after another. The intervening details may be filled in, freehand.
It will have been remarked that only very simple apparatus is required
for map making: the _sketching board_ may conveniently be mounted on
a tripod, with provision for turning it evenly and surely. Boards so
mounted and intended for the very purpose may be had of dealers in
draftsmen’s and surveyors’ supplies. A _level_ should be provided, for
use in setting the board up. The _ruler_ will be graduated to inches and
fractions of inches, if the map is to be drawn to predetermined scale. In
pacing, one must carefully count his strides. A _pedometer_ may be used,
but a pedometer is a sort of toy; it requires to be carefully adjusted to
the stride of the user, and is hardly worth while for any purpose. It may
be convenient in pacing to use a _tally register_, and so relieve one’s
self of the necessity of keeping count.
The value of a map is vitally dependent on the accuracy with which it
is made. Measurement and observation should be repeated, and errors
eliminated by averaging variant readings.
Nothing has yet been said about a _compass_, and a compass, though not
necessary, is so serviceable as to be almost indispensable. With a
compass one can not only do, and do more expeditiously, what has thus far
been described; he can do some things which could not otherwise be done.
A sketching board is ordinarily provided with a compass, set near its
upper margin, and bears also an orientation line passing through the
compass. The board is set up and leveled and then turned until the
orientation line coincides with the line on which the needle points. At
each station the board is oriented, not by sighting along penciled rays,
but always in the manner described, by bringing it to a truly north and
south position. In other respects, the plotting is performed in the
manner already described.
Orientation by compass is advantageous in this respect: given two points,
as _a_ and _b_, on the map, the map-maker may plot a third point, as
_D_ for example, while standing at _D_, and without being obliged to
go either to _A_ or to _B_. He sets up his board at _D_, levels it,
and orients it; he sights and draws rays through points _a_ and _b_
in line with the objects _A_ and _B_ as they appear from his point of
observation, _D_. The point _d_ of intersection of the rays will be the
station _D_ plotted.
A north and south line may be drawn upon the map, and then the user,
wherever he may be in the area, if only he has in view two known points
and can identify them on the map, can “find” himself. He orients the map
by compass, fixes upon the map and in the manner indicated his point of
observation, and may then observe the distance and direction of any other
point in the area, whether visible or not.
The measurement of distance by _pacing_ has been noted. Practice is
requisite, before one can so measure distance accurately. When the
greatest precision is desired, a bicycle wheel equipped with a cyclometer
may be rolled over the course, or a surveyor’s chain may be used, or even
a tape line.
The measured line _B-C_ of the map begun as above described is the base
line of the map. It should be carefully chosen, carefully measured,
and carefully plotted; for all the rest of the map will, in accuracy,
be conditioned on the accuracy with which this base line is drawn. In
location it is preferably (though not necessarily) situated near the
center of the area to be mapped; in length, it is best that it be about
one third of the distance across the area. Its terminal points should be
conspicuously marked, and widely visible throughout the area; and, for
ease and accuracy of measurement, it should lie across level ground. A
reach of railroad is an ideal base.
It will often be the case--generally in mountainous regions--that an
adequate level base cannot be found; the terminals _B_ and _C_ may
be eminences unequal in height, and between may lie mountain slope
or valley. Now the third of the factors mentioned at the outset,
_elevation_, has to be taken into account. It is not the surface distance
between the two points _B_ and _C_ which is to be ascertained, nor
even the distance from one point to the other on an air line, but the
distance projected upon a horizontal plane--for that is what the map is
intended to afford, the _horizontal_ distance from point to point. In
order to determine this distance, if the ground between be other than
substantially level, the distance along the surface must be measured
(keeping a straight course by compass if necessary) and the _slope_ from
point to point must be measured. To determine the angle of slope one
may either use a _slope board_ or a _clinometer_ (an instrument built
on the principle of the sextant). Having measured distance and angle of
slope, one may betake himself to schoolboy trigonometry and a table of
logarithms, to determine the corresponding distance in horizontal plane.
_Contour lines_ (see page 119) pass through points of equal elevation,
and are spaced apart according to a predetermined plan, to indicate
intervals in elevation of five, ten, or twenty feet, as may be desired.
This predetermined contour interval has no necessary relation to the
scale to which the map is drawn. Two otherwise identical maps of the same
area may be provided with contour lines, one at the interval of five
feet, the other at the interval of twenty-five.
A skilled map-maker, observing a slope, is able to sketch contour lines,
freehand, with an accuracy sufficient for most purposes. But such skill
is the result of much careful measured work.
In plotting contour lines it is best to work, not from line to
line--errors of observation then accumulate--but to measure the altitude
and the mean inclination of the whole mountain side, and go from the
over-all measurements to the minutiae.
In drawing the contour of a mountain, rays may be laid by compass from
the summit along ridges and through valleys, and then minute observations
may be made along those several lines. The sweep of the contour lines
between the points plotted along the rays may be filled in freehand, with
the mountain side spread in view.
The data necessary for contour lines may be got by the use of the slope
board alone; for, manifestly, at any certain angle, a contour interval
of ten feet means a certain distance between successive contour lines.
But in plotting contour lines, an _aneroid_ is invaluable; with it
one measures directly differences in elevation, and measuring thus
the altitude of a slope, from bottom to top, the _number_ of contour
lines requisite may immediately be known; it remains to determine their
_distribution_. Here observation, calculation, and experience combine to
afford the result.
An aneroid should be used only under settled conditions of weather; and,
even so, correction should be made, when possible, by taking the average
of many readings of the same range.
It is not necessary to go afield with sketching board and its
accessories. A map-maker who has taught himself a well-regulated
stride may, when equipped with compass and notebook (and, if conditions
require it, with an aneroid), collect all the necessary data; and then,
subsequently, at home he may draw his map. It should here be said that,
if one is going to gather data for map making after the manner just
suggested, his compass should be one having a delicately mounted needle.
It may advantageously be equipped with sights, and the scale should be
reasonably large and the graduation minute. It should, in short, be a
surveyor’s compass.
For more explicit instruction, the reader is referred to the manuals on
Military Map Making. One by Major C. O. Sherrill, published by George
Banta Publishing Company of Menasha, Wisconsin, is excellent. It should,
however, be remembered that the ideal military map is one for particular
needs, of maximum accuracy, based on a minimum amount of observation;
timesaving is an important factor. Making proper allowance, the military
manual affords all needed instruction and advice.
_Publishing of data_
Descriptions of routes should be prepared, illustrated with maps, if
necessary, and should be made available to those who wish to use them,
whether members of the club, visitors from a distance, or the general
public. For a club, rightly conceived, is, within its sphere, a public
benefactor, and its policy should be always to enlarge its usefulness.
A proper description of a route should give, (1) distances from start to
finish, as well as from point to point along the way; (2) approximate
time requisite to walk each stage. (Here it may be noted that Baedeker’s
famous guidebooks err on the safe side, and give very liberal time
allowance in describing walking tours.) The description should further
give (3) elevations, where range in elevation is appreciable, with
note of steep ascents and descents; (4) the nature of the surface; (5)
stopping places for rest and refreshment and springs; (6) such matters
of caution as the particular route may require, in regard to dangerous
places, heavy roads, obstructions, and the like; (7) objectives and
points of particular interest. Recommendations should be made on such
matters as preferred season, special equipment, need for guides, and
incidental expenses. Descriptions should be concise, easily intelligible,
and should be at once accurate and inviting.
A handbook of routes of the region may well be prepared, and in such
a handbook descriptions of particular walks may be prefaced by such
general statements regarding topography, science, history, and sport, as
are applicable to the whole region. Such general matters may, however,
be published in leaflet form, and separate leaflets be prepared and
published for the several pedestrian routes in the region.
An excellent specimen handbook is “Excursions Around Aix-les-Bains,”
mentioned in the Bibliography (page 148).
It has just been said that the descriptions of routes should be published
and distributed. They may be printed under the imprint of the club, or,
more economically, they may be published in the local newspaper, and
extra copies, separately printed for distribution by the club, may be
procured by arrangement with the printing office. If the club be a small
one and young, and the cost of printing too great, at least typewritten
copies of descriptive matter and blue prints of maps should be available.
In addition to such descriptions of its own region, a club should
similarly prepare and make available other routes traversed by its
members in other and undeveloped regions.
_Maintaining a bureau_
A club should have a place where its data are filed, available to those
who wish to consult them. This place should be a distributing point for
the club’s publications. If the region has already been mapped by the
Geological Survey, the club should lay in a supply of the quadrangles
covering the region, sufficient to meet the needs of applicants.
A _library_ should be maintained, or a _bibliography_ at least, to which
the members of the club may have access, to acquaint themselves with all
that concerns the art of walking, the choice of route, and the sources of
enjoyment along the route chosen. Cooperation in this regard will readily
be accorded by any local public library or museum of natural history.
In such manner a walking club becomes a source of information for
visiting pedestrians. Out of the wider relationships so established
will come increased membership and livelier interest. Incidentally,
it will have become apparent to one who reads these pages that
the organization--though, by recommendation, kept as simple as
possible--will, in an early stage of development, include an office with
a secretary in charge. The library may be conducted, perhaps in the
secretary’s office, perhaps in the rooms of a general public library.
Club rooms or a club house will be maintained only under exceptional
circumstances.
_Conducting hikes._
Hikes will be of two or three sorts: first, afternoon hikes, on Saturdays
or Sundays, perhaps weekly throughout the greater part of the year,
perhaps at less frequent intervals, or during spring and fall only--such
matters depend on locality and circumstances. Second, there will be less
frequent overnight hikes--perhaps two or three in the spring and as many
more in the autumn. And, third, there will be the annual tour of two or
three weeks’ duration, in a chosen region. Some observations applicable
to all these are the following:
_Rules for hiking_
Hikes should be carefully prepared and adequately carried out.
Don’t walk in a herd; to do so is tiresome; and, when the novelty is
gone, failure is sure to follow. Divide larger companies into groups,
each group numbering preferably not more than six.
See that strong and feeble walkers are not grouped together.
Bring together, so far as may be, people of common interests--bird-lovers
in one group, geologists in another, historians or antiquarians in
another.
Let there be a leader for each group.
The general outline of the trip, in case the party numbers more than two,
should be determined in advance and adhered to. Otherwise, contradictory
suggestions regarding the route to be followed are likely to arise, and
argument to follow. This is to be avoided.
The leader should have always in mind the physical endurance of the
weakest member of his party and govern accordingly. One tired and
querulous person may be a kill-joy for all. It is not necessary that
every group traverse the same route, nor that all should walk at equal
speed.
Don’t allow racing, nor loitering, nor too much picnicking.
In traversing highways pedestrians will walk two or three abreast; but
when walking single file, as on woodland trails, companions will walk
most comfortably at intervals of two paces.
Walkers should travel quietly, especially when passing through villages.
See that property rights are respected; there should be no trespassing on
forbidden land.
Guard most carefully against fire. Mr. Enos A. Mills says:[6]
“Since the day of Tike’s Peak or bust,’ fires have swept over more
than half of the primeval forest area of Colorado. Some years ago,
while making special efforts to prevent forest fires from starting, I
endeavored to find out the cause of these fires. I regretfully found
that most of them were the result of carelessness, and I also made a
note to the effect that there are few worse things to be guilty of
than carelessly setting fire to a forest. Most of these forest fires
had their origin from camp-fires which the departing campers had
left unextinguished. There were sixteen fires in one summer, which I
attributed to the following causes: campers, nine; cigar, one; lightning,
one; locomotive, one; stockmen, two; sheep-herders, one; and sawmill,
one.”
See to it that proper regard is had for public interest and welfare;
lunch boxes, paper, and refuse should be collected and destroyed;
springs should be kept scrupulously clean; the gathering of wild
flowers should be indulged in sparingly; plants and trees should not be
mutilated; nor monuments defaced. The trail should be left unmarred, for
those who follow.
Do not permit irresponsible trail-blazing.
Discourage the carrying and use of firearms; they should under no
circumstances be permitted on an organized hike.
Do not permit the rolling of stones down declivities.
On the conduct of mountaineering parties, Professor William Morris Davis
writes, in “Excursions around Aix-les-Bains”:
“Do not make high mountain ascents alone.… Excursions are best
made in small parties of three or five. If a large party sets
out, it should be divided into squads of ten or fewer members.
Those who wish to make the excursion without stopping should
join a separate squad from those who wish to stop frequently
for photographing or sketching.
“Each squad should, if possible, have an experienced leader; he
should make a list of the members, head the line of march on
narrow paths, and set the proper pace, slow for ascents, faster
for descents; a shrill whistle will aid in summoning his party
together. A marshal should follow in the rear to round up the
stragglers. Before setting out on a long mountain walk, place
the members of each squad in a circle land let each member take
note of his two neighbors, one on his right, one on his left,
for whose presence he is to be responsible whenever the march
begins after a halt: each member will thus be looked for by two
others. Once on the road, keep together; those who wander away
from their squad cause vexatious delays. The marshal’s report,
‘All present and ready to start,’ is especially important when
a descent begins. If a member wishes to leave his squad after
low ground is reached, he should so report to his leader.”
Mr. Albert Handy[7] notes another matter, in the following pleasant and
sagacious comment upon walking parties:
“A writer on walking has suggested that tramping parties
should usually consist of but two or three persons. Having
in mind a much hackneyed quotation concerning the trend of a
young man’s fancy in the spring, and the fact that it seems
to have the same trend in the summer, autumn, and winter, I
can conceive circumstances in which two would be an ideal
number--out of consideration, primarily, not for the two, but
for the remainder of the party. But I set down here another
precept worthy of commendation: ‘twosing’ should be sternly
frowned upon. In the first place, two ‘twosers’ are apt to get
‘lost’--this in direct proportion to their interest in each
other--that is, separated from the rest of the party; and time
and tempers are likewise lost, permanently, very likely, in
the effort to retrieve the wanderers; while if they happen
to be carrying all the lunch, tragic possibilities present
themselves.”
_Instruction_ about walking--about posture, gait, clothing, and the
like--may be afforded in talks before groups of pedestrians, or (often
with better effect) individually, by the group leader. Needless criticism
and officiousness will, of course, be avoided; it will suffice to provoke
and then to answer questions.
_Contributions to the literature of pedestrianism_ will take the form
of description of particular regions in those respects of interest to
pedestrians; it will include descriptions of particular walks, and maps.
Clubs are invited to relate themselves to the League of Walkers (page
137), which in publishing such material will of necessity give preference
to what is to be commended to widest interest.
CLUB POLICY
With such activities in mind as normal to a pedestrian club, certain
matters of policy may be presented for consideration.
Two tendencies are sure to manifest themselves in any flourishing club:
the one toward a limited membership of those who qualify by accomplishing
difficult feats; the other toward an indiscriminate membership, including
those who are ready to join anything--providing the rest do. Both
tendencies are bad. The club should on the one hand require of its
members an especial interest in the object of its being, but it should on
the other hand avoid exclusiveness. Emulation may be stimulated in other
and better ways.
The aim of a club should be to bring home and make available to as
many persons as possible the advantages in health and happiness to be
derived from the pursuit of this recreation. This is a higher and better
aim than to produce phenomenal walkers and mountain climbers--though
such may incidentally be produced. It is a higher and better aim than
a self-adulating company of those who have perched themselves on alps.
Alpine climbing is splendid sport, but the aim mentioned is an ignoble
one. Says one mountaineer,[8] who is incidentally a delightful writer,
with humility:
“I utterly repudiate the doctrine that Alpine travellers are
or ought to be the heroes of Alpine adventures. The true way
at least to describe all my Alpine ascents is that Michel or
Anderegg or Lauener succeeded in performing a feat requiring
skill, strength, and courage, the difficulty of which was much
increased by the difficulty of taking with him his knapsack and
his employer. If any passages in the succeeding pages convey
the impression that I claim any credit except that of following
better men than myself with decent ability, I disavow them in
advance and do penance for them in my heart.”
Avoid membership campaigns and such like advertising; a club to be
enduring must rest on interest in the intrinsic thing for which the club
stands. An artificially created interest must be artificially maintained;
genuine natural interest is harmed by artificial interference.
Dues should not be burdensome, discouraging membership, but should be
adequate to accomplish reasonable ends, and so tend to enlist and to
widen interest.
Attention should center on the primary activities and upon them chiefly
money should be spent.
Publications should be sold at cost.
Adequate charge should be made for the use of property. The Alpine clubs
of Europe fix small membership fees, and give members preference over
non-members in their lodging places. Members enjoy more favorable rates
also for meals and lodging. The ideal of the club here should be a nice
balance of simplicity, comfort, and adequacy; no waste, no extravagance,
no surplus funds.
Club _emblems_ are often adopted and worn. As in other sports, emulation
may be awakened by the offer of _trophies_. These may be won in
competition, or, as is usually preferred, by walking a certain number of
miles in a day, or by covering a certain distance in a two-weeks’ hike,
or the like.
In any case, organization should be simple and inconspicuous: the wheels
should turn automatically.
If acquisition of property is contemplated, incorporation will ordinarily
be desired, and trustees will be chosen.
A CLUB CONSTITUTION
For the benefit of those who may consider organization, a copy of the
by-laws of the Appalachian Mountain Club is, by permission, here inserted.
BY-LAWS
ARTICLE I
The Corporation shall be called the APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB.
ARTICLE II
The objects of the Club are to explore the mountains of New England and
the adjacent regions, both for scientific and artistic purposes; and, in
general, to cultivate an interest in geographical studies.
ARTICLE III
MEMBERSHIP
1. There shall be three classes of membership, to be known as active,
corresponding, and honorary.
2. Active members only, except as hereinafter provided, shall be members
of the Corporation.
3. Elections to active membership shall be made by the Council, and the
affirmative votes of at least four-fifths of the members present and
voting shall be necessary to election.--Nominations, in the form of a
recommendation, shall be made in writing by at least two members of the
Club and forwarded to the Recording Secretary. Notice of such nominations
shall be sent to all active members, who shall have two weeks from the
date of mailing in which to express to the Council their objections, and
no person shall be admitted to membership against the written protest of
ten members of the Club.
4. Corresponding members may be elected from among persons distinguished
in the fields of mountaineering, exploration, and geographical science,
or for public spirit in the conservation of natural resources or in other
interests of which the Club is an exponent. Their election shall be in
the manner prescribed for that of active members, except that the names
of candidates shall first be submitted to a special committee.--Honorary
members, not to exceed twenty-five in number, may be elected in the same
manner from among the Corresponding members.--Corresponding and Honorary
members shall not be members of the Corporation, unless they were such
at the time of their election, and shall not be subject to any fees or
liabilities whatever.