embarrassing principle of trading on separate ventures came to an end.
Experience had amply demonstrated that detached equipments exposed the
whole trade to danger in the East, in their efforts to establish trade.
The first twelve voyages were, therefore, regarded in the light of an
experiment to establish a solid commerce between England and India.
Upon such terms the period known as the first joint stock was entered
upon, which comprised four voyages between the years 1613 and 1616. The
purchase, repair, and equipment of vessels during these four years
amounted to two hundred seventy-two thousand five hundred forty-four
pounds, which, with the stock and cargoes, made up the total sum raised
among the members at the beginning of the period, viz., four hundred
twenty-nine thousand pounds.
Under this new system Captain Downton was given command of the fleet, in
the company's merchantmen, the New Year's Gift, thus named because it
had been launched on January 1st--an armed ship of five hundred fifty
tons--and three other vessels. Downton went equipped with legal as well
as military implements. King James made him master of the lives of the
crews, and empowered him to use martial law in cases of
insubordination.
"We are not ignorant," said the monarch, in the royal commission which
he vouchsafed to the company's commander, "of the emulation and envy
which doth accompany the discovery of countries and trade, and of the
quarrels and contentions which do many times fall out between the
subjects of divers princes when they meet the one with the other in
foreign and far remote countries in prosecuting the course of their
discoveries." Consequently Captain Downton was warned not to stir up bad
blood among the nations, but if he should be by the company's rivals
unjustly provoked he was at liberty to retaliate, but not to keep to
himself any spoils he might take, which were to be rendered account of,
as by ancient usage, to the King.
Before Downton could reach his destination, the chief energies of the
company's agents in India appear to have been bent upon forming a series
of exchanges between the west coast and the factory at Bantam. The
little band of servants at the new factory at Surat, headed by the
redoubtable Aldworth, gave it as their opinion not only that sales of
English goods could be effected at this port, but that they might be
pushed to the inland markets and the adjoining seaports. Aldworth stated
that in his journey to Ahmedabad he had passed through the cities of
Baroche and Baroda, and had discovered that cotton, yarn and "baftees"
could be bought cheaper from the manufacturers in that country than at
Surat. At Ahmedabad he was able to buy indigo at a low rate, but in
order to establish such a trade capital of from twelve to fifteen
thousand pounds was required to be constantly in the hands of the
factor. It was thought at Surat that it would be expedient to fix a
resident at the Mogul's court at Agra to solicit the protection of that
monarch and his ministers.
Downton arrived at Surat, October 15, 1614, to find the attitude of the
Portuguese toward the English more than ever hostile. At the same time
trouble impended between the Portuguese and the Nawab of Surat. In order
to demolish all opposition at one blow, the former collected their total
naval force at Goa for a descent upon both natives and new-comers at
Surat. Their force consisted of six large galleons, several smaller
vessels, and sixty native barges, or "frigates" as they were called, the
whole carrying a hundred thirty-four guns and manned by twenty-six
hundred Europeans and six thousand natives. To meet this fleet, Downton
had but his four ships, and three or four Indian-built vessels called
"galivats," manned altogether with less than six hundred men. The
appearance of the Portuguese was the signal for fright and submission on
the part of the Nawab; but his suit was contemptuously spurned by the
Viceroy of Goa, who, on January 20th, advanced upon the company's little
fleet. He did not attempt to force the northern entrance of Swally Hole,
where the English lay, which would have necessitated an approach singly,
but sent on a squadron of the native "frigates" to cross the shoal,
surround and attack the Hope, the smallest of the English ships, and
board her. But in this they were foiled after a severe conflict. Numbers
of the boarders were slain and drowned, and their frigates burned to the
water's edge. Again and again during the ensuing three weeks did the
Portuguese make efforts to dislodge the English; but the dangerous
fire-ships they launched were evaded by night and their onslaught
repulsed by day, and so at length, with a loss of five hundred men, the
Portuguese viceroy, on February 13th, withdrew.
His withdrawal marked a triumph for the company's men. Downton was
received in state by the overjoyed Nawab, who presented him with his own
sword, "the hilt of massive gold, and in lieu thereof," says Downton, "I
returned him my suit, being sword, dagger, girdle, and hangers, by me
much esteemed of, and which made a great deal better show, though of
less value."
A week later Downton set out with his great fleet for Bantam. Just off
the coast the enemy's fleet was again sighted approaching from the west.
For three days the English were in momentary apprehension of an attack,
but the Viceroy thought better of it, and on the 6th "bore up with the
shore and gave over the hopes of their fortunes by further following of
us."
DUTCH SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK
A.D. 1614
DAVID T. VALENTINE
Greater fame ordinarily attaches to the discovery of some vast
region of the earth than to the finding or exploring of a
limited coast, district, or river-course. There are, however,
some instances in which geographical conditions or historical
developments magnify the seemingly lesser achievements. This
has been the case with Henry Hudson's timely exploration of the
river called after him.
The enterprising Dutch people, under whose auspices he
accomplished this brilliant feat, had just emerged from their
long contest with Spain. The return of peace to the Netherlands
found many active spirits in readiness for fresh adventures,
and Hudson's work opened for them a new and inviting field.
Increasing celebrity gathered about the name of Hudson from the
very first settlements in the remarkable region which he made
known to the world, and which was destined to become the seat
of the world's second--perhaps of its greatest--metropolis, and
the home of an imperial commonwealth. The simple beginnings of
this mighty growth are as simply but quite adequately told in
the following pages from the historian of New York city.
Having explored the river which bears his name, Hudson put to sea on
October 4th, making directly for Europe, with news of his discovery of
this fine river and its adjacent country, which he described as offering
every inducement for settlers or traders that could be desired.
Besides the fertility of the soil, which was satisfactorily shown by the
great abundance of grain and vegetables found in the possession of the
Indians, a still more enticing prospect was held out to the view of the
merchant, in the abundance of valuable furs observed in the country,
which were to be had at a very little cost.
Hudson had, therefore, scarcely made publicly known the character of the
country visited by him when several merchants of Amsterdam fitted out
trading-vessels and despatched them to this river. Their returns were
highly satisfactory, and arrangements were immediately made to establish
a settled agency here to superintend the collection of the furs and the
trade with the Indians while the ships should be on their long journey
between the two hemispheres. The agents thus employed pitched their
cabins on the south point of Manhattan Island, the head man being
Hendrick Corstiaensen, who was still the chief of the settlement in
1614, at which period an English ship sailing along the coast from
Virginia entered the harbor on a visit of observation. Finding
Corstiaensen here, with his company of traders, the English captain
summoned him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of Virginia over the
country or else to depart. The former alternative was chosen by the
trader, and he agreed to pay a small tribute to the Governor of Virginia
in token of his right of dominion. The Dutch were thereupon left to
prosecute their trade without further molestation.
The government of Holland did not, however, recognize the claims of
England to jurisdiction over the whole American coast, and took measures
to encourage the discovery and appropriation of additional territory, by
a decree giving to discoverers of new countries the exclusive privilege
of trading thither for four successive voyages, to the exclusion of all
other persons. This enactment induced several merchants to fit out five
small ships for coasting along the American shores in this vicinity. One
of these vessels, commanded by Captain Block, soon after its arrival on
the coast, was accidentally destroyed by fire. Block immediately began
the construction of another, of thirty-eight-feet keel, forty-four and a
half feet on deck, and eleven and a half feet beam, which was the first
vessel launched in the waters of New York. She was called the Unrest, or
Restless, and ploughed her keel through the waters of Hell Gate and the
Sound, the pioneer of all other vessels except the bark canoes of the
aboriginal inhabitants.
The several ships despatched on this exploring expedition having
returned to Holland, from their journals and surveys a map of a large
extent of country was made, over which the Dutch claimed jurisdiction,
and to which they gave the name of "New Netherlands." The owners of
these vessels, as the reward of their enterprise, were granted the
promised monopoly of trade hither for four voyages, to be completed
within three years, commencing on January 1, 1615.
These merchants seemed to have been composed in part of those who had
established the first trading-post here, but having increased their
number and capital, and enlarged their former designs of trade, formed
themselves into a company under the name of the "United New Netherlands
Company." Corstiaensen was continued the principal agent here, and they
likewise established a post at the head of the river, on an island
opposite the present site of Albany. Forts, of a rude description--being
merely enclosures of high palisades--were erected at both places.
The privileges granted to the United New Netherlands Company being,
however, limited in respect to time, their establishment on this island
can hardly be considered as a permanent settlement; the cabins of the
settlers were nearly of equal rudeness with those of their Indian
neighbors; and but few of the luxuries of civilization found their way
into their habitations. The great object of the settlement was, however,
successfully carried on, and stores of furs were in readiness to freight
the ships on their periodical visits from the fatherland. No
interruption of the friendly intercourse carried on with the Indians
took place, but, on the contrary, the whites were abundantly supplied by
the natives with food and most other necessaries of life, without
personal labor and at trifling cost.
The Indian tribes in the neighborhood of this trading-post were the
Manhattans, occupying this island; the Pachamies, the Tankiteks, and the
Wickqueskeeks, occupying the country on the east side of Hudson River
south of the Highlands; the Hackingsacks and the Raritans on the west
side of the river and the Jersey shore; the Canarsees, the Rockways, the
Merrikokes, the Marsapeagues, the Mattinecocks, the Nissaquages, the
Corchaugs, the Secataugs, and the Shinecocks on Long Island.
The trade of this colony of settlers was sufficiently profitable to
render its permanency desirable to the United New Netherlands Company,
as it is found that at the termination of their grant, in the year 1618,
they endeavored to procure from the government in Holland an extension
of their term, but did not succeed in obtaining more than a special
license, expiring yearly, which they held for two or three subsequent
years.
In the mean time a more extensive association had been formed among the
merchants and capitalists in Holland, which in the year 1621, having
matured its plans and projects, received a charter under the title of
the West India Company. Their charter gave them the exclusive privilege
of trade on the whole American coast, both of the northern and southern
continents, so far as the jurisdiction of Holland extended.
This great company was invested with most of the functions of a distinct
and separate government. It was allowed to appoint governors and other
officers; to settle the forms of administering justice; to make Indian
treaties and to enact laws.
Having completed arrangements for the organization of its government in
New Netherlands, the West India Company despatched its pioneer vessel
hither in the year 1623. This was the ship New Netherlands, a stanch
vessel, which continued her voyages to this port as a regular packet for
more than thirty years subsequently. On board the New Netherlands were
thirty families to begin the colony. This colony being designed for a
settlement at the head of the river, the vessel landed her passengers
and freight near the present site of Albany, where a settlement was
established. The return cargo of the New Netherlands was five hundred
otter-skins, one thousand five hundred beavers, and other freight valued
at about twelve thousand dollars.
It having been determined that the head-quarters of the company's
establishment in New Netherlands should be fixed on Manhattan Island,
preparations for a more extensive colony to be planted here were made,
and in 1625 two ships cleared from Holland for this place. On board of
these vessels were shipped one hundred three head of cattle, together
with stallions, mares, hogs, and sheep in a proportionate number.
Accompanying these were a considerable number of settlers, with their
families, supplied with agricultural implements and seed for planting,
household furniture, and the other necessaries for establishing the
colony. Other ships followed with similar freight, and the number of
emigrants amounted to about two hundred souls.
On the arrival of the ships in the harbor the cattle were landed in the
first instance on the island now called Governor's Island, where they
were left on pasturage until convenient arrangements could be made on
the mainland to prevent their straying in the woods. The want of water,
however, compelled their speedy transfer to Manhattan Island, where,
being put on the fresh grass, they generally throve well, although about
twenty died, in the course of the season, from eating some poisonous
vegetable.
The settlers commenced their town by staking out a fort on the south
point of the island, under the direction of one Kryn Frederick, an
engineer sent along with them for that purpose; and a horse-mill having
been erected, the second story of that building was so constructed as to
afford accommodations for the congregation for religious purposes. The
habitations of the settlers were of the simplest construction, little
better, indeed, than those of their predecessors. A director-general had
been sent to superintend the interests of the company in this country,
in the person of Peter Minuit, who, in the year 1626, purchased
Manhattan Island from the Indian proprietors for the sum of sixty
guilders, or twenty-four dollars, by which the title to the whole
island, containing about twenty-two thousand acres, became vested in the
West India Company.
The success of the company proved itself, for a short period, by the
rise in the value of its stock, which soon stood at a high premium in
Holland. Various interests, however, were at work in the company to turn
its advantages to individual account, and in 1628 an act was passed
under the title of "Freedoms and Exemptions granted to all such as shall
plant Colonies in New Netherlands." This edict gave, to such persons as
should send over a colony of fifty souls above fifteen years old, the
title of "patroons," and the privileges of selecting any land, except on
the island of Manhattan, for a distance of eight miles on each side of
any river, and so far inland as should be thought convenient; the
company stipulating, however, that all the products of the plantations
thus established should be first brought to the Manhattans, before being
sent elsewhere, for trade. They also reserved to themselves the sole
trade with the Indians for peltries in all places where they had an
agency established.
With respect to such private persons as should emigrate at their own
expense, they were allowed as much land as they could properly improve,
upon satisfying the Indians therefor.
These privileges gave an impetus to emigration, and assisted, in a great
degree, in permanently establishing the settlement of the country. But
from this era commenced the decay of the profits of the company, as with
all its vigilance it could not restrain the inhabitants from
surreptitiously engaging in the Indian trade, and drawing thence a
profit which would otherwise have gone into the public treasury.
HARVEY DISCOVERS THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD
A.D. 1616
THOMAS H. HUXLEY
Contemporary with Galileo, and ranking but little below him in
influence upon the modern world, was William Harvey. Harvey's
discovery of the circulation of the blood, combined with the
truly scientific methods by which he reached, and afterward
proved, his great result, has placed his name high on the roll
of science. Not only does his work stand at the foundation of
modern anatomy and medicine, but it has given him place in the
ranks of great philosophers as well. Huxley, himself so long
and justly renowned in modern science, rises to enthusiasm in
the following account of his mighty predecessor.
Harvey was born at Folkestone, England, in 1578, and lived till
1657. He was educated as a physician, studying at Padua in
Italy, and was early appointed a lecturer in the London College
of Physicians. In his lectures, somewhere about the year 1616
or a little later, he began to explain his new doctrine to his
students; but it was not until the publication of his book
_Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis_, in 1628,
that the theory spread beyond his immediate circle.
Huxley's account will perhaps give a clearer idea of Harvey's
relation to his predecessors and contemporaries, and of the
value of his services to mankind, than would a far longer
biography of the great physician, physiologist, and anatomist.
Many opinions have been held respecting the exact nature and value of
Harvey's contributions to the elucidation of the fundamental problem of
the physiology of the higher animals; from those which deny him any
merit at all--indeed, roundly charge him with the demerit of
plagiarism--to those which enthrone him in a position of supreme honor
among great discoverers in science. Nor has there been less controversy
as to the method by which Harvey obtained the results which have made
his name famous. I think it is desirable that no obscurity should hang
around these questions; and I add my mite to the store of disquisitions
on Harvey, in the hope that it may help to throw light upon several
points about which darkness has accumulated, partly by accident and
partly by design.
About the year B.C. 300 a great discovery, that of the valves of the
heart, was made by Erasistratus. This anatomist found, around the
opening by which the vena cava communicates with the right ventricle,
three triangular membranous folds, disposed in such a manner as to allow
any fluid contained in the vein to pass into the ventricle, but not back
again. The opening of the vena arteriosa into the right ventricle is
quite distinct from that of the vena cava; and Erasistratus observed
that it is provided with three pouch-like, half-moon-shaped valves; the
arrangement of which is such that a fluid can pass out of the ventricle
into the vena arteriosa, but not back again. Three similar valves were
found at the opening of the aorta into the left ventricle. The arteria
venosa had a distinct opening into the same ventricle, and this was
provided with triangular membranous valves, like those on the right
side, but only two in number. Thus the ventricles had four openings, two
for each; and there were altogether eleven valves, disposed in such a
manner as to permit fluids to enter the ventricles from the vena cava
and the arteria venosa respectively, and to pass out of the ventricles
by the vena arteriosa and the aorta respectively, but not to go the
other way.
It followed from this capital discovery that, if the contents of the
heart are fluid, and if they move at all, they can only move in one way;
namely, from the vena cava, through the ventricle, and toward the lungs,
by the vena arteriosa, on the right side; and, from the lungs, by way of
the arteria venosa, through the ventricle, and out by the aorta for
distribution in the body, on the left side.
Erasistratus thus, in a manner, laid the foundations of the theory of
the motion of the blood. But it was not given to him to get any further.
What the contents of the heart were, and whether they moved or not, was
a point which could be determined only by experiment. And, for want of
sufficiently careful experimentation, Erasistratus strayed into a
hopelessly misleading path. Observing that the arteries are usually
empty of blood after death, he adopted the unlucky hypothesis that this
is their normal condition, and that during life they are filled with
air. And it will be observed that it is not improbable that
Erasistratus' discovery of the valves of the heart and of their
mechanical action strengthened him in this view. For, as the arteria
venosa branches out in the lungs, what more likely than that its
ultimate ramifications absorb the air which is inspired; and that this
air, passing into the left ventricle, is then pumped all over the body
through the aorta, in order to supply the vivifying principle which
evidently resides in the air; or, it may be, of cooling the too great
heat of the blood? How easy to explain the elastic bounding feel of a
pulsating artery by the hypothesis that it is full of air! Had
Erasistratus only been acquainted with the structure of insects, the
analogy of their tracheal system would have been a tower of strength to
him. There was no _prima-facie_ absurdity in his hypothesis--and
experiment was the sole means of demonstrating its truth or falsity.
More than four hundred years elapsed before the theory of the motion of
the blood returned once more to the strait road which leads truthward;
and it was brought back by the only possible method, that of experiment.
A man of extraordinary genius, Claudius Galenus, of Pergamus, was
trained to anatomical and physiological investigation in the great
schools of Alexandria, and spent a long life in incessant research,
teaching, and medical practice. More than one hundred fifty treatises
from his pen, on philosophical, literary, scientific, and practical
topics, are extant; and there is reason to believe that they constitute
not more than a third of his works. No former anatomist had reached his
excellence, while he may be regarded as the founder of experimental
physiology. And it is precisely because he was a master of the
experimental method that he was able to learn more about the motions of
the heart and of the blood than any of his predecessors, and to leave to
posterity a legacy of knowledge which was not substantially increased
for more than thirteen hundred years.