof always

takes the same direction, and in many cases its position relative to

drainage suggests that it is a provision against flooding by rain on the

slightly sloping roof; but this relation to drainage is by no means

constant. Roof holes on the west side of the village in such positions

as to be directly exposed to the violent sand storms that prevail here

during certain months of the year seem in some cases to have in view

protection against the flying sand. We do not meet with evidence of any

fixed system to guide the disposition of this feature. In many cases

these trap holes are provided with a thin slab of sandstone large enough

to cover the whole opening, and used in times of rain. During fair

weather these are laid on the roof, near the hole they are designed to

cover, or lie tilted against the higher edge of the trap, as shown in

Fig. 97.

[Illustration: Fig. 97. A Zuñi roof hole with cover.]

When the cover is placed on one of these holes, with a high slab at one

end, it has a steep pitch, to shed water, and at the same time light and

air are to some extent admitted, but it is very doubtful if this is the

result of direct intention on the part of the builder. The possible

development of this roof trap of unusual elevation into a rudimentary

chimney has already been mentioned in the discussion of chimneys.

A development in this direction would possibly be suggested by the

desirability of separating the access by ladder from the inconvenient

smoke hole. This must have been brought very forcibly to the attention

of the Indian when, at the time a fire was burning in the fireplace,

they were compelled to descend the ladder amidst the smoke and heat.

[Illustration: Plate C. An excavated room at Kin-tiel.]

[Illustration: Fig. 98. Kiva trapdoor in Zuñi.]

The survival to the present time of such an inconvenient arrangement in

the kivas can be explained only on the ground of the intense

conservatism of these people in all that pertains to religion. In the

small roof holes methods of construction are seen which would not be so

practicable on the larger scale of the ladder holes after which they

have been modeled. In these latter the sides are built up of masonry or

adobe, but the framing around them is more like the usual coping over

walls. The stone that, set on edge in the small openings built for the

admission of light, forms a raised end never occurs in these. The ladder

for access rests against the coping.

When occurring in connection with kivas, ladder holes have certain

peculiarities in which they differ from the ordinary form used in

dwellings. The opening in such cases is made of large size to admit

dancers in costume with full paraphernalia. These, the largest roof

openings to be found in Zuñi, are framed with pieces of wood. The

methods of holding the pieces in place vary somewhat in minor detail. It

is quite likely that recent examples, while still preserving the form

and general appearance of the earlier ones, would bear evidence that the

builders had used their knowledge of improved methods of joining and

finishing.

As may readily be seen from the illustration, Fig. 98, this framing,

by the addition of a cross piece, divides the opening unequally. The

smaller aperture is situated immediately above the fireplace (which

conforms to the ancient type without chimney and located in the open

floor of the room) and is very evidently designed to furnish an outlet

to the smoke. In a chamber having no side doors or windows, or at most

very small square windows, and consequently no drafts, the column of

smoke and flame can often on still nights be seen rising vertically from

the roof. The other portion of the opening containing the ladder is used

for ingress and egress. This singular combination strongly suggests that

at no very remote period one opening was used to answer both purposes,

as it still does in the Tusayan kivas. It also suggests the direction in

which differentiation of functions began to take place, which in the

kiva was delayed and held back by the conservative religious feeling,

when in the civil architecture it may have been the initial point of a

development that culminated in the chimney, a development that was

assisted in its later steps by suggestions from foreign sources. In the

more primitively constructed examples the cross pieces seem to be simply

laid on without any cutting in. The central piece is held in place by a

peg set into each side piece, the weight and thrust of the ladder

helping to hold it. The primitive arrangement here seen has been

somewhat improved upon in some other cases, but it was not ascertained

whether these were of later date or not.

In the best made frames for kiva entrances the timbers are "halved" in

the manner of our carpenters, the joint being additionally secured by a

pin as shown in Fig. 99.

The use of a frame of wood in these trapdoors dates back to a

comparatively high antiquity, and is not at all a modern innovation,

as one would at first be inclined to believe. Their use in so highly

developed a form in the ceremonial chamber is an argument in favor of

antiquity. Only two examples were discovered by Mr. L. H. Morgan in a

ruined pueblo on the Animas. "One of these measured 16 by 17 inches and

the other was 16 inches square. Each was formed in the floor by pieces

of wood put together. The work was neatly done."[8]

[Footnote 8: Contributions to N.A. Ethnology, vol. 4. House Life,

etc., p. 182.]

[Illustration: Fig. 99. Halved and pinned trapdoor frame of a Zuñi

kiva.]

[Illustration: Plate CI. Masonry chimneys of Zuñi.]

Unfortunately, Mr. Morgan does not describe in detail the manner in

which the joining was effected, or whether the pieces were halved or cut

to fit. It seems hardly likely, considering the rude facilities

possessed by the ancients, that the enormous labor of reducing large

pieces of wood to such interfitting shapes would have been undertaken.

A certain neatness of finish would undoubtedly be attained by arranging

the principal roof beams and the small poles that cross them at right

angles, in the usual careful manner of the ancient builders. The kiva

roof opening, with the hole serving for access and smoke exit, is

paralleled in the excavated lodges of the San Francisco Mountains, where

a single opening served this double purpose. A slight recess or

excavation in the side of the entrance shaft evidently served for the

exit of smoke.

At the village of Acoma the kiva trapdoors differ somewhat from the Zuñi

form. The survey of this village was somewhat hasty, and no opportunity

was afforded of ascertaining from the Indians the special purpose of the

mode of construction adopted. The roof hole is divided, as in Zuñi, but

the portion against which the ladder leans, instead of being made into a

smoke vent, is provided with a small roof. These roof holes to the

ceremonial chamber are entered directly from the open air, while in the

dwelling rooms it seems customary (much more customary than at Zuñi) to

enter the lower stories through trapdoors within upper rooms. In many

instances second-story rooms have no exterior rooms but are entered from

rooms above, contrary to the usual arrangement in both Tusayan and

Cibola. All six of the kivas in this village are provided with this

peculiarly constructed opening.

In Zuñi close crowding of the cells has led to an exceptionally frequent

use of roof-lights and trapdoors. The ingenuity of the builders was

greatly taxed to admit sufficient light to the inner rooms. The roof

hole, which was originally used only to furnish the means of access and

light for the first terrace, as is still the case in Tusayan, is here

used in all stories indiscriminately, and principally for light and air.

In large clusters there are necessarily many dark rooms, which has led

to the employment of great numbers of roof holes, more or less directly

modeled after the ordinary trapdoor. Their occurrence is particularly

frequent in the larger clusters of the village, as in house No. 1. The

exceptional size of this pile, and of the adjoining house No. 4, with

the consequent large proportion of dark rooms, have taxed the ingenuity

of the Zuñi to the utmost, and as a result we see roof openings here

assuming a degree of importance not found elsewhere.

In addition to roof openings of the type described, the dense clustering

of the Zuñi houses has led to the invention of a curious device for

lighting inner rooms not reached by ordinary external openings. This

consists of an opening, usually of oval or subrectangular form in

elevation, placed at the junction of the roof with a vertical wall. This

opening is carried down obliquely between the roofing beams, as shown in

the sections, Fig. 100, so that the light is admitted within the room

just at the junction of the ceiling and the inner face of the wall. With

the meager facilities and rude methods of the Zuñi, this peculiar

arrangement often involved weak construction, and the openings, placed

so low in the wall, were in danger of admitting water from the roof. The

difficulty of obtaining the desired light by this device was much

lessened where the outer roof was somewhat lower than the ceiling

within.

These oblique openings occur not only in the larger clusters of houses

Nos. 1 and 4, but also in the more openly planned portions of the

village, though they do not occur either at Acoma or in the Tusayan

villages. They afford an interesting example of the transfer and

continuance in use of a constructional device developed in one place by

unusual conditions to a new field in which it was uncalled for, being

less efficient and more difficult of introduction than the devices in

ordinary use.

[Illustration: Fig. 100. Typical sections of Zuñi oblique openings.]

FURNITURE.

The pueblo Indian has little household furniture, in the sense in which

the term is commonly employed; but his home contains certain features

which are more or less closely embodied in the house construction and

which answers the purpose. The suspended pole that serves as a clothes

rack for ordinary wearing apparel, extra blankets, robes, etc., has

already been described in treating of interiors. Religious costumes and

ceremonial paraphernalia are more carefully provided for, and are stored

away in some hidden corner of the dark storerooms.

[Illustration: Plate CII. Remains of a gateway in Awatubi.]

The small wall niches, which are formed by closing a window with a thin

filling-in wall, and which answer the purpose of cupboards or

receptacles for many of the smaller household articles, have also been

described and illustrated in connection with the Zuñi interior (Pl.

LXXXVI).

[Illustration: Fig. 101. Arrangement of mealing stones in a Tusayan

house.]

In many houses, both in Tusayan and in Cibola, shelves are constructed

for the more convenient storage of food, etc. These are often

constructed in a very primitive manner, particularly in the former

province. An unusually frail example may be seen in Fig. 67, in

connection with a fireplace. Fig. 101, showing a series of mealing

stones in a Tusayan house, also illustrates a rude shelf in the corner

of the room, supported at one end by an upright stone slab and at the

other by a projecting wooden peg. Shelves made of sawed boards are

occasionally seen, but as a rule such boards are considered too valuable

to be used in this manner. A more common arrangement, particularly in

Tusayan, is a combination of three or four slender poles placed side by

side, 2 or 3 inches apart, forming a rude shelf, upon which trays of

food are kept.

Another device for the storage of food, occasionally seen in the pueblo

house, is a pocket or bin built into the corner of a room. Fig. 101,

illustrating the plan of a Tusayan house, indicates the position of one

of these cupboard-like inclosures. A sketch of this specimen is shown in

Fig. 102. This bin, used for the storage of beans, grain, and the like,

is formed by cutting off a corner of the room by setting two stone slabs

into the floor, and it is covered with the mud plastering which extends

over the neighboring walls.

A curious modification of this device was seen in one of the inner rooms

in Zuñi, in the house of José Pié. A large earthen jar, apparently an

ordinary water vessel, was built into a projecting masonry bench near

the corner of the room in such a manner that its rim projected less than

half an inch above its surface. This jar was used for the same purpose

as the Tusayan corner bin.

[Illustration: Fig. 102. A Tusayan grain bin.]

[Illustration: Fig. 103. A Zuñi plume box.]

Some of the Indians of the present time have chests or boxes in which

their ceremonial blankets and paraphernalia are kept. These of course

have been introduced since the days of American boards and boxes. In

Zuñi, however, the Indians still use a small wooden receptacle for the

precious ceremonial articles, such as feathers and beads. This is an

oblong box, provided with a countersunk lid, and usually carved from a

single piece of wood. Typical specimens are illustrated in Figs. 103 and

104. The workmanship displayed in these objects is not beyond the

aboriginal skill of the native workman, and their use is undoubtedly

ancient.

[Illustration: Fig. 104. A Zuñi plume box.]

[Illustration: Plate CIII. Ancient gateway, Kin-tiel.]

[Illustration: Fig. 105. A Tusayan mealing trough.]

[Illustration: Fig. 106. An ancient pueblo form of metate.]

Perhaps the most important article of furniture in the home of the

pueblo Indian is the mealing trough, containing the household milling

apparatus. This trough usually contains a series of three metates of

varying degrees of coarseness firmly fixed in a slanting position most

convenient for the workers. It consists of thin slabs of sandstone set

into the floor on edge, similar slabs forming the separating partitions

between the compartments. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 105,

illustrating a Tusayan mealing trough. Those of Zuñi are of the same

form, as maybe seen in the illustration of a Zuñi interior, Fig. 105.

Occasionally in recently constructed specimens the thin inclosing walls

of the trough are made of planks. In the example illustrated one end of

the series is bounded by a board, all the other walls and divisions

being made of the usual stone slabs. The metates themselves are not

usually more than 3 inches in thickness. They are so adjusted in their

setting of stones and mortar as to slope away from the operator at the

proper angle. This arrangement of the mealing stones is characteristic

of the more densely clustered communal houses of late date. In the more

primitive house the mealing stone was usually a single large piece of

cellular basalt, or similar rock, in which a broad, sloping depression

was carved, and which could be transported from place to place. Fig. 106

illustrates an example of this type from the vicinity of Globe, in

southern Arizona. The stationary mealing trough of the present day is

undoubtedly the successor of the earner moveable form, yet it was in use

among the pueblos at the time of the first Spanish expedition, as the

following extract from Castañeda's account[9] of Cibola will show. He

says a special room is designed to grind the grain: "This last is apart,

and contains a furnace and three stones made fast in masonry. Three

women sit down before these stones; the first crushes the grain, the

second brays it, and the third reduces it entirely to powder." It will

be seen how exactly this description fits both the arrangement and the

use of this mill at the present time. The perfection of mechanical

devices and the refinement of methods here exhibited would seem to be in

advance of the achievement of this people in other directions.

[Footnote 9: Given by W. W. H. Davis in El Gringo, p. 119.]

The grinding stones of the mealing apparatus are of correspondingly

varying degrees of roughness; those of basalt or lava are used for the

first crushing of the corn, and sandstone is used for the final grinding

on the last metate of the series. By means of these primitive appliances

the corn meal is as finely ground as our wheaten flour. The grinding

stones now used are always flat, as shown in Fig. 105, and differ from

those that were used with the early massive type of metate in being of

cylindrical form.

One end of the series of milling troughs is usually built against the

wall near the corner of the room. In some cases, where the room is quite

narrow, the series extends across from wall to wall. Series comprising

four mealing stones, sometimes seen in Zuñi, are very generally arranged

in this manner. In all cases sufficient floor space is left behind the

mills to accommodate the women who kneel at their work. Pl. LXXXVI

illustrates an unusual arrangement, in which the fourth mealing stone is

set at right angles to the other stones of the series.

Mortars are in general use in Zuñi and Tusayan households. As a rule

they are of considerable size, and made of the same material as the

rougher mealing stones. They are employed for crushing and grinding the

chile or red pepper that enters so largely into the food of the Zuñi,

and whose use has extended to the Mexicans of the same region. These

mortars have the ordinary circular depressions and are used with a round

pestle or crusher, often of somewhat long, cylindrical form for

convenience in handling.

Parts of the apparatus for indoor blanket weaving seen in some of the

pueblo houses may be included under the heading of furniture. These

consist of devices for the attachment of the movable parts of the loom,

which need not be described in this connection. In some of the Tusayan

houses may be seen examples of posts sunk in the floor provided with

holes for the insertion of cords for attaching and tightening the warp,

similar to those built into the kiva floors, illustrated in Fig. 31.

No device of this kind was seen in Zuñi. A more primitive appliance for

such work is seen in both groups of pueblos in an occasional stump of a

beam or short pole projecting from the wall at varying heights. Ceiling

beams are also used for stretching the warp both in blanket and belt

weaving.

[Illustration: Plate CIV. A covered passageway in Mashongnavi.]

The furnishings of a pueblo house do not include tables and chairs. The

meals are eaten directly from the stone-paved floor, the participants

rarely having any other seat than the blanket that they wear, rolled up

or folded into convenient form. Small stools are sometimes seen, but the

need of such appliances does not seem to be keenly felt by these

Indians, who can, for hours, sit in a peculiar squatting position on

their haunches, without any apparent discomfort. Though moveable chairs

or stools are rare, nearly all of the dwellings are provided with the

low ledge or bench around the rooms, which in earlier times seems to

have been confined to the kivas. A slight advance on this fixed form of

seat was the stone block used in the Tusayan kivas, described on p. 132,

which at the same time served a useful purpose in the adjustment of the

warp threads for blanket weaving.

[Illustration: Fig. 107. Zuñi stools.]

The few wooden stools observed show very primitive workmanship, and are

usually made of a single piece of wood. Fig. 107 illustrates two forms

of wooden stool from Zuñi. The small three-legged stool on the left has

been cut from the trunk of a piñon tree in such a manner as to utilize

as legs the three branches into which the main stem separated. The other

stool illustrated is also cut from a single piece of tree trunk, which

has been reduced in weight by cutting out one side, leaving the two ends

for support.

[Illustration: Fig. 108. A Zuñi chair.]

A curiously worked chair of modern form seen in Zuñi is illustrated in

Fig. 108. It was difficult to determine the antiquity of this specimen,

as its rickety condition may have been due to the clumsy workmanship

quite as much as to the effects of age. Rude as is the workmanship,

however, it was far beyond the unaided skill of the native craftsman to

join and mortise the various pieces that go to make up this chair. Some

decorative effect has been sought here, the ornamentation, made up of

notches and sunken grooves, closely resembling that on the window sash

illustrated in Fig. 88, and somewhat similar in effect to the carving on

the Spanish beams seen in the Tusayan kivas. The whole construction

strongly suggests Spanish influence.

Even the influence of Americans has as yet failed to bring about the use

of tables or bedsteads among the pueblo Indians. The floor answers all

the purposes of both these useful articles of furniture. The food dishes

are placed directly upon it at meal times, and at night the blankets,

rugs, and sheep skins that form the bed are spread directly upon it.

These latter, during the day, are suspended upon the clothes pole

previously described and illustrated.

CORRALS AND GARDENS.

The introduction of domestic sheep among the pueblos has added a new and

important element to their mode of living, but they seem never to have

reached a clear understanding as to how these animals should be cared

for. No forethought is exercised to separate the rams so that the lambs

will be born at a favorable season. The flocks consist of sheep and

goats which are allowed to run together at all tunes. Black sheep and

some with a grayish color of wool are often seen among them. No attempt

is made to eliminate these dark-fleeced members of the flock, since the

black and gray wool is utilized in its natural color in producing many

of the designs and patterns of the blankets woven by these people. The

flocks are usually driven up into the corrals or inclosures every

evening, and are taken out again in the morning, frequently at quite a

late hour. This, together with the time consumed in driving them to and

from pasture, gives them much less chance to thrive than those of the

nomadic Navajo. In Tusayan the corrals are usually of small size and

inclosed by thin walls of rude stone work. This may be seen in the

foreground of Pl. XXI. Pl. CIX illustrates several corrals just outside

the village of Mashongnavi similarly constructed, but of somewhat larger

size. Some of the corrals of Oraibi are of still larger size,

approaching in this respect the corrals of Cibola. The Oraibi pens are

rudely rectangular in form, with more or less rounded angles, and are

also built of rude masonry.

[Illustration: Plate CV. Small square openings in Pueblo Bonito.]

In the less important villages of Cibola stone is occasionally used for

inclosing the corrals, as in Tusayan, as may be seen in Pl. LXX,

illustrating an inclosure of this character in the court of the farming

pueblo of Pescado. Pl. CX illustrates in detail the manner in which

stone work is combined with the use of rude stakes in the construction

of this inclosure. On the rugged sites of the Tusayan villages corrals

are placed wherever favorable nooks happen to be found in the rocks, but

at Zuñi, built in the comparatively open plain, they form a nearly

continuous belt around the pueblo. Here they are made of stakes and

brush held in place by horizontal poles tied on with strips of rawhide.

The rudely contrived gateways are supported in natural forks at the top

and sides of posts. Often one or two small inclosures used for burros or

horses occur near these sheep corrals. The construction is identical

with those above described and is very rude. It is illustrated in Fig.

109, which shows the manner in which the stakes are arranged, and also

the method of attaching the horizontal tie-pieces. The construction of

these inclosures is frail, and the danger of pushing the stakes over by

pressure from within is guarded against by employing forked braces that

abut against horizontal pieces tied on 4 or 5 feet from the ground.

Reference to Pl. LXXIV will illustrate this construction.

[Illustration: Fig. 109. Construction of a Zuñi corral.]

Within the village of Zuñi inclosures resembling miniature corrals are

sometimes seen built against the houses; these are used as cages for

eagles. A number of these birds are kept in Zuñi for the sake of their

plumage, which is highly valued for ceremonial purposes. Pl. CXI

illustrates one of these coops, constructed partly with a thin adobe

wall and partly with stakes arranged like those of the corrals.

In both of the pueblo groups under discussion, small gardens contiguous

to the villages are frequent. Those of Tusayan are walled in with stone.

Within the pueblo of Zuñi a small group of garden patches is inclosed by

stake fences, but the majority of the gardens in the vicinity of the

principal villages are provided with low walls of mud masonry. The small

terraced gardens here are near the river bank on the southwest and

southeast sides of the village. The inclosed spaces, averaging in size

about 10 feet square, are used for the cultivation of red peppers,

beans, etc., which, during the dry season, are watered by hand. These

inclosures, situated close to the dwellings, suggest a probable

explanation for similar inclosures found in many of the ruins in the

southern and eastern portions of the ancient pueblo region. Mr.

Bandelier was informed by the Pimas[10] that these inclosures were

ancient gardens. He concluded that since acequias were frequent in the

immediate vicinity these gardens must have been used as reserves in case

of war, when the larger fields were not available, but the manner of

their occurrence in Zuñi suggests rather that they were intended for

cultivation of special crops, such as pepper, beans, cotton, and perhaps

also of a variety of tobacco--corn, melons, squashes, etc., being

cultivated elsewhere in larger tracts. There is a large group of gardens

on the bank of the stream at the southeastern corner of Zuñi, and here

there are slight indications of terracing. A second group on the steeper

slope at the southwestern corner is distinctly terraced. Small walled

gardens of the same type as these Zuñi examples occur in the vicinity of

some of the Tusayan villages on the middle mesa. They are located near

the springs or water pockets, apparently to facilitate watering by hand.

Some of them contain a few small peach trees in addition to the

vegetable crops ordinarily met with. The clusters here are, as a rule,

smaller than those of Zuñi, as there is much less space available in the

vicinity of the springs. At one point on the west side of the first

mesa, a few miles above Walpi, a copious spring serves to irrigate quite

an extensive series of small garden patches distributed over lower

slopes.

[Footnote 10: Fifth Ann. Rept. Arch. Inst. Am., p. 92.]

[Illustration: Fig. 110. Gardens of Zuñi.]

[Illustration: Plate CVI. Sealed openings in a detached house of

Nutria.]

At several points around Zuñi, usually at a greater distance than the

terrace gardens, are fields of much larger area inclosed in a similar

manner. Their inclosure was simply to secure them against the

depredations of stray burros, so numerous about the village. When the

crops are gathered in the autumn, several breaches are made in the low

wall and the burros are allowed to luxuriate on the remains. Pl. LIX

indicates the position of the large cluster of garden patches on the

southeastern side of Zuñi. Fig. 110, taken from photographs made in

1873, shows several of these small gardens with their growing crops and

a large field of corn beyond. The workmanship of the garden walls as

contrasted with that of the house masonry has been already described and

is illustrated in Pl. XC.

"KISI" CONSTRUCTION.

Lightly constructed shelters for the use of those in charge of fields

were probably a constant accompaniment of pueblo horticulture. Such

shelters were built of stone or of brush, according to which material

was most available.

In very precipitous localities, as the Canyon de Chelly, these outlooks

naturally became the so-called cliff-dwellings or isolated shelters.

In Cibola single stone houses are in common use, not to the exclusion,

however, of the lighter structures of brush, while in Tusayan these

lighter forms, of which there are a number of well defined varieties,

are almost exclusively used. A detailed study of the methods of

construction employed in these rude shelters would be of great interest

as affording a comparison both with the building methods of the ruder

neighboring tribes and with those adopted in constructing some of the

details of the terraced house; the writer, however, did not have an

opportunity of making an examination of all the field shelters used in

these pueblos. Two of the simpler types are the "tuwahlki," or watch

house, and the "kishoni," or uncovered shade. The former is constructed

by first planting a short forked stick in the ground, which supports one

end of a pole, the other end resting on the ground. The interval between

this ridge pole and the ground is roughly filled in with slanting sticks

and brush, the inclosed space being not more than 3 feet in height, with

a maximum width of four or five feet. These shelters are for the

accommodation of the children who watch the melon patches until the

fruit is harvested.

[Illustration: Fig. 111. Kishoni, or uncovered shade, of Tusayan.]

The kishoni, or uncovered shade, illustrated in Fig. 111, is perhaps the

simplest form of shelter employed. Ten or a dozen cottonwood saplings

are set firmly into the ground, so as to form a slightly curved

inclosure with convex side toward the south. Cottonwood and willow

boughs in foliage, grease-wood, sage brush, and rabbit brush are laid

with stems upward in even rows against these saplings to a height of 6

or 7 feet. This light material is held in place by bands of small

cottonwood branches laid in continuous horizontal lines around the

outside of the shelter and these are attached to the upright saplings

with cottonwood and willow twigs.

[Illustration: Plate CVII. Partial filling-in of a large opening in

Oraibi, converting it into a doorway.]

Figs. 112 and 113 illustrate a much more elaborate field shelter in

Tusayan. As may readily be seen from the figures this shelter covers a

considerable area; it will be seen too that the upright branches that

inclose two of its sides are of sufficient height to considerably shade

the level roof of poles and brush, converting it into a comfortable

retreat.

[Illustration: Fig. 112. A Tusayan field shelter, from southwest.]

[Illustration: Fig. 113. A Tusayan field shelter, from northeast.]

ARCHITECTURAL NOMENCLATURE.

The following nomenclature, collected by Mr. Stephen, comprises the

terms commonly used in designating the constructional details of Tusayan

houses and kivas:

Kiko´li The ground floor rooms forming the first terrace.

Tupu´bi The roofed recess at the end of the first terrace.

Ah´pabi } A terrace roof.

Ih´pobi }

Tupat´ca ih´pobi The third terrace, used in common as a loitering

place.

Tumtco´kobi "The place of the flat stone;" small rooms in

which "piki," or paper-bread, is baked. "Tuma,"

the piki stone, and "tcok" describing its flat

position.

Tupa´tca "Where you sit overhead;" the third story.

O´mi Ah´pabi The second story; a doorway always opens from it

upon the roof of the "kiko´li."

Kitcobi "The highest place;" the fourth story.

Tuhkwa A wall.

Puce An outer corner.

Apaphucua An inside corner.

Lestabi The main roof timbers.

Wina´kwapi Smaller cross poles. "Winahoya," a small pole, and

"Kwapi," in place.

Kaha´b kwapi The willow covering.

Süibi kwapi The brush covering.

Si´hü kwapi The grass covering.

Kiam´ balawi The mud plaster of roof covering,

"Balatle´lewini," to spread.

Tcukat´cvewata Dry earth covering the roof. "Tcuka," earth,

"katuto," to sit, and "at´cvewata," one laid

above another.

Kiami An entire roof.

Kwo´pku The fireplace.

Kwi´tcki "Smoke-house," an inside chimney-hood.

Sibvu´tütük´mula A series of bottomless jars piled above each

other, and luted together as a chimney-top.

Sibvu´ A bottomless earthen vessel serving as a chimney

pot.

Bok´ci Any small hole in a wall, or roof, smaller than

a doorway.

Hi´tci An opening, such as a doorway. This term is also

applied to a gap in a cliff.

Hi´tci Kalau´wata A door frame.

Tûñañ´îata A lintel; literally, "that holds the sides in

place."

Wuwûk´pi "The place step;" the door sill.

Niñuh´pi A handhold; the small pole in a doorway below the

lintel.

Pana´ptca ütc´pi bok´ci

A window; literally, "glass covered opening."

Ut´cpi A cover.

Ahpa´bütc´pi } A door. "Apab," inside; wina, a pole.

Wina´ütc´pi }

O´wa ütc´ppî "Stone cover," a stone slab.

Tüi´ka A projection in the wall of a room suggesting a

partition, such as shown in Pl. LXXXV. The same

term is applied to a projecting cliff in a mesa.

Kiam´i An entire roof. The main beams, cross poles, and

roof layers have the same names as in the kiva,

given later.

W[)i]na´kü´i Projecting poles; rafters extending beyond the

walls.

Bal´kakini "Spread out;" the floor.

O´tcokpü´h "Leveled with stones;" a raised level for the

foundation.

Ba´lkakini tü´wi "Floor ledge;" the floor of one room raised above

that of an adjoining one.

Hako´la "Lower place;" the floor of a lower room. Sand

dunes in a valley are called "Hakolpi."

Ko´ltci A shelf.

Owako´ltci A stone shelf.

Ta´pü kü´ita A support for a shelf.

Wina´koltci A hewn plank shelf.

Kokiüni A wooden peg in a wall.

Tületa A shelf hanging from the ceiling.

Tület´haipi The cords for suspending a shelf.

Tükûlci A niche in the wall.

Tükûli A stone mortar.

Ma´ta The complete mealing apparatus for grinding corn.

Owa´mata The trough or outer frame of stone slabs.

Mata´ki The metate or grinding slab.

Kakom´ta mata´ki The coarsest grinding slab.

Tala´kî mata´ki The next finer slab; from "talaki" to parch

crushed corn in a vessel at the fire.

Piñ´nyümta mata´ki The slab of finest texture; from "pin," fine.

Ma´ta ü´tci The upright partition stones separating the

metates. The rubbing stones have the same names

as the metates.

Hawi´wita A stone stairway.

Tütü´beñ hawi´wita A stairway pecked into a cliff face.

Sa´ka A ladder.

Wina´hawi´pi Steps of wood.

Ki´cka The covered way.

Hitcu´yî´wa "Opening to pass through;" a narrow passage

between

houses.

Ki´sombi "Place closed with houses;" courts and spaces

between house groups.

Bavwa´kwapi A gutter pipe inserted in the roof coping.

[Illustration: Plate CVIII. Large openings reduced to small windows,

Oraibi.]

In kiva nomenclature the various parts of the roof have the same names

as the corresponding features of the dwellings. These are described on

pp. 148-151.

Le´stabi The main roof timbers.

Wina´kwapi The smaller cross poles.

Kaha´b kwapi The willow covering.

Süibi kwapi The brush covering.

Si´hü kwapi The grass covering.

Tcuka´tcve wata The dry earth layer of the roof.

Kiam´ba´lawi The layer of mud plaster on the roof.

Kiami An entire roof.

The following terms are used to specially designate various features of

the kivas:

Tüpat´caiata, Both of these terms are used to designate

lestabi } the kiva hatchway beams upon which the

Lesta´bkwapi, } hatchway walls rest.

Süna´cabi le´stabi The main beams in the roof, nearest to the

hatchway.

[)E]p´eoka le´stabi The main beams next to the central ones.

Püep´eoka le´stabi The main beams next in order, and all the beams

intervening between the "epeoka" and the end

beams are so designated.

Kala´beoka lestabi The beams at the ends of a kiva.

Mata´owa "Stone placed with hands."

Hüzrüowa "Hard stone."

Both of these latter terms are applied to

corner foundation stones.

Kwa´kü üt´cpi Moveable mat of reeds or sticks for covering

hatchway opening, Fig. 29.

"Kwaku," wild hay; "utepi," a stopper.

Tüpat´caiata The raised hatchway; "the sitting place,"

Fig. 95.

Tüpat´caiata tü´kwa The walls of the hatchway.

Kipat´ctjua´ta The kiva doorway; the opening into the hatchway,

Fig. 28.

Apa´pho´ya Small niches in the wall. "Apap," from "apabi,"

inside, and "hoya," small.

Si´papüh An archaic term. The etymology of this word is

not known.

Kw[)o]p´kota The fireplace. "Kwuhi," coals or embers;

"küaiti," head.

K[)o]i´tci Pegs for drying fuel, fixed under the hatchway.

"Ko-hu," wood; Fig. 28.

Kokü´ina Pegs in the walls.

Sa´ka A ladder. This term is applied to any ladder.

Figs. 45-47.

Sa´kaleta Ladder rungs; "Leta," from "lestabi;" see above.

Tüvwibi The platform elevation or upper level of the

floor. "Tu-vwi," a ledge; Fig. 24.

Tüvwi Stone ledges around the sides, for seats. The

same term is used to designate any ledge,

as that of a mesa, etc.

Katcin´ Kibü "Katcina," house. The niche in a ledge at the

end of the kiva.

Kwi´sa The planks set into the floor, to which the

lower beam of a blanket loom is fastened.

Kaintup´ha } Terms applied to the main floor; they both mean

Kiva´kani } "the large space."

Tapü´wü´tci Hewn planks a foot wide and 6 to 8 feet long,

set into the floor.

Wina´wü´tci A plank.

Owa´pühü´imiata "Stone spread out;" the flagged floor; also

designates the slabs covering the hatchway.

Yau´wiopi. Stones with holes pecked in the ends for holding

the loom beam while the warp is being

adjusted; also used as seats; see p. 132.

[Illustration: Plate CIX. Stone corrals and kiva of Mashongnavi.]

The accompanying diagram is an ideal section of a Tusayan four-story

house, and gives the native names for the various rooms and terraces.

[Illustration: Fig. 114. Diagram showing ideal section of terraces,

with Tusayan names.]

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The modern villages of Tusayan and Cibola differ more widely in

arrangement and in the relation they bear to the surrounding topography

than did their predecessors even of historic times.

Many of the older pueblos of both groups appear to have belonged to the

valley types--villages of considerable size, located in open plains or

on the slopes of low-lying foothills. A comparison of the plans in

Chapters II and III will illustrate these differences. In Tusayan the

necessity of defense has driven the builders to inaccessible sites, so

that now all the occupied villages of the province are found on mesa

summits. The inhabitants of the valley pueblos of Cibola, although

compelled at one time to build their houses upon the almost inaccessible

summit of Tâaaiyalana mesa, occupied this site only temporarily, and

soon established a large valley pueblo, the size and large population of

which afforded that defensive efficiency which the Tusayan obtained only

by building on mesa promontories. This has resulted in some adherence on

the part of the Tusayan to the village plans of their ancestors, while

at Zuni the great house clusters, forming the largest pueblo occupied in

modern times, show a wide departure from the primitive types. In both

provinces the architecture is distinguished from that of other portions

of the pueblo region by greater irregularity of plan and by less

skillfully executed constructional details; each group, however, happens

to contain a notable exception to this general carelessness.

In Cibola the pueblo of Kin-tiel, built with a continuous defensive

outer wall, occupies architecturally a somewhat anomalous position,

notwithstanding its traditional connection with the group, and the Fire

House occupies much the same relation in reference to Tusayan. The

latter, however, does not break in upon the unity of the group, since

the Tusayan, to a much greater extent than the Zuñi, are made up of

remnants of various bands of builders. In Cibola, however, some of the

Indians state that their ancestors, before reaching Zuñi, built a number

of pueblos, whose ruins are distinguished from those illustrated in the

present paper by the presence of circular kivas, this form of ceremonial

room being, apparently, wholly absent from the Cibolan pueblos here

discussed.

The people of Cibola and of Tusayan belong to distinct linguistic

stocks, but their arts are very closely related, the differences being

no greater than would result from the slightly different conditions that

have operated within the last few generations. Zuñi, perhaps, came more

directly under early Spanish influence than Tusayan.

Churches were established, as has been seen, in both provinces, but it

is doubtful whether their presence produced any lasting impression on

the people. In Tusayan the sway of the Spaniards was very brief. At some

of the pueblos the churches seem to have been built outside of the

village proper where ample space was available within the pueblo; but

such an encroachment on the original inclosed courts seems never to have

been attempted. Zuñi is an apparent exception; but all the house

clusters east of the church have probably been built later than the

church itself, the church court of the present village being a much

larger area than would be reserved for the usual pueblo court. These

early churches were, as a rule, built of adobe, even when occurring in

stone pueblos. The only exception noticed is at Ketchipauan, where it

was built of the characteristic Indian smoothly chinked masonry. The

Spaniards usually intruded their own construction, even to the

composition of the bricks, which are nearly always made of straw adobe.

At Tusayan there is no evidence that a church or mission house ever

formed part of the villages on the mesa summits. Their plans are

complete in themselves, and probably represent closely the first pueblos

built on these sites. These summits have been extensively occupied only

in comparatively recent times, although one or more small clusters may

have been built here at an early date as outlooks over the fields in the

valleys below.

[Illustration: Plate CX. Portion of a corral in Pescado.]

It is to be noted that some of the ruins connected traditionally and

historically with Tusayan and Cibola differ in no particular from stone

pueblos widely scattered over the southwestern plateaus which have been

from time to time invested with a halo of romantic antiquity, and

regarded as remarkable achievements in civilization by a vanished but

once powerful race. These deserted stone houses, occurring in the midst

of desert solitudes, appealed strongly to the imaginations of early

explorers, and their stimulated fancy connected the remains with

"Aztecs" and other mysterious peoples. That this early implanted bias

has caused the invention of many ingenious theories concerning the

origin and disappearance of the builders of the ancient pueblos, is

amply attested in the conclusions reached by many of the writers on this

subject.

In connection with the architectural examination of some of these

remains many traditions have been obtained from the present tribes,

clearly indicating that some of the village ruins, and even cliff

dwellings, have been built and occupied by ancestors of the present

Pueblo Indians, sometimes at a date well within the historic period.

The migrations of the Tusayan clans, as described in the legends

collected by Mr. Stephen, were slow and tedious. While they pursued

their wanderings and awaited the favorable omens of the gods they halted

many times and planted. They speak traditionally of stopping at certain

places on their routes during a certain number of "plantings," always

building the characteristic stone pueblos and then again taking up the

march.

When these Indians are questioned as to whence they came, their replies

are various and conflicting; but this is due to the fact that the

members of one clan came, after a long series of wanderings, from the

north, for instance, while those of other gentes may have come last from

the east. The tribe to-day seems to be made up of a collection or a

confederacy of many enfeebled remnants of independent phratries and

groups once more numerous and powerful. Some clans traditionally

referred to as having been important are now represented by few

survivors, and bid fair soon to become extinct. So the members of each

phratry have their own store of traditions, relating to the wanderings

of their own ancestors, which differ from those of other clans, and

refer to villages successively built and occupied by them. In the case

of others of the pueblos, the occupation of cliff dwellings and cave

lodges is known to have occurred within historic times.

Both architectural and traditional evidence are in accord in

establishing a continuity of descent from the ancient Pueblos to those

of the present day. Many of the communities are now made up of the more

or less scattered but interrelated remnants of gentes which in former

times occupied villages, the remains of which are to-day looked upon as

the early homes of "Aztec colonies," etc.

The adaptation, of this architecture to the peculiar environment

indicates that it has long been practiced under the same conditions that

now prevail. Nearly all of the ancient pueblos were built of the

sandstone found in natural quarries at the bases of hundreds of cliffs

throughout these table-lands. This stone readily breaks into small

pieces of regular form, suitable for use in the simple masonry of the

pueblos without receiving any artificial treatment. The walls themselves

give an exaggerated idea of finish, owing to the care and neatness with

which the component stones are placed. Some of the illustrations in the

last chapter, from photographs, show clearly that the material of the

walls was much ruder than the appearance of the finished masonry would

suggest, and that this finish depended on the careful selection and

arrangement of the fragments. This is even more noticeable in the Chaco

ruins, in which the walls were wrought to a high degrees of surface

finish. The core of the wall was laid up with the larger and more

irregular stones, and was afterwards brought to a smooth face by

carefully filling in and chinking the joints with smaller stones and

fragments, sometimes not more than a quarter of an inch thick; this

method is still roughly followed by both Tusayan and Cibolan builders.

Although many details of construction and arrangement display remarkable

adaptation to the physical character of the country, yet the influence

of such environment would not alone suffice to produce this

architectural type. In order to develop the results found, another

element was necessary. This element was the necessity for defense. The

pueblo population was probably subjected to the more or less continuous

influence of this defensive motive throughout the period of their

occupation of this territory. A strong independent race of people, who

had to fear no invasion by stronger foes, would necessarily have been

influenced more by the physical environment and would have progressed

further in the art of building, but the motive for building rectangular

rooms--the initial point of departure in the development of pueblo

architecture--would not have been brought into action. The crowding of

many habitations upon a small cliff ledge or other restricted site,

resulting in the rectangular form of rooms, was most likely due to the

conditions imposed by this necessity for defense.

[Illustration: Plate CXI. Zuñi eagle-cage.]

The general outlines of the development of this architecture wherein the

ancient builders were stimulated to the best use of the exceptional

materials about them, both by the difficult conditions of their

semi-desert environment and by constant necessity for protection against

their neighbors, can be traced in its various stages of growth from the

primitive conical lodge to its culmination in the large communal village

of many-storied terraced buildings which we find to have been in use at

the time of the Spanish discovery, and which still survives in Zuñi,

perhaps its most striking modern example. Yet the various steps have

resulted from a simple and direct use of the material immediately at

hand, while methods gradually improved as frequent experiments taught

the builders more fully to utilize local facilities. In all cases the

material was derived from the nearest available source, and often

variations in the quality of the finished work are due to variations in

the quality of the stone near by. The results accomplished attest the

patient and persistent industry of the ancient builders, but the work

does not display great skill in construction or in preparation of

material. The same desert environment that furnished such an abundance

of material for the ancient builders, also, from its difficult and

inhospitable character and the constant variations in the water supply,

compelled the frequent employment of this material. This was an

important factor in bringing about the attained degree of advancement in

the building art. At the present day constant local changes occur in the

water sources of these arid table-lands, while the general character of

the climate remains unaltered.

The distinguishing characteristics of Pueblo architecture may be

regarded as the product of a defensive motive and of an arid environment

that furnished an abundance of suitable building material, and at the

same time the climatic conditions that compelled its frequent

employment.

The decline of the defensive motive within the last few years has

greatly affected the more recent architecture. Even after the long

practice of the system has rendered it somewhat fixed, comparative

security from attack has caused many of the Pueblo Indians to recognize

the inconvenience of dwellings grouped in large clusters on sites

difficult of access, while the sources of their subsistence are

necessarily sparsely scattered over large areas. This is noticeable in

the building of small, detached houses at a distance from the main

villages, the greater convenience to crops, flocks and water outweighing

the defensive motive. In Cibola particularly, a marked tendency in this

direction has shown itself within a score of years; Ojo Caliente, the

newest of the farming pueblos, is perhaps the most striking example

within the two provinces. The greater security of the pueblos as the

country comes more fully into the hands of Americans, has also resulted

in the more careless construction in modern examples as compared with

the ancient.

There is no doubt that, as time shall go on, the system of building

many-storied clusters of rectangular rooms will gradually be abandoned

by these people. In the absence of the defensive motive a more

convenient system, employing scattered small houses, located near

springs and fields, will gradually take its place, thus returning to a

mode of building that probably prevailed in the evolution of the pueblo

prior to the clustering of many rooms into large defensive villages. Pl.

LXXXIII illustrates a building of the type described located on the

outskirts of Zuñi, across the river from the main pueblo.

The cultural distinctions between the Pueblo Indians and neighboring

tribes gradually become less clearly defined as investigation

progresses. Mr. Cushing's study of the Zuñi social, political, and

religious systems has clearly established their essential identity in

grade of culture with those of other tribes. In many of the arts, too,

such as weaving, ceramics, etc., these people in no degree surpass many

tribes who build ruder dwellings.

In architecture, though, they have progressed far beyond their

neighbors; many of the devices employed attest the essentially primitive

character of the art, and demonstrate that the apparent distinction in

grade of culture is mainly due to the exceptional condition of the

environment.

INDEX

Acoma, arrival of the Asanyumu at 30

direction of kivas of 116

kiva trap-doors at 207

Adobe, use in Tusayan 54, 78

use in Zuñi attributed to foreign influence 139

necessity for protecting against rain 156

used in Spanish churches 224

Adobe balls used in garden walls 146

Adobe bricks, in Hawikut church 81

use modern in Zuñi 138

Adobe mortar, in Tâaaiyalana structures 90

Cibola and Tusayan use of, compared 137

Adobe walls on stone foundation at Moenkopi 78

Áikoka. See Acoma 30

Aiyáhokwi, the descendants of the Asa at Zuñi 30

Alleyway, Hawikuh 81

Altar, conformity of, to direction of kiva 116

Andiron, Shumopavi 176

Annular doorway 192, 193

Apache, inroads upon Tusayan by the 25, 26, 35

exposure of southern Cibola to the 96

Architectural nomenclature 220, 223

Architecture, comparison of constructional details

of Tusayan and Cibola 100-223

adaption to defense 226, 227

adaption to environment 225, 226, 227, 228

Art, textile and fictile, degree of Pueblo advancement in 227

Arts of Cibola and Tusayan closely related 224

Asa, migrations of the 30, 31

language of the 37

houses of, Hano 61

Asanyumu. See Asa.

Awatubi, survey of 14

Spanish mission established at 22

when and by whom built 29

settlement of the Asa at 30

attacked by the Walpi 34

description of ruins of 49, 50

possession of sheep by the 50

clay tubes used as roof drains at 155

fragments of passage wall at 181

Aztecs, ruined structures attributed to the 225

Badger people leave Walpi 31

Baho, use of, in kiva consecratory ceremonies 119-120, 129, 130

Balcony, notched and terraced 187

Banded masonry 145

Bandelier, A. F., description of chimney 173

explorations of 197

on ancient stone inclosures 216

Bat house, description of ruin of 52

Bátni, the first pueblo of the Snake people of Tusayan 18

Bedsteads not used by Pueblos 214

Beams, Tusayan kivas, taken from Spanish church at Shumopavi 76

for supporting upper walls 144

modern finish of 149

construction of steps upon 162

for supporting passageway wall 181

Chaco pueblos, how squared 184

Bear people, settlement in Tusayan of the 20, 26

removal to Walpi of the 21, 27

movements of 27, 30, 31, 38

Bear-skin-rope people, settlement in Tusayan of the 26, 27

Benches or ledges of masonry, Zuñi rooms 110

Tusayan kivas 121, 123, 125

Mashongnavi mungkiva 127

around rooms of pueblo houses 213

Bins for storage in Tusayan rooms 109, 209, 210

Blankets formerly used to cover doorways 182, 188, 189, 194

Blue Jay people, settlement in Tusayan of the 26, 27

Bond stones used in pueblo walls 144, 198

Boss, or andiron, Shumopavi 176

Boundary line, Hano and Sichumovi 36

Boundary mark, Shumopavi and Oraibi 28

Boxes for plumes 210

Bricks of adobe modern in Zuñi 138

Brush, use of, in roof construction 150

Brush shelters 217-219

Burial custom of K'iakima natives 86

Burial inclosures at K'iakima 147

Burial place of Zuñi 148

Burrowing Owl people, settlement in Tusayan of the 26

Buttress, formerly of Halona, existing in Zuñi 88, 89

Buttress projections, Zuñi 111

Tusayan rooms 109, 110

girders supported by 144

chimney supported by 172, 173

support of passageway roofs by 181

Cages for eagles at Zuñi 214

Canyon de Chelly, proposed study of ruins of 14

Tusayan, tradition concerning villages of 19

early occupancy of, by the Bear people at Tusayan 20

occupied by the Asa 30

use of whitewash in cliff houses of 74, 145

circular kivas of 117, 133

finish of roofs of houses of 150, 151

doorway described and figured 190

cliff dwellings of 217

Casa Blanca, traces of whitewashing at 145

Castañeda's account of Cibolan milling 211, 212

Cattle introduced into Tusayan 22

Cave lodges occupied in historic times 225

Cave used by inhabitants of Kwaituki 57

Ceiling plan of Shupaulovi kiva 123, 125, 126

Ceilings, retention of original appearance of rooms

through nonrenovation of 89

Cellars not used in Tusayan and Cibola 143

Ceremonial chamber. See Kiva.

Ceremonial paraphernalia of Tusayan taken by the Navajo 50

Ceremonies connected with Tusayan house-building 100-104, 168

Ceremonies accompanying kiva construction 115, 118

Ceremonies performed at placing of Zuñi ladders 160

Chaco ruins, character of 14, 70

compared with Kin-tiel 92

finish of masonry of 140, 226

upper story partitions of, supported by beams 144

finish of woodwork of 149, 184

symmetry of arrangement of outer openings of 195

loop-holes in walls of 198

Chairs, lack of in Pueblo houses 212

Chalowe, description of 83

Charred roof timbers of Tusayan kiva 120

Chimney. See Fireplace.

Chimney-hoods, how constructed 169-175

Chimneys, traces of in K'iakima 85

remains of, at Matsaki 86

Tusayan 102

Zuñi 111

described and figured 167-180

Chukubi pueblo, built by the Squash people 25

description 58, 59

fragments of passage wall at 181

Church, Shumopavi, established by Spanish monks 75, 76

Hawikuh 81, 138

Ketchipauan, remains of 81, 82

in court of Zuñi 98, 138, 148

See Mission.

Churches established in Zuñi and Tusayan 224

Cibola, ruins and inhabited villages of 80-99

architecture of compared with that of Tusayan 100-223

See Zuñi.

Circular doorway of Kin-tiel described 192

Circular kivas, antiquity of 116

traditional references to 135

absent in Cibolan pueblos 224

Circular room at Oraibi Wash 54-55

Circular rooms at Kin-tiel 93

Circular wall of kiva near Sikyatki 117

Clay surface of pueblo roofs 151

Clay tubes used as roof drains 155

Cliff dwellings, Moen-kopi 54

use of whitewash in 74

absence of chimneys in 168

developed from temporary shelters 217

occupied in historic times 225

Climatic conditions, effect of, upon pueblo architecture 140, 227

Clustering of Tâaaiyalana ruins 89-90

Cochití claimed to be a former Tewa pueblo 37

Communal village, development of pueblo architecture

from conical lodge to 226

Consecration of kivas 129

Contours represented on plans, interval of 45

Cooking, pueblo method of 164

Cooking pits and ovens described 162-166, 176-177

Cooking stones of Tusayan, flames of 104

Copings of walls described 151-152

Coping of hatchways 203

Coping. See Roof-coping.

Cords, used for suspending chimney 170

Corner stones of Tusayan kivas 119

Corrals, Payupki 59

Sichumovi 62-63

Hawikuh 81

Ketchipauan 81

modern, at K'iakima 85

how constructed 146

described in detail 214-217

Cotton cultivated by the Tusayan 33

Courts, Mishiptonga 52

Kwaituki 56

Chukubi 59

Sichumovi 62

Walpi 63

Mashongnavi 68

Shupaulovi 71

Shumopavi 74

Hawikuh 81

Ketchipauan 81

Matsaki 86

Tâaaiyalana 90

Kin-tiel 92

Pescado 95

Zuñi 98

Covered way, how developed 76

Covered passages and gateways described 180-182

Coyote people, settlement in Tusayan of the 26

Coyote kiva, direction of the 116

Crossbars used in fastening wooden doors 183

Crosspieces of ladders 159

Cruzate, visit to Awatubi of 49

Culture of pueblo tribes, degree of 227

Cushing, Frank H., identifies K'iakima

as scene of death of Estevanico 86

excavations at Halona 88, 193

opinion concerning western wall of Halona 89

opinion concerning distribution of Tâaaiyalana ruins 89-90

on the former occupancy of Kin-tiel 92

Haloua identified as one of the Seven Cities of Cibola 97

on Zuñi tradition concerning stone-close 192

Dais of kivas 121, 122, 123

Dance ceremony in kiva consecration 130

Dance rock, Tusayan, reference to snake dance of 65

Débris, how indicated in plans of ruins 45

an indication of original height of walls 90

Decoration, house openings 145-146

Kiva roof timbers 119, 120

ladder crosspieces 159

roof beams 123, 124

wall of Mashongnavi house 146

wooden chair 213

Zuñi window sashes 196

Deer horns used as pegs in Zuñi 111

Defense, wall for, at Bat House 52

a motive for selection of dwelling site 56

architecture relied upon for 58

method of, of Payupki 59, 60

not a factor in selection of Mashongnavi site 67

features of, at Ojo Calient 69

wall for, at Pueblo Bonito 70

features of, at Tusayan and Zuñi compared 76

sites chosen for, inconvenient to sources of subsistence 77

use of Kelchipauan church for, by natives 82

the motive of occupation of Tâaaiyalana mesa 90

provision for, at Kin-tie 92, 93

provisions for, in Ketchipauan church 96

motive for, dying out in Zuñi 96-97

efficiency of, at Zuñi 97

not a motive in selection of site of Zuñi 97

gateways arranged for 180, 182

loopholes for 198

adaptation of architecture to 225

Doors to ground floor rooms of Zuñi 143

Doors of various lands described 183-194

Doorway, Walpi kiva, closed with cottonwood slab 64

Kin-tiel 93

position of, in Tusayan 103

stepped form in Tusayan 109

how sealed against intrusion 110

window and chimney in one 121

annular 193

Doorways, closed with masonry 183, 187, 188, 189

why made small 197

Drainage of roof, relations of certain roof openings to 203-204

Drains of roofs described 153-156

Drains. See roof drains.

Eagle cages of Zuñi 214

Eagle people, migration legend of the 28

Earth used in pueblo roof construction 150

Eaves, lack of, in Tusayan houses 102

Echo Cave fireplace described 168

Entrances, uniformity of direction of, in Zuñi kivas 116

Environment, adaptation, of architecture to 225, 226, 227, 228

Estevanico's death, at K'iakima 86

Estufa. See Kiva.

Families occupying Oraibi 105-108

Farming outlook, Matsaki used as 86

near Kin-tiel 93

Farming pueblos, Cibola 14

Moen-kopi 77

Nutria 94, 95

Pescado 95-96

Ojo Caliente 96

Zuñi 198

Fastenings of doors 186

Feathers, use of, in house-building ceremonies 101, 102

Feather wand or baho used in kiva-building ceremonials

119, 120, 129, 130

Fences of corrals and gardens 215, 217

Fetiches, where placed during kiva ceremonial 122

Tusayan kivas 130, 131

Fire gens, Tebugkihu constructed by the 57

Fire-house or Tebugkihu, Tusayan 20, 57, 100, 142, 224

Fire people of Tusayan, migration of the 20

Fireplaces 102, 109, 121, 125,

163, 167-180

Floor, Mashongnavi house 109

stone flags, Tusayan kiva 121

sandstone slabs, Shupaulovi kiva 123

Floors in pueblo buildings, various kinds described

121, 135, 148-151

Folk-tale of the Zuñi, describing stone-close 193

Food sacrifices in Tusayan house building 101, 102

Fortress houses the highest type of Pueblo construction 77

Frames of trap-doors, method of making 206

Framing of windows, method of 196-198

Fuel, how stored in Tusayan 103

Fuel used in kivas 121

Fuel of kivas, where stored 124

Furniture of the Pueblos described 208-214

Gardens and corrals of the Pueblos 214-217

Gardens and garden walls 215-217

Garden walls, how constructed 146

Gateway at Awatubi 49

Gateway jambs at Kin-tiel, finish of 181

Gateways, probable existence in Kin-tiel of 93

Gateways and covered passages described 180-182

Gateways of corrals 214

Genesis myth of the Tusayan 16

Gentes of Tusayan, grouping of houses by 24

land apportionment by 29

list of traditionary 38

localization of 104-108

Girders supporting upper walls 144

Tusayan houses supported by piers 151

Glass used in modern Pueblo windows 193

Glazing of Pueblo windows 196, 197

Goat kiva of Walpi, height of 119

Gourd used as roof drain 154, 155

Grass, use of, in roof construction 150

Graves, probable existence of, in Kin-tiel 93

Gravestones at K'iakima 85, 86, 147

Greasewood, the ordinary kiva fuel 121

Grinding stones. See Metate; Milling.

Ground plan, Mashongnavi room 108

Shupaulovi kiva 125

Ground plans of Zuñi and Tusayan compared 76

of mesa villages influenced by prevailing winds 182

Guyave or piki oven 173, 175

Gyarzobi or Paroquet kiva, roof timbers of 120

Gypsum used as whitewash 73, 74, 172

Hairdressing among the Tusayan 37

Halona, description of 88, 89

remains of the nucleus of Zuñi 97, 98

walls of the nucleus of modern Zuñi 138

stone-close at, described 193

"Halving" of timbers in kiva trap-frames 206

Hampassawan, description of 83-85

Hand-holds cut in faces of cliffs 191

Hand-holds in frames of trap-doors 192

Hano, Asa group occupy site of 30

description of 61, 62

direction of kivas of 115

kiva, ownership of 134

kivas, list of 136

rude transom over roof beam in 187

sealed openings in 199

Hano people, length of time spent in Tusayan by the 35

received by the Tusayan 36

trouble between the Walpi and 37

Hanomuh, the inhabitants of Hano 17

definition of 36

Hano traditions regarding settlement in Tusayan 35

Harvest time, how determined in Zuñi 148

Hatchways to pueblo houses 110, 120, 121, 124, 127

Hawikuh, description of 80, 81

Hawikuh church, durability of masonry of 138

Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition,

excavations at Halona 193

High-house people, a Navajo clan 30

Hinged sashes not in use in Zuñi 196

Hinges of Pueblo doors 184

Hodge, F. Webb, on stone-close of Halona 193

Holmes, William H., on ruins of the San Juan 147

Homólobi, the early home of the Sun and Water peoples 29

legend of Water people concerning 31

Hopituh, the native name of the Tusayan 17

Hopituh marriage within phratries and gentes 24

Horn House, description of ruin of 50, 51

Horn people migration legend 18

early settlement in Tusayan of the 19

House-building rites of Tusayan 100-104

House clusters in Zuñi, arrangement of 98

Hungo Pavie, finish of roofs in 150

Interior arrangement of pueblos 108-111

Interior of Zuñi house described 110

Irrigation of gardens near Walpi 217

Jackson, W. H., on ruins of the San Juan 147

photographs of pueblo ruins by 147

describes fireplace of Echo Cave 168

Jar of large size used for storage 210

Jars used in chimney construction 180

Jeditoh group of ruins 52, 53

Jemez oven-opening described 165

Kaékibi, an ancient pueblo 30

Kaiwáika. See Laguna 30

Kápung. See Santa Clara 37

Katchina kiva of Oraibi 135

Katchina people depart from Oraibi

for eastern Tusayan villages 26, 27

Katchinkihu, occurrence of, in ruined kiva near Sikyatki 117

described 121, 123

Shupaulovi kiva 126

Mashonguavi mungkiva 127

Kótite. See Cochití.

Ketchipauan church built of stone 224

Ketchipauan, description of 81-83

Kiáini. See High-house people 30

K'iakima, description of 85, 86

upright stone slabs at 147

Kikoli rooms occupied in winter 103, 104, 131

Kin-tiel, description of 91-94

compared with Nutria 94

compared with Pescado 96

plan of, prearranged 100

compared with Oraibi 114

occurrence of upright stone slab at 147-148

beams of ruins of 149

upper room of, paved with stone 151

fireplace in room of 163, 168

defensive gateway at 181

Kin-tiel, finish of gateway jambs at 181

circular doorway at, described 192, 193

openings at, of uniform height 194

site of 224

Kisákobi, description of pueblo of 21

Kishoni, or uncovered shade 217-218

"Kisi" construction 217-219

Kitdauwi--the house song of Tusayan 118-119

Kiva, study of construction of 14

remains of, at Payupki 60

Mashongnavi 66

of Moen-kopi 78

origin of the name 111

ancient form of 116, 117

native explanation of position of 118

duties of mungwi, or chief of the 133

ownership of 133-134

motive for building 134-135

significance of structural plan of 135

measurements of 136

hatchways of 201-202, 205-207

openings of, at Acoma 207

See Mungkiva.

Kivas, excavated, at Awatubi 50

Hano 61

Sichumovi 62

Walpi 63, 64, 65

Shupaulovi 72

Shumopavi 74

Kin-tiel and Cibola compared 93

Zuñi, where located during Spanish occupancy 99

in Tusayan 111-137

typical plans of 118-129

dimensions of 118, 136

of, measurements of 118, 136

annually repaired by women 129

uses of 130

nomenclature of 130, 223-223

Tusayan, list of 136

nonuse of chimneys in 178

Zuñi, stone window-frames of 197

Kwaituki, description of ruin of 56-57

Kwálakwai, Hano tradition related by 35

Kwetcap tutwi, the second pueblo of the

snake people of Tusayan 18

Ladders, arrangement in Tusayan kiva 121

withdrawal of rungs to prevent use of 113

significance of position of, in kivas 135

described 156-162

second-story terrace of Tusayan reached principally by 182

openings for, in roofs 205

Laguna, arrival of the Asanyumu at 30

Lalénkobáki, a female society of Tusayan 134

Land apportionment by gentes in Tusayan 29

Language of the Asa and Hano of Tusayan 37

Languages of Tusayan, tradition regarding difference in 36

Las Animas ruins, trap-door frames in 206

Latches of doors 186-187

Latch strings used on Zuñi doors 183

Lathing or wattling of kiva walls 126

Ledges of masonry in kivas 121

Ledges or benches around rooms 213

Lenbaki, society of Tusayan 18

Light, method of introducing, in inner rooms 207

Lighting, method of, in crowded portions of Zuñi 99

Lintels of old windows embedded in masonry 200

Lizard people move from Walpi 31, 38

Lock and key of wood, how made 187

Loom appurtenances 212

Loom posts of kivas 128-129, 132

Loophole-like openings in pueblo buildings 127, 198

Mamzrántiki, an Oraibi society of women 134

Mandan ladder described and figured 158

Maricopa, myth of the Water people of Tusayan concerning the 32

Marriage of the Hopituh within phratries and gentes 24

Mashongnavi, origin of name of 26

settlement of Paroquet and Katchina peoples in 27

settlementof the Water people at 32

description of ruins of 48

age of masonry at 66

description of 66-70

ground plan of room of 108

direction of kivas of 115

description of dais of kiva at 122

list of kivas at 136

wall decoration at 146

notched ladder of 157-158

pi-gummi ovens at 163-164

shrines of 167

chimney hoods of 170-171

second-story fireplace at 174

doorway with transom at 190

corrals of rude stonework at 214

See Old Mashongnavi.

Masonry, ancient, at Nutria 94

Ojo Caliente carelessly constructed 96

exterior, of kivas 114

Masonry of Pueblo Bonito, skill shown in 195

Mat close for kiva hatchways 127, 128

Matsaki, description of 86

sun symbol at 148

Meal, votive, used in pueblo house-building 101

Mealing trough. See Milling.

Metate used as roof-drain 154, 155

Metates, or grinding stones,

how arranged in pueblo houses 109, 110, 210, 211

Migration, effect of, upon pueblo architecture 15

Migration of the Tusayan 17

Migration of Tusayan Water people 31, 32

Migration of the Horn people 18, 19

Migration of the Bear people of Tusayan 20

Migration of the Asanynmu of Tusayan 30

Milling troughs of Pueblo households 109, 210, 212

Mindeleff, Cosmos, acknowledgments to 14, 15

on traditional history of Tusayan 16-41

Mindeleff, Victor, paper on pueblo architecture 3-228

Mishiptonga, description of ruin of 52-53

Mission buildings of Shumopavi 27, 75-76

Mission house at Walpi, timbers of, used in Walpi kiva 119

Missions of Tusayan 22, 49

Moen-kopi surveyed and studied 14

description of ruins of 53-54

description of village of 77

Mole people, settlement in Tusayan of the 27

Montezuma Canyon ruins, use of large stone blocks in 147

Monument marking boundary of Oraibi and Shumopavi 28

Morgan, L. H., Mandan ladder described by 158

on trap-door frames in Las Animas ruins 205

Mormon and Pueblo building compared 148

Mormons, effect of the, upon development of Moen-kopi 77

establishment of woolen mill at Moen-kopi by the 78

fort built by, at Moen-kopi 184

lock and key contrivance of 187

Mortar of adobe mud 137

Mortars used in Pueblo households 212

Mortised door in Zuñi house 110, 186

Mummy cave, Arizona, ruin in 64

finish of roofs in ruins of 150

Mungkiva, Mashongnavi 127

of Shupaulovi 113, 122

Tusayan 134

Nambé, Tewa pueblo 37

Navajo, Asa of Tusayan live among 30

huts of, closed with blankets 189

method of sheep-herding compared with Pueblo 214

Nelson, E. W., graves unearthed by 86

collection of stone-closes by 193

Niches, use of, in kivas 121, 122

Niches formed in old window openings 110, 200, 208-209

Nomenclature of Tusayan structural details 220-223

Númi. See Nambé.

Notched logs used as ladders 157-158

Nutria, compared with Kin-tiel 91

description of 91-95

Nuvayauma, old Mashongnavi tradition related by 47-48

Nuvwatikyuobi kiva 120

Oak mound kiva, Tusayan, decadence of membership of 135

Ohke. See San Juan.

Ojo Caliente, a modern village 54, 96-97

chinked walls of 142

Old Mashongnavi, tradition concerning occupation of 47-48

Openings, splayed, in Ketchipauan church 82

walls of Tâaaiyalana structures 90

Kin-tiel walls 92, 93

oblique Zuñi 98, 207-208

to kivas 113-114

in wall of Zuñi kiva 114

in lee walls 182

Openings of Pueblo houses banded with whitewash 145-146

Oraibi, retirement of Sikyátki inhabitants to 24

departure of Ketchina and Paroquet peoples from 27

settlement by the Bears of 27

traditions regarding first settlement of 27

settlement of the Water people at 33

affray between the Walpi and 35

description of 76-77

families occupying 105-108

direction of kivas of 115-116

rare use of plastering on outer walls of 144

Oraibi, notched ladders described and figured 157-158

stone steps at, figured 161

corral walls at, laid without mortar 147

distribution of gentes of 104-105

kiva for women 134

list of kivas of 137

kiva, hatchway of 201

corrals at, large size of 214

Oraibi-Shumopavi boundary stone 28

Oraibi wash, ruins on the 54-56

Orientation of kivas 115-116

Ovens at Pescado 95

upon roofs 151

various kinds described 162-166

in Zuñi 164-165

Oven-shaped structures described and figured 167

Oven-surface imbedded with pottery scales 139

Paintings on kiva walls 131

Palát Kivabi, the pristine habitat of the Squash

and Sun people of Tusayan 25, 29

Paneled doors in modern pueblos 184-186

Parallelogramic form of Tusayan buildings 102-118

Paroquet people, settlement in Shumopavi of the 37

Partitions in Ketchipauan church 82

Partitions of upper story supported by beams 144

Passageways, Shupaulovi 72

Shumopavi 74

rarity of, at Oraibi 76

description of 180-182

Paving Shupaulovi kiva 126

Paving stones of kiva floor, how finished 125

Payupki, tradition concerning pueblo of 40

migration legend 40

description of 59-60

finish of masonry of 143

fragments of passage wall at 181

Peaches planted by the Asa people 30

Pegs, deer horns used as, in Zuñi 111

Pegs for suspending kiva fuel 121

Peña Blanca formerly inhabited by the Hano 35

Peñasco Blanco, occurrence of upright stone slab at 148

method of roof construction at 150

Pescado compared with Kin-tiel 91

description of 95-96

corral walls at, how constructed 147

outside steps at 160

ovens at, described and figured 165-166

fragment of stone close in steps of 193

stone inclosure in court of 214

Pestles or crushers used with Pueblo mortars 212

Petroglyph, or sun-symbol at Matsaki 86

Ketchipauan church 82

legend of the Tusayan concerning 32

Phratries, Tusayan 24, 38

Pictograph on Oraibi-Shumopavi boundary monument 28

Piers of masonry for supporting girders 151

Piers. See Buttresses.

Pi-gummi ovens of Mashongnavi 163

Piki or guyave oven 173-175

Piki stone, process of making 175

Pima, myth of the Water people of Tusayan concerning the 32

opinion of the, as to ancient stone inclosures 216

Pinawa, description of 86, 88

Pine invariably used for kiva ladders 135

Pink clay used in house decorations 146

Pits for cooking 163

Plan of villages, traditional mention of 104

Plans and descriptions, Tusayan ruins 45-60

inhabited villages 61-79

Cibolan ruins 80

Zuñi villages 94-99

Plan of pueblo houses not usually prearranged 100-162

Planting time, how determined in Zuñi 148

Plaster, frequent renewal of, at Shumopavi 73

Plastering, renovation of rooms by frequent 89

on outer walls in Ojo Caliente 96

custom formerly observed in 102

on floor in Mashongnavi 109

kiva walls 115

Shupaulovi kiva, condition of 124-125

Shupaulovi kiva 126

on walls 140

on masonry 144

chimney hoods 169, 172

side hole of door for fastening 183-184

Platform in floor of Tusayan kiva 121

Platform at head of steps 161-162

Plaza. See Court.

Plume boxes 210

Plume stick, baho, or feather wand,

used in Kiva consecratory ceremonials 119-120, 129, 130

Plume-stick shrines at Mashongnavi 167

Pojoaque, a Tewa pueblo 37

Pokwádi. See Pojoaque 37

Polaka, Hano tradition given by 35

Poles for suspension of blankets, etc. 110, 189, 208, 214

Ponobi kiva of Oraibi, wall lathing of 126

Population, enlargement of pueblos necessitated by increase of 70

Porch posts 81, 82

Posówe, a former Tewa pueblo 37

Posts of porch, remains of, at Hawikuh and Ketchipauan 81, 82

Posts sunk in floor forming part of loom 212

Pots used in chimney construction 179-180

Pottery fragments, Horn House ruin 51

Kwaituki 57

ruin on Oraibi wash 55

used in mud-plastered walls 139

Pottery of Payupki, character of 60

Poultry house of Sichumovi 167

Prayer plume, or baho, used in

kiva consecratory ceremonials 119, 120, 129, 130

Props used for fastening wooden doors 183

Pueblo Bonito, additions to 70

the largest yet examined 92

finish of roof of 150

stairway described 160

symmetry of arrangement of outer openings of 195

skill shown in masonry of 195

Pueblo buildings, mode of additions to 70, 97, 98, 102, 148-149

Pueblo construction in Tusayan and Cibola, details of 137-223

Pueblo Grande. See Kin-tiel.

Pueblo openings, carelessness in placing 196

Pueblo remains, area occupied by 13

Pueblo revolt of 1680 89

Pueblos of Tusayan and Cibola compared 80

Pueblos, inhabited 61-79, 94-99

Pyramidal form of pueblo house rows 61

Rabbit-skin robes used to cover doorways 182, 194

Racks for suspending clothes 208, 214

Rawhide thong used in pueblo construction

to fasten lock 186, 187, 214

Rectangular kivas, antiquity of 116

Rectangular rooms, how developed 226

Rectangular type of architecture 72

Reeds used for kiva lathing 126

Repair of houses infrequent in Tusayan 73

Reservoirs, pueblo 82-83, 91, 92, 97

Reservoir site as affecting selection of dwelling site 51-52

Revolt of the Pueblos in 1680 23

Rites and methods of Tusayan kiva building 118-137

Rites of house-building at Tusayan 100-104

Rito de los Frijoles, chimney of, described 173

Roof construction, pueblo buildings 120, 149

Roof-coping of Tusayan houses 102

Roof-drains, pueblo buildings 102, 153-156

Roof-openings, pueblo buildings 61, 63, 77, 98,

169, 178, 201-208

Roofs, pueblo buildings 63, 102, 119, 148-151

Roof timbers of kivas 119

Rooms, arrangement of, into rows in Tusayan 49

confused arrangement of, in Walpi 63

Tâaaiyalana ruins, arrangement of 90

circular, at Kin-tiel 93

Tusayan, smaller than in Zuñi 108

names of, in Tusayan 223

Rows of houses forming Shumopavi 74

Ruins, method of survey of 45

Ruins, Tusayan 45-60

between Horn House and Bat House 51

Oraibi wash 54-56

Cibola 80

Tâaaiyalana 89

Rungs of ladders, how attached 158, 159

Sacrifices of food in Tusayan house-building 101, 102

Sandals of yucca found in Canyon de Chelly 133

Sandstone used in pueblo construction, how quarried 225

San Felipe, return of Payupki to 41

San Juan, a Tewa pueblo 37

Santa Clara doubtfully identified with Kápung 37

Santo Domingo, settlement of the Asanyumu 30

Sash of rude construction in window openings 196

Sealing of doorways of pueblo buildings 110, 183-184, 198-201

Seats of stone in Tusayan kivas 132

Selenite used in pueblo windows 196, 197

Semisubterranean kivas of Tusayan 113

Seven cities of Cibola. See Cibola.

Sheep, introduced into Tusayan 22

possessed by the Awatubi 50

introduction of, among the Pueblos 214

Shitáimu pueblo 28, 48, 49

Shelters in pueblo fields 60, 198, 217-219

Shelves, pueblo buildings 109, 173, 209

Shrine, Matsaki 86

court of Shupaulovi 71

court of Shumopavi 75

Tâaaiyalana 90

Shrines, pueblo 72, 148, 167

Shumopavi, Spanish mission established at 22

by whom built 27

removal of portion of Bear people from 27

description of 73-76

kivas of 113, 114, 137

primitive andiron at 176

piki stone at 176

fireplace and chimney of 176, 177

ground cooking-pit of 178

Shumopavi-Oraibi boundary stone 28

Shumopavi people, removal of, to mesa site 23

Shupaulovi, settlement of Paroquet and Ketchina peoples in 27

when established 29

settlement of Bear people at 30

settlement of the water people at 32

description of 71-73

mungkiva of, described 113

direction of kivas of 115

description of dais of kiva of 123

ground and ceiling plans of kiva of 125

list of kivas of 136

description of chimney-hood at 171, 172

passageway at, described 181

Sichumovi, settled by peoples from Walpi 31

derivation of term 38

description of 62, 63

direction of kivas of 115

ownership of kiva of 134

list of kivas of 136

poultry-house of 167

fireplace and mantel of 173

piki stone at 175

Sikyatki, ruin of 20, 21

pueblo of 24

ancient kiva near 117

Sikyátki people dispute with the Walpi 24

slaughtered by the Walpi 25

Sills of doors 110, 186, 194

Sióki. See Zuñi 30

Sipapuh, Tusayan kivas 117, 121, 122, 123,

126, 130, 131, 135

Sites of pueblo buildings, why selected 63, 66, 90, 97, 112, 223

Slabs of stone in pueblo architecture 147

Slavery among the Tusayan 41

Smallpox prevalent in Tusayan 38, 134

Smoke escape through roof-opening and transoms 189, 204, 206, 207

Snake dance, relation of dance-rock to 65

Snake people, the first occupants of the Tusayan region 17

construction of modern Walpi by the 23

Snow, use of, as water supply by the Zuñi 91

Spaniards, early visit of, to Tusayan 21, 22

Spanish authority, effect of,

upon purity of Zuñi kiva type 112

Spanish beams in Tusayan kivas 119, 123, 124, 125, 126

Spanish churches at pueblos, Hawikuk 81, 82, 138

Spanish influence in Zuñi and Tusayan 169, 180, 196, 213, 224

Spanish missions established in Tusayan 22

Spider people, settlement in Tusayan of the 27

Splash-stones described and figured 155, 156

Splayed openings in Ketchipauan church 82

Squash people, settlement in Tusayan of the 25

Stakes used in construction of stone walls 147

Stephen, A. M., material on traditional history

of Tusayan collected by 16-41

opinion on Walpi architectural features 72

acknowledgments to 100

on distribution of Oraibi gentes 104, 105

on orientation of Tusayan kivas 115

discovery of ancient kiva type near Sikyatki 117

typical kiva measurements by 122

on wattling or lathing of kiva walls 126

on significance of structural plan of kiva 135

collection of primitive andirons or bosses by 176

Steps and ladders described 156-162

Steps cut in faces of cliffs 191

Steps or foot-holes of Walpi trail 65

Steps to kivas 114

Stone, size, character, and finish of,

in pueblo ruins 55, 58, 60, 138

means of obtaining, in Zuñi 139

effect of use of, in chimney hoods 172

corrals 214

flags used to floor Tusayan kiva 121

inclosures in Southern Arizona 216

roof drains, curious forms of 154

shelters, possible remains of, at Payupki 60

slabs formerly used to close doorways 188

Stone-close anciently used 192, 193

Stone wedges used in pueblo wall finish 140, 142

Stonework, Shumopavi 75

at Oraibi 144

Mormon and Pueblos compared 148

Stone steps, Pescado 95

Tusayan 157

Stools used by the Pueblos 212, 213

Storage facilities of pueblo dwellings 57, 62, 103, 109,

143, 144, 182, 209

Straw adobe made by Spaniards 138, 224

Structural features of kivas similar 129

Subterranean character of kivas 63, 72, 112, 113

Sullivan, Jeremiah, Payupki tradition obtained by 40

Sunflower stalks used in chimney construction 170

Sun people of Tusayan 29

Supplies, how taken to Walpi mesa 65

Survey of Tusayan and Cibola, methods of 44-45

Tâaaiyalana, relation of K'iakima to 85

stone inclosures at base of 85

description of ruins of 89-91

flight of Zuñis to, during Pueblo revolt 89

mesa of, temporarily occupied 223

Tables not used in Pueblo houses 212, 214

Talla Hogan. See Awatubi 49-50

Taos formerly partly inhabited by the Tewa 37

Tceewáge. See Peña Blanca.

Tcosobi or Jay kiva, roof timbers of 120

Tebowúki, an early pueblo of the fire people of Tusayan 20

Tebugkihu or fire-house, description of 57

fragments of passage-wall at 181

Terraced doorways 190-191

Terraced gardens 217

Terraced roofs of Tusayan, names of 104

Terrace cooking-pits and fireplaces 174-177

Terrace rooms, half open, not seen in ancient pueblos 187

Terraces, Sichumovi form of 62

Oraibi, formed by natural causes 76

Zuñi 97, 98, 144

ancient pueblos, how reached 156

Tusayan names of 223

Tusayan, order of settlement of, by various peoples 29

Tesuque, a Tewa pueblo 37

Tetsógi. See Tesuque.

Tewa conflict with the Ute 36

Tewa, language of the 37

Tewa. See Hano.

Timbers for roof, kind used in kiva-building 19

Time for planting and harvesting, how determined in Zuñi 148

Tiponi of Tusayan explained 131

Topography, houses of Walpi constructed to conform to 64

of Shupaulovi 71

Tradition, historical value of 15

Tradition, Tusayan 16-41

Hano 35

regarding Hano and Tusayan languages 36

concerning Payupki pueblo 40

concerning occupancy of Old Mashongnavi 47-48

of foundation of Walpi 63

concerning circular kivas 135

Zuñi concerning stone-close 92-193

concerning early occupancy of former pueblos

by existing tribes 225

Traditionary gentes of Tusayan, list of 38

Trails, Walpi 65, 66

Tâaaiyalana 89

Transoms over pueblo doorways 187-189

Transportation to Walpi mesa, Indian method 66

Trapdoors, Sichumovi 63

kivas, no means of fastening 113

frames furnished with hand-holds 192

Tupubi defined 176

Túpkabi. See Canyon de Chelly.

Tusayan, survey of 15

traditional history of 16-41

ruins and inhabited villages of 42-79

house-building rites 100-104

houses of, owned by women 101

kivas in 111-137

list of kivas of 136

Tusayan and Cibola architecture

compared by constructional details 100-223

details of 137-223

Tusayan. See Hopituh.

Tuwahlki, or watch-house 217

Tuwii. See Santo Domingo 30

Twigs, use of, in roof construction 150

Ute, conflict with, by the Tewa of Hano 36

inroads of, upon Tusayan 25, 26, 35

Vargas, Don Diego, visit to Tusayan of 35

Vocabulary of Tusayan architectural terms 220-223

Walls, how indicated on plans of ruins 45

defensive, at Bat House 52

construction of, in Moen-kopi ruins 53

curved, instances of 54

showing precision of workmanship 54

dimensions in Tâaaiyalana mesa 90

original height of, indicated by débris 90

thickness of, in modern Tusayan 102

paintings on, in Tusayan kiva 131

pueblo, mode of construction of 137-148

copings of 139, 151, 152

Walls, strength of 144

weakness of, in Zuñi 182

of gardens 215

Walpi, settlement of Bear people at 21, 27

Spanish mission established at 22

construction of, by the Snake people 23

dispute of, with the Sikyatki 24

settlement of the Asa at 30, 31

abandoned by Bear, Lizard, Asa, and Badger peoples 31

description of 63-66

court-surrounded kiva of 114

kivas of 119, 136

upper story partitions of, supported by beams 144

use of large stone blocks in garden walls of 47

cooking pit at 176, 177

south passageway of, described 181

Walpi people, attack of Awatubi by the 34

affray between the Oraibi and 35

trouble between the Hano and 37

various pueblos formerly occupied by the 46, 47

Warp-sticks, mode of supporting 133

Water, method of carrying, at Walpi 65

Water family, last to settle at Tusayan 29

migration legend of 31

Water jars used in chimney construction 180

Water supply, Cibola 80

Ketchipauan 82, 83

Tâaaiyalana dwellings 90, 91

Kin-tiel 92

Zuñi 97

Water vessels, forms of 109

Wattling or lathing of kiva walls 126

Weaving appliances 212

Wejegi pueblo, loop-holes in 198

Well or reservoir of Zuñi 97

Whitewash on outer walls of Shumopavi 73-74

on Mashongnavi room 109

how made and applied in Zuñi 145

on house walls 145

used for coating doors 186

Wíksrun people, settlement in Tusayan of the 27

Willow wands used in roof construction 150

Window, doorway and chimney in one 121

Windows of various kinds described 194, 201

Wings constructed in court of Pueblo Bonito 70

Women, house owners at Tusayan 101

work of, in Tusayan house-building 101, 102

roof-building performed by 102

work of, in kiva-building 129

when admitted to kivas 134

societies of, and kivas for, in Tusayan 134

Wood, kinds of, used in Tusayan construction 102

Wood rack of pueblos described 103

Wood-working, how performed 184

Wooden doors not found in pre-Columbian ruins 184

Wooden features of pueblo windows 196

Woolen mill established by Mormons at Moen-kopi 78

Workshop, use of the kiva, as a 129, 133

Yeso used for interior whitewash 74

Yucca, use of, in lathing 127

Yucca fiber sandals from Canyon de Chelly 133

Zuñi, survey of pueblo of 14

arrival of the Asanyumu at 30

portion of site of, formerly occupied by Halona 88

tradition as to occupancy of Kin-tiel by the 92

plans and descriptions of villages of 94-99

description of pueblo of 97-99

See Cibola.

* * * * *

Errors and Anomalies:

Variant Forms, unchanged from original:

nyumu

_sometimes hyphenated:_

nyu-mu

Mashongnavi

Shupaulovi

Sichumovi

_sometimes written with accent:_

Mashóngnavi

Shupaúlovi

Sichúmovi

Irregularities in Table of Contents:

CHAPTER I.--Traditionary history of Tusayan

_title in body text reads "Traditional..."_

Small ruin near Horn House

Moen-kopi

Tâaaiyalana ruins

Kin-tiel and Kinna-Zinde

_titles in body text:_

Small ruin between Horn House and Bat House

Moen-kopi ruins

Tâaaiyalana

Kin-tiel

Many phrases are hyphenated in the List of Illustrations but not in the

captions themselves:

chief-kiva, ground-plan, loom-post, roof-beams...

Whatever their motive, the Bears left Antelope Canyon

_text reads "Cañyon"_

far off on the Múina (river) near Alavia (Santa Fé)

_text reads "Sante Fé"_

The principal building is a long irregular row, similar to

_text reads "similiar"_

All the Tusayan kivas are in the form of a parallelogram

_text reads "paralellogram"_

the second level of the kiva floor, forming the dais before referred to

The ledge, or dais, is free for the use of spectators

_text reads "dias" both times, but is spelled "dais" on its first

occurrence (earlier in text)_

these overhanging copings occur principally on the southern exposures

_text reads "pricipally"_

particularly prevalent in Zuni

_text reads "particulary"_

Chapters II and III

_text reads "Chapter"_

usually carved from a single piece of wood

_text reads "single / single" at line break_

somewhat similar in effect to the carving on the Spanish beams

_text reads "similiar"_

the almost inaccessible summit of Tâaaiyalana mesa

_text reads "Tâaiyalana"_

[Index]

Stonework ... Oraibi

_text reads "Oraib"_

Tâaaiyalana, relation of K'iakima to

_text reads "Tâaiyalana"_

Punctuation:

Long ago the Hopi´tuh were few

_paragraph (printed as block quote) begins with redundant

quotation mark_