7. The Charente region, the grapes of which furnish brandy, as do
those of Armagnac (department of Gers).
The decennial averages for the years 1896-1905 were as follows:
Acreage of productive vines 4,056,725
Total production in gallons 1,072,622,000
Average production in gallons per acre 260
_Fruit._--Fruit-growing is general all over France, which, apart from
bananas and pine-apples, produces in the open air all the ordinary
species of fruit which its inhabitants consume. Some of these may be
specially mentioned. The cider apple, which ranks first in importance,
is produced in those districts where cider is the habitual drink, that
is to say, chiefly in the region north-west of a line drawn from Paris
to the mouth of the Loire. The average annual production of cider
during the years 1896 to 1905 was 304,884,000 gallons. Dessert apples
and pears are grown there and in the country on both banks of the
lower Loire, the valley of which abounds in orchards wherein many
varieties of fruit flourish and in nursery-gardens. The hilly regions
of Limousin, Périgord and the Cévennes are the home of the chestnut,
which in some places is still a staple food; walnuts grow on the lower
levels of the central plateau and in lower Dauphiné and Provence, figs
and almonds in Provence, oranges and citrons on the Mediterranean
coast, apricots in central France, the olive in Provence and the lower
valleys of the Rhône and Durance. Truffles are found under the oaks of
Périgord, Comtat-Venaissin and lower Dauphiné. The mulberry grows in
the valleys of the Rhône and its tributaries, the Isère, the Drôme,
the Ardèche, the Gard and the Durance, and also along the coast of
the Mediterranean. Silk-worm rearing, which is encouraged by state
grants, is carried on in the valleys mentioned and on the
Mediterranean coast east of Marseilles. The numbers of growers
decreased from 139,000 in 1891 to 124,000 in 1905. The decrease in the
annual average production of cocoons is shown in the preceding table.
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Silk Cocoons. | 1891-1895. | 1896-1900. | 1901-1905. |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------- ----+
| Annual average production | | | |
| over quinquennial periods | 19,587,000 | 17,696,000 | 16,566,000 |
| in lb. | | | |
+-----------------------------+------------+------------+------------+
Snails are reared in some parts of the country as an article of food,
those of Burgundy being specially esteemed.
_Stock-raising._--From this point of view the soil of France may be
divided into four categories:
1. The rich pastoral regions where dairy-farming and the fattening of
cattle are carried on with most success, viz. (a) Normandy, Perche,
Cotentin and maritime Flanders, where horses are bred in great
numbers; (b) the strip of coast between the Gironde and the mouth of
the Loire; (c) the Morvan including the Nivernais and the Charolais,
from which the famous Charolais breed of oxen takes its name; (d) the
central region of the central plateau including the districts of
Cantal and Aubrac, the home of the famous beef-breeds of Salers and
Aubrac.[8] The famous _pré-salé_ sheep are also reared in the Vendée
and Cotentin.
2. The poorer grazing lands on the upper levels of the Alps, Pyrenees,
Jura and Vosges, the Landes, the more outlying regions of the central
plateau, southern Brittany, Sologne, Berry, Champagne-Pouilleuse, the
Crau and the Camargue, these districts being given over for the most
part to sheep-raising.
3. The plain of Toulouse, which with the rest of south-western France
produces good draught oxen, the Parisian basin, the plains of the
north to the east of the maritime region, the lower valley of the
Rhône and the Bresse, where there is little or no natural pasturage,
and forage is grown from seed.
4. West, west-central and eastern France outside these areas, where
meadows are predominant and both dairying and fattening are general.
Included therein are the dairying and horse-raising district of
northern Brittany and the dairying regions of Jura and Savoy.
In the industrial regions of northern France cattle are stall-fed with
the waste products of the beet-sugar factories, oil-works and
distilleries. _Swine_, bred all over France, are more numerous in
Brittany, Anjou (whence comes the well-known breed of Craon), Poitou,
Burgundy, the west and north of the central plateau and Béarn. Upper
Poitou and the zone of south-western France to the north of the
Pyrenees are the chief regions for the breeding of mules. Asses are
reared in Béarn, Corsica, Upper Poitou, the Limousin, Berry and other
central regions. Goats are kept in the mountainous regions (Auvergne,
Provence, Corsica). The best poultry come from the Bresse, the
district of Houdan (Seine-et-Oise), the district of Le Mans and
Crèvecoeur (Calvados).
The _prés naturels_ (meadows) and _herbages_ (unmown pastures) of
France, i.e. the grass-land of superior quality as distinguished from
_paturages et pacages_, which signifies pasture of poorer quality,
increased in area between 1895 and 1905 as is shown below:
1895 (Acres). 1905 (Acres).
Prés naturels 10,852,000 11,715,000
Herbages 2,822,000 3,022,000
The following table shows the number of live stock in the country at
intervals of ten years since 1885.
+-------------------------------------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| Cattle. | | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+ Sheep and | Pigs. | Horses. | Mules. | Asses. |
| | Cows. | Other | Total. | Lambs. | | | | |
| | | Kinds. | | | | | | |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| 1885 | 6,414,487 | 6,690,483 | 13,104,970 | 22,616,547 | 5,881,088 | 2,911,392 | 238,620 | 387,227 |
| 1895 | 6,359,795 | 6,874,033 | 13,233,828 | 21,163,767 | 6,306,019 | 2,812,447 | 211,479 | 357,778 |
| 1905 | 7,515,564 | 6,799,988 | 14,315,552 | 17,783,209 | 7,558,779 | 3,169,224 | 198,865 | 365,181 |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
_Agricultural Organization._--In France the interests of agriculture
are entrusted to a special ministry, comprising the following
divisions: (1) forests, (2) breeding-studs (_haras_); (3) agriculture,
a department which supervises agricultural instruction and the
distribution of grants and premiums; (4) agricultural improvements,
draining, irrigation, &c.; (5) an intelligence department which
prepares statistics, issues information as to prices and markets, &c.
The minister is assisted by a superior council of agriculture, the
members of which, numbering a hundred, include senators, deputies and
prominent agriculturists. The ministry employs inspectors, whose duty
it is to visit the different parts of the country and to report on
their respective position and wants. The reports which they furnish
help to determine the distribution of the moneys dispensed by the
state in the form of subventions to agricultural societies and in
many other ways. The chief type of agricultural society is the _comice
agricole_, an association for the discussion of agricultural problems
and the organization of provincial shows. There are besides several
thousands of local syndicates, engaged in the purchase of materials
and sale of produce on the most advantageous terms for their members,
credit banks and mutual insurance societies (see CO-OPERATION). Three
societies demand special mention: the _Union centrale des agriculteurs
de France_, to which the above syndicates are affiliated; the _Société
nationale d'agriculture_, whose mission is to further agricultural
progress and to supply the government with information on everything
appertaining thereto and the _Société des agriculteurs de France_.
Among a variety of premiums awarded by the state are those for the
best cultivated estates and for irrigation works, and to the owners of
the best stallions and brood-mares. _Haras_ or stallion stables
containing in all over 3000 horses are established in twenty-two
central towns, and annually send stallions, which are at the disposal
of private individuals in return for a small fee, to various stations
throughout the country. Other institutions belonging to the state are
the national sheep-fold of Rambouillet (Seine-et-Oise) and the
cow-house of Vieux-Pin (Orne) for the breeding of Durham cows. Four
different grades of institution for agricultural instruction are under
state direction: (1) farm-schools and schools of apprenticeship in
dairying, &c., to which the age of admission is from 14 to 16 years;
(2) practical schools, to which boys of from 13 to 18 years of age are
admitted. These number forty-eight, and are intended for sons of
farmers of good position; (3) national schools, which are established
at Grignon (Seine-et-Oise), Rennes and Montpellier, candidates for
which must be 17 years of age; (4) the National Agronomic Institute at
Paris, which is intended for the training of estate agents,
professors, &c. There are also departmental chairs of agriculture, the
holders of which give instruction in training-colleges and elsewhere
and advise farmers.
_Forests._--In relation to its total extent, France presents but a
very limited area of forest land, amounting to only 36,700 sq. m. or
about 18% of the entire surface of the country. Included under the
denomination of "forest" are lands--_surfaces boisées_--which are
_bush_ rather than _forest_. The most wooded parts of France are the
mountains and plateaus of the east and of the north-east, comprising
the pine-forests of the Vosges and Jura (including the beautiful
Forest of Chaux), the Forest of Haye, the Forest of Ardennes, the
Forest of Argonne, &c.; the Landes, where replanting with maritime
pines has transformed large areas of marsh into forest; and the
departments of Var and Ariège. The Central Mountains and the Morvan
also have considerable belts of wood. In the Parisian region there are
the Forests of Fontainebleau (66 sq. m.), of Compiègne (56 sq. m.), of
Rambouillet, of Villers-Cotterets, &c. The Forest of Orléans, the
largest in France, covers about 145 sq. m. The Alps and Pyrenees are
in large part deforested, but reafforestation with a view to
minimizing the effects of avalanches and sudden floods is continually
in progress.
Of the forests of the country approximately one-third belongs to the
state, communes and public institutions. The rest belongs to private
owners who are, however, subject to certain restrictions. The
Department of Waters[9] and Forests (Administration des Eaux et
Forêts) forms a branch of the ministry of agriculture. It is
administered by a director-general, who has his headquarters at Paris,
assisted by three administrators who are charged with the working of
the forests, questions of rights and law, finance and plantation
works. The establishment consists of 32 conservators, each at the head
of a district comprising one or more departments, 200 inspectors, 215
sub-inspectors and about 300 _gardes généraux_. These officials form
the higher grade of the service (_agents_). There are besides several
thousand forest-rangers and other employés (_préposés_). The
department is supplied with officials of the higher class from the
National School of Waters and Forests at Nancy, founded in 1824.
_Industries._
In France, as in other countries, the development of machinery, whether
run by steam, water-power or other motive forces, has played a great
part in the promotion of industry; the increase in the amount of steam
horse-power employed in industrial establishments is, to a certain
degree, an index to the activity of the country as regards manufactures.
The appended table shows the progress made since 1850 with regard to
steam power. Railway and marine locomotives are not included.
+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+
|Years.| No. of | No. of | Total |
| | Establishments.| Steam-Engines.| Horse-Power. |
+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+
| 1852 | 6,543 | 6,080 | 76,000 |
| 1861 | 14,153 | 15,805 | 191,000 |
| 1871 | 22,192 | 26,146 | 316,000 |
| 1881 | 35,712 | 44,010 | 576,000 |
| 1891 | 46,828 | 58,967 | 916,000 |
| 1901 | 58,151 | 75,866 | 1,907,730 |
| 1905 | 61,112 | 79,203 | 2,232,263 |
+------+----------------+---------------+--------------+
With the exception of Loire, Bouches-du-Rhône and Rhône, the chief
industrial departments of France are to be found in the north and
north-east of the country. In 1901 and 1896 those in which the working
inhabitants of both sexes were engaged in industry as opposed to
agriculture to the extent of 50% (approximately) or over, numbered
eleven, viz.:--
+-----------------------+--------------+------------+--------------------+
| | | | Percentage engaged |
| | Total Working| Industrial | in Industry. |
| Departments. | Population | Population +---------+----------+
| | (1901). | (1901). | 1901. | 1896. |
+-----------------------+--------------+------------+---------+----------+
| Nord | 848,306 | 544,177 | 64.15 | 63.45 |
| Territoire de Belfort | 40,703 | 24,470 | 60.10 | 58.77 |
| Loire | 292,808 | 167,693 | 57.27 | 54.73 |
| Seine | 2,071,344 | 1,143,809 | 55.22 | 53.54 |
| Bouches-du-Rhône | 341,823 | 187,801 | 54.94 | 51.00 |
| Rhône | 449,121 | 243,571 | 54.23 | 54.78 |
| Meurthe-et-Moselle | 215,501 | 115,214 | 53.46 | 50.19 |
| Ardennes | 139,270 | 73,250 | 52.60 | 52.42 |
| Vosges | 208,142 | 107,547 | 51.67 | 51.05 |
| Pas-de-Calais | 404,153 | 200,402 | 49.58 | 46.55 |
| Seine-Inférieure | 428,591 | 206,612 | 48.21 | 49.85 |
+-----------------------+--------------+------------+---------+----------+
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| | | | Average Production|
| Groups. | Basins. | Departments. | (Thousands of |
| | | | Metric Tons) |
| | | | 1901-1905. |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| Nord and / | Valenciennes | Nord, Pas-de-Calais | \ 20,965 |
| Pas-de-Calais \ | Le Boulonnais | Pas-de-Calais | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| / | St Étienne and Rive-de-Gier| Loire | \ |
| Loire < | Communay | Isère | > 3,601 |
| | | Ste Foy l'Argentière | Rhône | | |
| \ | Roannais | Loire | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| / | Alais | Gard, Ardèche | \ |
| Gard < | Aubenas | Ardèche | > 1,954 |
| \ | Le Vigan | Gard | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| / | Decize | Nièvre | \ |
| Bourgogne < | La Chapelle-sous-Dun | Saône-et-Loire | > 1,881 |
| and Nivernais | | Bert | Allier | | |
| \ | Sincey | Côte-d'Or | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| / | Aubin | Aveyron | \ |
| Tarn and < | Carmaux and Albi | Tarn | > 1,770 |
| Aveyron | | Rodez | Aveyron | | |
| \ | St Perdoux | Lot | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
| / | Commentry and Doyet | Allier | \ |
| Bourbonnais < | St Eloi | Puy-de-Dôme | > 994 |
| | | L'Aumance | Allier | | |
| \ | La Queune | Allier | / |
+-----------------+----------------------------+---------------------+-------------------+
The department of Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has the
largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the
manufacture of dress, millinery and articles of luxury (perfumery, &c.),
but it plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry
with the exception of spinning and weaving. The typically industrial
region of France is the department of Nord, the seat of the woollen
industry, but also prominently concerned in other textile industries, in
metal working, and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is
supplied by its coal-fields. The following sketch of the manufacturing
industry of France takes account chiefly of those of its branches which
are capable in some degree of localization. Many of the great industries
of the country, e.g. tanning, brick-making, the manufacture of garments,
&c., are evenly distributed throughout it, and are to be found in or
near all larger centres of population.
_Coal._--The principal mines of France are coal and iron mines. The
production of coal and lignite averaging 33,465,000 metric tons[10] in
the years 1901-1905 represents about 73% of the total consumption of
the country; the surplus is supplied from Great Britain, Belgium and
Germany. The preceding table shows the average output of the chief
coal-groups for the years 1901-1905 inclusive. The Flemish coal-basin,
employing over 100,000 hands, produces 60% of the coal mined in
France.
French lignite comes for the most part from the department of
Bouches-du-Rhône (near Fuveau).
The development of French coal and lignite mining in the 19th century,
together with records of prices, which rose considerably at the end of
the period, is set forth in the table below:
+-----------+----------------+---------------+
| | Average Yearly | Average Price |
| Years. | Production | per Ton at |
| | (Thousands of | Pit Mouth |
| | Metric Tons). | (Francs). |
+-----------+----------------+---------------+
| 1821-1830 | 1,495 | 10.23 |
| 1831-1840 | 2,571 | 9.83 |
| 1841-1850 | 4,078.5 | 9.69 |
| 1851-1860 | 6,857 | 11.45 |
| 1861-1870 | 11,831 | 11.61 |
| 1871-1880 | 16,774 | 14.34 |
| 1881-1890 | 21,542 | 11.55 |
| 1891-1900 | 29,190 | 11.96 |
| 1901-1905 | 33,465 | 14.18 |
+-----------+----------------+---------------+
_Iron._--The iron-mines of France are more numerous than its
coal-mines, but they do not yield a sufficient quantity of ore for the
needs of the metallurgical industries of the country; as will be seen
in the table below the production of iron in France gradually
increased during the 19th century; on the other hand, a decline in
prices operated against a correspondingly marked increase in its
annual value.
+-----------+----------------+--------------+
| | Average Annual | |
| Years. | Production | Price per |
| | (Thousands of | Metric Ton |
| | Metric Tons). | (Francs). |
+-----------+----------------+--------------+
| 1841-1850 | 1247 | 6.76 |
| 1851-1860 | 2414.5 | 5.51 |
| 1861-1870 | 3035 | 4.87 |
| 1871-1880 | 2514 | 5.39 |
| 1881-1890 | 2934 | 3.99 |
| 1891-1900 | 4206 | 3.37 |
| 1901-1905 | 6072 | 3.72 |
+-----------+----------------+--------------+
The department of Meurthe-et-Moselle (basins of Nancy and
Longwy-Briey) furnished 84% of the total output during the
quinquennial period 1901-1905, may be reckoned as one of the principal
iron-producing regions of the world. The other chief producers were
Pyrénées-Orientales, Calvados, Haute-Marne (Vassy) and Saône-et-Loire
(Mazenay and Change).
_Other Ores._--The mining of zinc, the chief deposits of which are at
Malines (Gard), Les Bormettes (Var) and Planioles (Lot), and of lead,
produced especially at Chaliac (Ardèche), ranks next in importance to
that of iron. Iron-pyrites come almost entirely from Sain-Bel
(Rhône), manganese chiefly from Ariège and Saône-et-Loire, antimony
from the departments of Mayenne, Haute-Loire and Cantal. Copper and
mispickel are mined only in small quantities. The table below gives
the average production of zinc, argentiferous lead, iron-pyrites and
other ores during the quinquennial period 1901-1905.
+--------------+--------------+---------+
| | Production | |
| |(Thousands of | Value £.|
| | Metric Tons).| |
+--------------+--------------+---------+
| Zinc | 60.3 | 206,912 |
| Lead | 18.5 | 100,424 |
| Iron-pyrites | 297.2 | 170,312 |
| Other ores | 36.0 | 68,376 |
+--------------+--------------+---------+
_Salt, &c._--Rock-salt is worked chiefly in the department of
Meurthe-et-Moselle, which produces more than half the average annual
product of salt. For the years 1896-1905, this was 1,010,000 tons,
including both rock- and sea-salt. The salt-marshes of the
Mediterranean coast, especially the Étang de Berre and those of
Loire-Inférieure, are the principal sources of sea-salt. Sulphur is
obtained near Apt (Vaucluse) and in a few other localities of
south-eastern France; bituminous schist near Autun (Saône-et-Loire)
and Buxières (Allier). The most extensive peat-workings are in the
valleys of the Somme; asphalt comes from Seyssel (Ain) and
Puy-de-Dôme.
The mineral springs of France are numerous, of varied character and
much frequented. Leading resorts are: in the Pyrenean region,
Amélie-les-Bains, Bagnères-de-Luchon, Bagnères-de-Bigorre, Barèges,
Cauterets, Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudes and Dax; in the Central Plateau,
Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon l'Archambault, Vichy, Royat,
Chaudes-Aigues, Vais, Lamalon; in the Alps, Aix-les-Bains and Evian;
in the Vosges and Faucilles, Plombières, Luxeuil, Contrexéville,
Vittel, Martigny and Bourbonne-les-Bains. Outside these main groups St
Amand-les-Eaux and Foyes-les-Eaux may be mentioned.
_Quarry-Products._--Quarries of various descriptions are numerous all
over France. Slate is obtained in large quantities from the
departments of Maine-et-Loire (Angers), Ardennes (Fumay) and Mayenne
(Renazé). Stone-quarrying is specially active in the departments round
Paris, Seine-et-Oise employing more persons in this occupation than
any other department. The environs of Creil (Oise) and Château-Landon
(Seine-et-Marne) are noted for their freestone (_pierre de taille_),
which is also abundant at Euville and Lérouville in Meuse; the
production of plaster is particularly important in the environs of
Paris, of kaolin of fine quality at Yrieix (Haute-Vienne), of
hydraulic lime in Ardèche (Le Teil), of lime phosphates in the
department of Somme, of marble in the departments of Haute-Garonne (St
Béat), Hautes-Pyrénées (Campan, Sarrancolin), Isère and Pas-de-Calais,
and of cement in Pas-de-Calais (vicinity of Boulogne) and Isère
(Grenoble). Paving-stone is supplied in large quantities by
Seine-et-Oise, and brick-clay is worked chiefly in Nord, Seine and
Pas-de-Calais. The products of the quarries of France for the five
years 1901-1905 averaged £9,311,000 per annum in value, of which
building material brought in over two-thirds.
_Metallurgy._--The average production and value of iron and steel
manufactured in France in the last four decades of the 19th century is
shown below:
+----------+----------------------+------------------------+
| | Cast Iron. | Wrought Iron and Steel.|
| +-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
| | Product | | Product | |
| Years. |(Thousands | Value |(Thousands | Value |
| | of Metric |(Thousands| of Metric | (Thousands |
| | Tons). | of £). | Tons). | of £). |
+----------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
|1861-1870 | 1191.5 | 5012 | 844 | 8,654 |
|1871-1880 | 1391 | 5783 | 1058.5 | 11,776 |
|1881-1890 | 1796 | 5119 | 1376 | 11,488 |
|1891-1900 | 2267 | 5762 | 1686 | 14,540 |
| 1903 | 2841 | 7334 | 1896 | 15,389 |
+----------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+
Taking the number of hands engaged in the industry as a basis of
comparison, the most important departments as regards iron and steel
working in 1901 were:
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+
| | | | Hands engaged |
| | | | in Production |
| | | Hands engaged in | of Engineering|
| Department. | Chief Centres. | Production of | Material and |
| | |Pig-Iron and Steel.| Manufactured |
| | | | Goods. |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+
|Seine | . . . . . . . . . . | 600 | 102,500 |
|Nord |Lille, Anzin, Denain, Douai, Hautmont, Maubeuge| 14,000 | 45,000 |
|Loire |Rive-de-Gier, Firminy, St Étienne, St Chamond | 9,500 | 17,500 |
|Meurthe-et-Moselle|Pont-à-Mousson, Frouard, Longwy, Nancy | 16,500 | 6,500 |
|Ardennes |Charleville, Nouzon | 800 | 23,000 |
+------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------------------+---------------+
Rhône (Lyons), Saône-et-Loire (Le Creusot, Chalon-sur-Saône) and
Loire-Inférieure (Basse-Indre, Indret, Couëron, Trignac) also play a
considerable part in this industry.
The chief centres for the manufacture of cutlery are Châttelerault
(Vienne), Langres (Haute-Marne) and Thiers (Puy-de-Dôme); for that of
arms St Etienne, Tulle and Châttelerault; for that of watches and
clocks, Besançon (Doubs) and Montbéliard (Doubs); for that of optical
and mathematical instruments Paris, Morez (Jura) and St Claude (Jura);
for that of locksmiths' ware the region of Vimeu (Pas-de-Calais).
There are important zinc works at Auby and St Amand (Nord) and Viviez
(Aveyron) and Noyelles-Godault (Pas-de-Calais); there are lead works
at the latter place, and others of greater importance at Couëron
(Loire-Inférieure). Copper is smelted in Ardennes and Pas-de-Calais.
The production of these metals, which are by far the most important
after iron and steel, increased steadily during the period 1890-1905,
and reached its highest point in 1905, details for which year are
given below:
+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+
| | Zinc. | Lead. | Copper. |
+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+
| Production (in metric tons)| 43,200 | 24,100 | 7,600 |
| Value | £1,083,000 | £386,000 | £526,000 |
+----------------------------+------------+----------+----------+
_Wool._--In 1901, 161,000 persons were engaged in the spinning and
other preparatory processes and in the weaving of wool. The woollen
industry is carried on most extensively in the department of Nord
(Roubaix, Tourcoing, Fourmies). Of second rank are Reims and Sedan in
the Champagne group; Elbeuf, Louviers and Rouen in Normandy; and
Mazamet (Tarn).
_Cotton._--In 1901, 166,000 persons were employed in the spinning and
weaving of cotton, French cotton goods being distinguished chiefly for
the originality of their design. The cotton industry is distributed in
three principal groups. The longest established is that of Normandy,
having its centres at Rouen, Havre, Evreux, Falaise and Flers. Another
group in the north of France has its centres at Lille, Tourcoing,
Roubaix, St Quentin and Amiens. That of the Vosges, which has
experienced a great extension since the loss of Alsace-Lorraine,
comprises Epinal, St Dié, Remiremont and Belfort. Other groups of less
importance are situated in the Lyonnais (Roanne and Tarare) and
Mayenne (Laval and Mayenne).
_Silk._--The silk industry occupied 134,000 hands in 1901. The silk
fabrics of France hold the first place, particularly the more
expensive kinds. The industry is concentrated in the departments
bordering the river Rhône, the chief centres being Lyons (Rhône),
Voiron (Isère), St Étienne and St Chamond (Loire) (the two latter
being especially noted for their ribbons and trimmings) and Annonay
(Ardèche) and other places in the departments of Ain, Gard and Drôme.
_Flax, Hemp, Jute, &c._--The preparation and spinning of these
materials and the manufacture of nets and rope, together with the
weaving of linen and other fabrics, give occupation to 112,000 persons
chiefly in the departments of Nord (Lille, Armentières, Dunkirk),
Somme (Amiens) and Maine-et-Loire (Angers, Cholet).
_Hosiery_, the manufacture of which employs 55,000 hands, has its
chief centre in Aube (Troyes). The production of lace and guipure,
occupying 112,000 persons, is carried on mainly in the towns and
villages of Haute-Loire and in Vosges (Mirecourt), Rhône (Lyons),
Pas-de-Calais (Calais) and Paris.
_Leather._--Tanning and leather-dressing are widely spread industries,
and the same may be said of the manufacture of boots and shoes, though
these trades employ more hands in the department of Seine than
elsewhere; in the manufacture of gloves Isère (Grenoble) and Aveyron
(Millau) hold the first place amongst French departments.
_Sugar._--The manufacture of sugar is carried on in the departments of
the north, in which the cultivation of beetroot is general--Aisne,
Nord, Somme, Pas-de-Calais, Oise and Seine-et-Marne, the three first
being by far the largest producers. The increase in production in the
last twenty years of the 19th century is indicated in the following
table:--
+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+
| | | Average Annual |
| Years. | Annual Average of | Production in |
| | Men employed | Metric Tons. |
+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+
| 1881-1891 | 43,108 | 415,786 |
| 1891-1901 | 42,841 | 696,038 |
| 1901-1906 | 43,061 | 820,553 |
+-----------+-------------------+-----------------+
_Alcohol._--The distillation of alcohol is in the hands of three
classes of persons. (1) Professional distillers (_bouilleurs et
distillateurs de profession_); (2) private distillers (_bouilleurs de
cru_) under state control; (3) small private distillers, not under
state control, but giving notice to the state that they distil. The
two last classes number over 400,000 (1903), but the quantity of
alcohol distilled by them is small. Beetroot, molasses and grain are
the chief sources of spirit. The department of Nord produces by far
the greatest quantity, its average annual output in the decade
1895-1904 being 13,117,000 gallons, or about 26% of the average
annual production of France during the same period (49,945,000
gallons). Aisne, Pas-de-Calais and Somme rank next to Nord.
_Glass_ is manufactured in the departments of Nord (Aniche, &c.),
Seine, Loire (Rive-de-Gier) and Meurthe-et-Moselle, Baccarat in the
latter department being famous for its table-glass. Limoges is the
chief centre for the manufacture of porcelain, and the artistic
products of the national porcelain factory of Sèvres have a world-wide
reputation.
The manufacture of paper and cardboard is largely carried on in Isère
(Voiron), Seine-et-Oise (Essonnes), Vosges (Epinal) and of the finer
sorts of paper in Charente (Angoulême). That of oil, candles and soap
has its chief centre at Marseilles. Brewing and malting are localized
chiefly in Nord. There are well-known chemical works at Dombasle
(close to Nancy) and Chauny (Aisne) and in Rhône.
_Occupations._--The following table, which shows the approximate
numbers of persons engaged in the various manufacturing industries of
France, who number in all about 5,820,000, indicates their relative
importance from the point of view of employment:
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Occupation. | 1901. | 1866. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Baking | 163,500 | .. |
| Milling | 99,400 | .. |
| _Charcuterie_ | 39,600 | .. |
| Other alimentary industries | 161,500 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Alimentary industries: total | 464,000 | 308,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Gas-works | 26,000 | .. |
| Tobacco factories | 16,000 | .. |
| Oil-works | 10,000 | .. |
| Other "chemical"[11] industries | 58,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Chemical industries: total | 110,000 | 49,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Rubber factories | 9,000 |\ |
| Paper factories | 61,000 |/ 25,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Typographic and lithographic printing| 76,000 | .. |
| Other branches of book production | 23,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Book production: total | 99,000 | 38,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Spinning and weaving | 892,000 | 1,072,000|
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Clothing, millinery and making up of |1,484,000 |\ |
| fabrics generally. | | >761,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+ | |
| Basket work, straw goods, feathers | 39,000 |/ |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Leather and skin | 338,000 | 286,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Joinery | 153,000 | .. |
| Builder's carpentering | 94,900 | .. |
| Wheelwright's work | 82,700 | .. |
| Cooperage | 46,600 | .. |
| Wooden shoes | 52,400 | .. |
| Other wood industries | 280,400 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Wood industries: total | 710,000 | 671,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Metallurgy and metal working | 783,000 | 345,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Goldsmiths' and jewellers' work | 35,000 | 55,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Stone-working | 56,000 | 12,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Construction, building, decorating | 572,000 | 443,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Glass manufacture | 43,000 | .. |
| Tiles | 29,000 | .. |
| Porcelain and faïence | 27,000 | .. |
| Bricks | 17,000 | .. |
| Other kiln industries | 45,000 | .. |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Kiln industries: total | 161,000 | 110,000 |
+--------------------------------------+----------+----------+
| Some 9000 individuals were engaged in unclassified |
| industries. |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
_Fisheries._--The fishing population of France is most numerous in the
Breton departments of Finistère, Côtes-du-Nord and Morbihan and in
Pas-de-Calais. Dunkirk, Gravelines, Boulogne and Paimpol send
considerable fleets to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and St Malo,
Fécamp, Granville and Cancale to those of Newfoundland. The Dogger
Bank is frequented by numbers of French fishing-boats. Besides the
above, Boulogne, the most important fishing port in the country,
Calais, Dieppe, Concarneau, Douarnenez, Les Sables d'Olonne, La
Rochelle, Marennes and Arcachon are leading ports for the herring,
sardine, mackerel and other coast-fisheries of the ocean, while Cette,
Agde and other Mediterranean ports are engaged in the tunny and
anchovy fisheries. Sardine preserving is an important industry at
Nantes and other places on the west coast. Oysters are reared chiefly
at Marennes, which is the chief French market for them, and at
Arcachon, Vannes, Oléron, Auray, Cancale and Courseulles. The total
value of the produce of fisheries increased from £4,537,000 in 1892 to
£5,259,000 in 1902. In 1902 the number of men employed in the home
fisheries was 144,000 and the number of vessels 25,481 (tonnage
127,000); in the deep-sea fisheries 10,500 men and 450 vessels
(tonnage 51,000) were employed.
_Communications._
_Roads._--Admirable highways known as _routes nationales_ and kept up at
the expense of the state radiate from Paris to the great towns of
France. Averaging 52½ ft. in breadth, they covered in 1905 a distance of
nearly 24,000 m. The École des Ponts et Chaussées at Paris is maintained
by the government for the training of the engineers for the construction
and upkeep of roads and bridges. Each department controls and maintains
the _routes départementales_, usually good macadamized roads connecting
the chief places within its limits and extending in 1903 over 9700 m.
The routes nationales and the routes départementales come under the
category of _la grande voirie_ and are under the supervision of the
Ministry of Public Works. The urban and rural district roads, covering a
much greater mileage and classed as _la petite voirie_, are maintained
chiefly by the communes under the supervision of the Minister of the
Interior.
_Waterways._[12]--The waterways of France, 7543 m. in length, of which
canals cover 3031 m., are also classed under _la grande voirie_; they
are the property of the state, and for the most part are free of tolls.
They are divided into two classes. Those of the first class, which
comprise rather less than half the entire system, have a minimum depth
of 6½ ft., with locks 126 ft. long and 17 ft. wide; those of the second
class are of smaller dimensions. Water traffic, which is chiefly in
heavy merchandise, as coal, building materials, and agriculture and food
produce, more than doubled in volume between 1881 and 1905. The canal
and river system attains its greatest utility in the north, north-east
and north-centre of the country; traffic is thickest along the Seine
below Paris; along the rivers and small canals of the rich departments
of Nord and Pas-de-Calais and along the Oise and the canal of St Quentin
whereby they communicate with Paris; along the canal from the Marne to
the Rhine and the succession of waterways which unite it with the Oise;
along the Canal de l'Est (departments of Meuse and Ardennes); and along
the waterways uniting Paris with the Saône at Chalon (Seine, Canal du
Loing, Canal de Briare, Lateral canal of the Loire and Canal du Centre)
and along the Saône between Chalon and Lyons.
In point of length the following are the principal canals:
Miles.
Est (uniting Meuse with Moselle and Saône) 270
From Nates to Brest 225
Berry (uniting Montluçon with the canalized Cher
and the Loire canal) 163
Midi (Toulouse to Mediterranean via Béziers); see
CANAL 175
Burgundy (uniting the Yonne and Saône) 151
Lateral canal of Loire 137
From Marne to Rhine (on French territory) 131
Lateral canal of Garonne 133
Rhône to Rhine (on French territory) 119
Nivernais (uniting Loire and Yonne) 111
Canal de la Somme 97
Centre (uniting Saône and Loire) 81
Canal de l'Ourcq 67
Ardennes (uniting Aisne and Canal de l'Est) 62
From Rhône to Cette 77
Canal de la Haute Marne 60
St Quentin (uniting Scheldt with Somme and Oise) 58
The chief navigable rivers are:
+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Total | |
| | navigated | First Class |
| | Length. |Navigability.|
+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
| | Miles. | Miles. |
| | | |
| Seine | 339 | 293 |
| Aisne | 37 | 37 |
| Marne | 114 | 114 |
| Oise | 99 | 65 |
| Yonne | 67 | 53 |
| Rhône | 309 | 30 |
| Saône | 234 | 234 |
| Adour | 72 | 21 |
| Garonne | 289 | 96 |
| Dordogne | 167 | 26 |
| Loire | 452 | 35 |
| Charente | 106 | 16 |
| Vilaine | 91 | 31 |
| Escaut (in France)| 39 | 39 |
| Scarpe | 41 | 41 |
| Lys | 45 | 45 |
| Aa | 18 | 18 |
+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
_Railways._--The first important line in France, from Paris to Rouen,
was constructed through the instrumentality of Sir Edward Blount
(1809-1905), an English banker in Paris, who was afterwards for thirty
years chairman of the Ouest railway. After the rejection in 1838 of the
government's proposals for the construction of seven trunk lines to be
worked by the state, he obtained a concession for that piece of line on
the terms that the French treasury would advance one-third of the
capital at 3% if he would raise the remaining two-thirds, half in France
and half in England. The contract for building the railway was put in
the hands of Thomas Brassey; English navvies were largely employed on
the work, and a number of English engine-drivers were employed when
traffic was begun in 1843. A law passed in 1842 laid the foundation of
the plan under which the railways have since been developed, and mapped
out nine main lines, running from Paris to the frontiers and from the
Mediterranean to the Rhine and to the Atlantic coast. Under it the cost
of the necessary land was to be found as to one-third by the state and
as to the residue locally, but this arrangement proved unworkable and
was abandoned in 1845, when it was settled that the state should provide
the land and construct the earthworks and stations, the various
companies which obtained concessions being left to make the permanent
way, provide rolling stock and work the lines for certain periods.
Construction proceeded under this law, but not with very satisfactory
results, and new arrangements had to be made between 1852 and 1857, when
the railways were concentrated in the hands of six great companies, the
Nord, the Est, the Ouest, the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée, the Orléans and
the Midi. Each of these companies was allotted a definite sphere of
influence, and was granted a concession for ninety-nine years from its
date of formation, the concessions thus terminating at various dates
between 1950 and 1960. In return for the privileges granted them the
companies undertook the construction out of their own unaided resources
of 1500 m. of subsidiary lines, but the railway expenditure of the
country at this period was so large that in a few years they found it
impossible to raise the capital they required. In these circumstances
the state agreed to guarantee the interest on the capital, the sums it
paid in this way being regarded as advances to be reimbursed in the
future with interest at 4%. This measure proved successful and the
projected lines were completed. But demands for more lines were
constantly arising, and the existing companies, in view of their
financial position, were disinclined to undertake their construction.
The government therefore found itself obliged to inaugurate a system of
direct subventions, not only to the old large companies, but also to new
small ones, to encourage the development of branch and local lines, and
local authorities were also empowered to contribute a portion of the
required capital. The result came to be that many small lines were begun
by companies that had not the means to complete them, and again the
state had to come to the rescue. In 1878 it agreed to spend £20,000,000
in purchasing and completing a number of these lines, some of which
were handed over to the great companies, while others were retained in
the hands of the government, forming the system known as the Chemins de
Fer de l'État. Next year a large programme of railway expansion was
adopted, at an estimated cost to the state of £140,000,000, and from
1880 to 1882 nearly £40,000,000 was expended and some 1800 m. of line
constructed. Then there was a change in the financial situation, and it
became difficult to find the money required. In these circumstances the
conventions of 1883 were concluded, and the great companies partially
relieved the government of its obligations by agreeing to contribute a
certain proportion of the cost of the new lines and to provide the
rolling stock for working them. In former cases when the railways had
had recourse to state aid, it was the state whose contributions were
fixed, while the railways were left to find the residue; but on this
occasion the position was reversed. The state further guaranteed a
minimum rate of interest on the capital invested, and this guarantee,
which by the convention of 1859 had applied to "new" lines only, was now
extended to cover both "old" and "new" lines, the receipts and
expenditure from both kinds being lumped together. As before, the sums
paid out in respect of guaranteed dividend were to be regarded as
advances which were to be paid back to the state out of the profits
made, when these permitted, and when the advances were wiped out, the
profits, after payment of a certain dividend, were to be divided between
the state and the railway, two-thirds going to the former and one-third
to the latter. All the companies, except the Nord, have at one time or
another had to take advantage of the guarantee, and the fact that the
Ouest had been one of the most persistent and heavy borrowers in this
respect was one of the reasons that induced the government to take it
over as from the 1st of January 1909. By the 1859 conventions the state
railway system obtained an entry into Paris by means of running powers
over the Ouest from Chartres, and its position was further improved by
the exchange of certain lines with the Orléans company.
The great railway systems of France are as follows:
1. The Nord, which serves the rich mining, industrial and farming
districts of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and Somme, connecting with the
Belgian railways at several points. Its main lines run from Paris to
Calais, via Creil, Amiens and Boulogne, from Paris to Lille, via Creil
and Arras, and from Paris to Maubeuge via Creil, Tergnier and St
Quentin.
2. The Ouest-État, a combination of the West and state systems. The
former traversed Normandy in every direction and connected Paris with
the towns of Brittany. Its chief lines ran from Paris to Le Havre via
Mantes and Rouen, to Dieppe via Rouen, to Cherbourg, to Granville and
to Brest. The state railways served a large portion of western France,
their chief lines being from Nantes via La Rochelle to Bordeaux, and
from Bordeaux via Saintes, Niort and Saumur to Chartres.
3. The Est, running from Paris via Châlons and Nancy to Avricourt (for
Strassburg), via Troyes and Langres to Belfort and on via Basel to the
Saint Gotthard, and via Reims and Mezières to Longwy.
4. The Orléans, running from Paris to Orléans, and thence serving
Bordeaux via Tours, Poitiers and Angoulême, Nantes via Tours and
Angers, and Montauban and Toulouse via Vierzon and Limoges.
5. The Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée, connecting Paris with Marseilles via
Moret, Laroche, Dijon, Mâcon and Lyons, and with Nîmes via Moret,
Nevers and Clermont-Ferrand. It establishes communication between
France and Switzerland and Italy via Mâcon and Culoz (for the Mt.
Cenis Tunnel) and via Dijon and Pontarlier (for the Simplon), and also
has a direct line along the Mediterranean coast from Marseilles to
Genoa via Toulon and Nice.
6. The Midi (Southern) has lines radiating from Toulouse to Bordeaux
via Agen, to Bayonne via Tarbes and Pau, and to Cette via Carcassonne,
Narbonne and Béziers. From Bordeaux there is also a direct line to
Bayonne and Irun (for Madrid), and at the other end of the Pyrenees a
line leads from Narbonne to Perpignan and Barcelona.
The following table, referring to lines "of general interest,"
indicates the development of railways after 1885:
+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
| | | Receipts in| Expenses | Passengers| Goods carried|
| Year.|Mileage.| Thousands | Thousands| carried | (1000 Metric |
| | | of £. | of £. | (1000's). | Tons). |
+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
| 1885 | 18,650 | 42,324 | 23,508 | 214,451 | 75,192 |
| 1890 | 20,800 | 46,145 | 24,239 | 41,119 | 92,506 |
| 1895 | 22,650 | 50,542 | 27,363 | 348,852 | 100,834 |
| 1900 | 23,818 | 60,674 | 32,966 | 453,193 | 126,830 |
| 1904 | 24,755 | 60,589 | 31,477 | 433,913 | 130,144 |
+------+--------+------------+----------+-----------+--------------+
Narrow gauge and normal gauge railways "of local interest" covered
3905 m. in 1904.
_Commerce._
After entering on a régime of free trade in 1860 France gradually
reverted towards protection; this system triumphed in the Customs Law of
1892, which imposed more or less considerable duties on imports--a law
associated with the name of M. Méline. While raising the taxes both on
agricultural products and manufactured goods, this law introduced,
between France and all the powers trading with her, relations different
from those in the past. It left the government free either to apply to
foreign countries the general tariff or to enter into negotiations with
them for the application, under certain conditions, of a minimum tariff.
The policy of protection was further accentuated by raising the impost
on corn from 5 to 7 francs per hectolitre (2¾ bushels). This system,
however, which is opposed by a powerful party, has at various times
undergone modifications. On the one hand it became necessary, in face of
an inadequate harvest, to suspend in 1898 the application of the law on
the import of corn. On the other hand, in order to check the decline of
exports and neutralize the harmful effects of a prolonged customs war, a
commercial treaty was in 1896 concluded with Switzerland, carrying with
it a reduction, in respect of certain articles, of the imposts which had
been fixed by the law of 1892. An accord was likewise in 1898 effected
with Italy, which since 1886 had been in a state of economic rupture
with France, and in July 1899 an accord was concluded with the United
States of America. Almost all other countries, moreover, share in the
benefit of the minimum tariff, and profit by the modifications it may
successively undergo.
_Commerce, in Millions of Pounds Sterling._
+-----------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
| | General | Special |
| +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| |Imports.|Exports.| Total. |Imports.|Exports.| Total. |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 1876-1880 | 210.1 | 175.3 | 385.4 | 171.7 | 135.1 | 306.8 |
| 1881-1885 | 224.1 | 177.8 | 401.9 | 183.4 | 135.3 | 318.7 |
| 1886-1890 | 208.2 | 179.4 | 387.6 | 168.8 | 137.6 | 306.4 |
| 1891-1895 | 205.9 | 178.6 | 384.5 | 163.0 | 133.8 | 296.8 |
| 1896-1900 | 237.8 | 201.0 | 438.8 | 171.9 | 150.8 | 322.7 |
| 1901-1905 | 233.3 | 227.5 | 460.8 | 182.8 | 174.7 | 357.5 |
+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
+------------------+----------------------+----------------------+
| | Imports. | Exports. |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
| | Value | Per cent | Value | Per cent |
| |(Thousands | of Total |(Thousands | of Total |
| | of £). | Value. | of £). | Value. |
+------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Articles of Food--| | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 58,856 | 34.9 | 30,830 | 22.4 |
| 1891-1895 | 50,774 | 30.9 | 28,287 | 21.1 |
| 1896-1900 | 42,488 | 24.9 | 27,838 | 18.6 |
| 1901-1905 | 33,631 | 18.4 | 28,716 | 16.5 |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Raw Materials[13] | | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 85,778 | 50.8 | 33,848 | 24.6 |
| 1891-1895 | 88,211 | 54.3 | 32,557 | 24.4 |
| 1896-1900 | 101,727 | 59.2 | 40,060 | 26.6 |
| 1901-1905 | 116,580 | 63.8 | 47,385 | 27.1 |
| +-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
|Manufactured | | | | |
| Articles[14] | | | | |
| 1886-1890 | 24,125 | 14.3 | 72,917 | 53.0 |
| 1891-1895 | 24,054 | 14.8 | 72,906 | 54.5 |
| 1896-1900 | 27,330 | 15.9 | 82,270 | 54.8 |
| 1901-1905 | 32,554 | 17.8 | 98,582 | 56.4 |
+------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+
Being in the main a self-supporting country France carries on most of
her trade within her own borders, and ranks below Great Britain, Germany
and the United States in volume of exterior trade. The latter is
subdivided into _general_ commerce, which includes all goods entering or
leaving the country, and _special_ commerce which includes imports for
home use and exports of home produce. The above table shows the
developments of French trade during the years from 1876 to 1905 by means
of quinquennial averages. A permanent body (the _commission permanente
des valeurs_) fixes the average prices of the articles in the customs
list; this value is estimated at the end of the year in accordance with
the variations that have taken place and is applied provisionally to the
following year.
Amongst imports raw materials (wool, cotton and silk, coal, oil-seeds,
timber, &c.) hold the first place, articles of food (cereals, wine,
coffee, &c.) and manufactured goods (especially machinery) ranking
next. Amongst exports manufactured goods (silk, cotton and woollen
goods, fancy wares, apparel, &c.) come before raw materials and
articles of food (wine and dairy products bought chiefly by England).
Divided into these classes the imports and exports (special trade) for
quinquennial periods from 1886 to 1905 averaged as shown in the
preceding table.
The decline both in imports and in exports of articles of food, which
is the most noteworthy fact exhibited in the preceding table, was due
to the almost prohibitive tax in the Customs Law of 1892, upon
agricultural products.
The average value of the principal articles of import and export
(special trade) over quinquennial periods following 1890 is shown in
the two tables below.
_Principal Imports (Thousands of £)._
+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Coal, coke, &c | 7,018 | 9,883 | 10,539 |
| Coffee | 6,106 | 4,553 | 3,717 |
| Cotton, raw | 7,446 | 7,722 | 11,987 |
| Flax | 2,346 | 2,435 | 3,173 |
| Fruit and seeds (oleaginous)| 7,175 | 6,207 | 8,464 |
| Hides and skins, raw | 6,141 | 5,261 | 6,369 |
| Machinery | 2,181 | 3,632 | 4,614 |
| Silk, raw | 9,488 | 10,391 | 11,765 |
| Timber | 6,054 | 6,284 | 6,760 |
| Wheat | 10,352 | 5,276 | 1,995 |
| Wine | 9,972 | 10,454 | 5,167 |
| Wool, raw | 13,372 | 16,750 | 16,395 |
+-----------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
_Principal Exports (Thousands of £)._
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Apparel | 4,726 | 4,513 | 5,079 |
| Brandy and other spirits | 2,402 | 1,931 | 1,678 |
| Butter | 2,789 | 2,783 | 2,618 |
| Cotton manufactures | 4,233 | 5,874 | 7,965 |
| Haberdashery[15] | 5,830 | 6,039 | 6,599 |
| Hides, raw | 2,839 | 3,494 | 4,813 |
| Hides, tanned or curried | 4,037 | 4,321 | 4,753 |
| Iron and steel, manufactures of| .. | 2,849 | 4,201 |
| Millinery | 1,957 | 3,308 | 4,951 |
| Motor cars and vehicles | .. | 160 | 2,147 |
| Paper and manufactures of | 2,095 | 2,145 | 2,551 |
| Silk, raw, thrown, waste and | | | |
| cocoons | 4,738 | 4,807 | 6,090 |
| Silk and waste silk, | | | |
| manufactured of | 9,769 | 10,443 | 11,463 |
| Wine | 8,824 | 9,050 | 9,139 |
| Wool, raw | 5,003 | 7,813 | 9,159 |
| Wool, manufactures of | 11,998 | 10,190 | 8,459 |
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
The following were the countries sending the largest quantities of
goods (special trade) to France (during the same periods as in
previous table).
Trade with Principal Countries. Imports (Thousands of £).
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Germany | 13,178 | 13,904 | 17,363 |
| Belgium | 15,438 | 13,113 | 13,057 |
| United Kingdom | 20,697 | 22,132 | 22,725 |
| Spain | 10,294 | 10,560 | 6,525[16]|
| United States | 15,577 | 18,491 | 19,334 |
| Argentine Republic | 7,119 | 10,009 | 10,094 |
+--------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
Other countries importing largely into France are Russia, Algeria and
British India, whose imports in each case averaged over £9,000,000 in
value in the period 1901-1905; China (average value £7,000,000); and
Italy (average value £6,000,000).
The following are the principal countries receiving the exports of
France (special trade), with values for the same periods.
_Trade with Principal Countries. Exports (Thousands of £)._
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+
| |1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1905.|
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+
| Germany | 13,712 | 16,285 | 21,021 |
| Belgium| | 19,857 | 22,135 | 24,542 |
| United Kingdom | 39,310 | 45,203 | 49,156 |
| United States | 9,337 | 9,497 | 10,411 |
| Algeria | 7,872 | 9,434 | 11,652 |
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+
The other chief customers of France were Switzerland and Italy, whose
imports from France averaged in 1901-1905 nearly £10,000,000 and over
£7,200,000 respectively in value. In the same period Spain received
exports from France averaging £4,700,000.
The trade of France was divided between foreign countries and her
colonies in the following proportions (imports and exports combined).
+-----------+-----------------------+----------------------+
| | General Trade. | Special Trade. |
| +------------+----------+-----------+----------+
| | Foreign | Colonies.| Foreign | Colonies.|
| | Countries. | | Countries.| |
+-----------+------------+----------+-----------+----------+
| 1891-1895 | 92.00 | 8.00 | 90.89 | 9.11 |
| 1896-1900 | 91.18 | 8.82 | 89.86 | 10.14 |
| 1901-1905 | 90.41 | 9.59 | 88.78 | 11.22 |
+-----------+------------+----------+-----------+----------+
The respective shares of the leading customs in the trade of the
country is approximately shown in the following table, which gives the
value of their exports and imports (general trade) in 1905 in millions
sterling.
£ | £
Marseilles 88.8 | Boulogne. 17.5
Le Havre 79.5 | Calais 14.1
Paris 42.8 | Dieppe 13.5
Dunkirk 34.8 | Rouen 11.3
Bordeaux 27.4 | Belfort-Petit-Croix 10.7
In the same year the other chief customs in order of importance were
Tourcoing, Jeumont, Cette, St Nazaire and Avricourt.
The chief local bodies concerned with commerce and industry are the
_chambres de commerce_ and the _chambres consultatives d'arts et
manufactures_, the members of which are elected from their own number
by the traders and industrialists of a certain standing. They are
established in the chief towns, and their principal function is to
advise the government on measures for improving and facilitating
commerce and industry within their circumscription. See also BANKS AND
BANKING; SAVINGS BANKS; POST AND POSTAL SERVICE.
_Shipping._--The following table shows the increase in tonnage of
sailing and steam shipping engaged in foreign trade entered and
cleared at the ports of France over quinquennial periods from 1890.
+-----------+------------------------+------------------------+
| | Entered. | Cleared. |
| +-----------+------------+-----------+------------+
| | French. | Foreign. | French. | Foreign. |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------+
| 1891-1895 | 4,277,967 | 9,947,893 | 4,521,928 | 10,091,000 |
| 1896-1900 | 4,665,268 | 12,037,571 | 5,005,563 | 12,103,358 |
| 1901-1905 | 4,782,101 | 14,744,626 | 5,503,463 | 14,823,217 |
+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------+
The increase of the French mercantile marine (which is fifth in
importance in the world) over the same period is traced in the
following table. Vessels of 2 net tons and upwards are enumerated.
+-----------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
| | Sailing. | Steam. | Total. |
| +------------------+------------------+--------+----------+
| | Number | | Number | | Number | |
| | of | Tonnage.| of | Tonnage.| of | Tonnage. |
| |Vessels.| |Vessels.| |Vessels.| |
+-----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+----------+
| 1891-1895 | 14,183 | 402,982 | 1182 | 502,363 | 15,365 | 905,345 |
| 1896-1900 | 14,327 | 437,468 | 1231 | 504,674 | 15,558 | 942,142 |
| 1901-1905 | 14,867 | 642,562 | 1388 | 617,536 | 16,255 |1,260,098 |
+-----------+--------+---------+--------+---------+--------+----------+
At the beginning of 1908 the total was 17,193 (tonnage, 1,402,647); of
these 13,601 (tonnage, 81,833) were vessels of less than 20 tons,
while 502 (tonnage, 1,014,506) were over 800 tons.
The increase in the tonnage of sailing vessels, which in other
countries tends to decline, was due to the bounties voted by
parliament to its merchant sailing fleet with the view of increasing
the number of skilled seamen. The prosperity of the French shipping
trade is hampered by the costliness of shipbuilding and by the
scarcity of outward-bound cargo. Shipping has been fostered by paying
bounties for vessels constructed in France and sailing under the
French flag, and by reserving the coasting trade, traffic between
France and Algeria, &c., to French vessels. Despite these monopolies,
three-fourths of the shipping in French ports is foreign, and France
is without shipping companies comparable in importance to those of
other great maritime nations. The three chief companies are the
_Messageries Maritimes_ (Marseilles and Bordeaux), the _Compagnie
Générale Transatlantique_ (Le Havre, St Nazaire and Marseilles) and
the _Chargeurs Réunis_ (Le Havre).
_Government and Administration._
_Central Government._--The principles upon which the French constitution
is based are representative government (by two chambers), manhood
suffrage, responsibility of ministers and irresponsibility of the head
of the state. Alterations or modifications of the constitution can only
be effected by the National Assembly, consisting of both chambers
sitting together _ad hoc_. The legislative power resides in these two
chambers--the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the executive is
vested in the president of the republic and the ministers. The members
of both chambers owe their election to universal suffrage; but the
Senate is not elected directly by the people and the Chamber of Deputies
is.
The Chamber of Deputies, consisting of 584 members, is elected by the
_scrutin d'arrondissement_ (each elector voting for one deputy) for a
term of four years, the conditions of election being as follows: Each
arrondissement sends one deputy if its population does not exceed
100,000, and an additional deputy for every additional 100,000
inhabitants or fraction of that number. Every citizen of twenty-one
years of age, unless subject to some legal disability, such as actual
engagement in military service, bankruptcy or condemnation to certain
punishments, has a vote, provided that he can prove a residence of six
months' duration in any one town or commune. A deputy must be a French
citizen, not under twenty-five years old. Each candidate must make, at
least five days before the elections, a declaration setting forth in
what constituency he intends to stand. He may only stand for one, and
all votes given for him in any other than that specified in the
declaration are void. To secure election a candidate must at the first
voting poll an absolute majority and a number of votes equal to
one-fourth of the number of electors. If a second poll is necessary a
relative majority is sufficient.
The Senate (see below, _Law and Institutions_) is composed of 300
members who must be French citizens at least forty years of age. They
are elected by the "_scrutin de liste_" for a period of nine years, and
one-third of the body retires every three years. The department which is
to elect a senator when a vacancy occurs is settled by lot.
Both senators and deputies receive a salary of £600 per annum. No member
of a family that has reigned in France is eligible for either chamber.
Bills may be proposed either by ministers (in the name of the president
of the republic), or by private members, and may be initiated in either
chamber, but money-bills must be submitted in the first place to the
Chamber of Deputies. Every bill is first examined by a committee, a
member of which is chosen to "report" on it to the chamber, after which
it must go through two readings (_délibérations_), before it is
presented to the other chamber. Either house may pass a vote of no
confidence in the government, and in practice the government resigns in
face of the passing of such a vote by the deputies, but not if it is
passed by the Senate only. The chambers usually assemble in January each
year, and the ordinary session lasts not less than five months; usually
it continues till July. There is an extraordinary session from October
till Christmas.
The president (see below, _Law and Institutions_) is elected for seven
years, by a majority of votes, by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies
sitting together as the National Assembly. Any French citizen may be
chosen president, no fixed age being required. The only exception to
this rule is that no member of a royal family which has once reigned in
France can be elected. The president receives 1,200,000 francs (£48,000)
a year, half as salary, half for travelling expenses and the charges
incumbent upon the official representative of the country. Both the
chambers are summoned by the president, who has the power of dissolving
the Chamber of Deputies with the assent of the Senate. When a change of
Government occurs the president chooses a prominent parliamentarian as
premier and president of the council. This personage, who himself holds
a portfolio, nominates the other ministers, his choice being subject to
the ratification of the chief of the state. The ministerial council
(_conseil des ministres_) is presided over by the president of the
republic; less formal meetings (_conseils de cabinet_) under the
presidency of the premier, or even of some other minister, are also
held.
The ministers, whether members of parliament or not, have the right to
sit in both chambers and can address the house whenever they choose,
though a minister may only vote in the chamber of which he happens to be
a member. There are twelve ministries[17] comprising those of justice;
finance; war; the interior; marine; colonies; public instruction and
fine arts; foreign affairs; commerce and industry; agriculture; public
works; and labour and public thrift. Individual ministers are
responsible for all acts done in connexion with their own departments,
and the body of ministers collectively is responsible for the general
policy of the government.
The council of state (_conseil d'état_) is the principal council of the
head of the state and his ministers, who consult it on various
legislative problems, more particularly on questions of administration.
It is divided for despatch of business into four sections, each of which
corresponds to a group of two or three ministerial departments, and is
composed of (1) 32 councillors "_en service ordinaire_" (comprising a
vice-president and sectional presidents), and 19 councillors "_en
service extraordinaire_," i.e. government officials who are deputed to
watch the interests of the ministerial departments to which they belong,
and in matters not concerned with those departments have a merely
consultative position; (2) 32 _maîtres des requêtes_; (3) 40 auditors.
The presidency of the council of state belongs _ex officio_ to the
minister of justice.
The theory of "_droit administratif_" lays down the principle that an
agent of the government cannot be prosecuted or sued for acts relating
to his administrative functions before the ordinary tribunals.
Consequently there is a special system of administrative jurisdiction
for the trial of "_le contentieux administratif_" or disputes in which
the administration is concerned. The council of state is the highest
administrative tribunal, and includes a special "_Section du
contentieux_" to deal with judicial work of this nature.
_Local Government._--France is divided into 86 administrative
departments (including Corsica) or 87 if the Territory of Belfort, a
remnant of the Haut Rhin department, be included. These departments are
subdivided into 362 arrondissements, 2911 cantons and 36,222 communes.