SUBSTANCE AND BEYOND
Science has ascribed to Substance certain characteristic qualities which
it calls "Properties." It divides these properties into two classes,
_viz._: (1) Molecular Properties (sometimes called Physical Properties);
and (2) Atomic Properties (sometimes called Chemical Properties).
_Molecular Properties_ are those which may be manifested by Substance
without disturbing the Molecules, and consequently without affecting the
"kind" of Substance.
_Atomic Properties_ are those which concern the Atoms when free from
Molecular combination, and which consequently cannot be manifested
without changing the "kind" of Substance.
Science, before long, is likely to add a third class of Properties,
namely, "_Corpuscular Properties_," relating to the Corpuscles or
particles of Radiant Matter, but, so far, it has not had the opportunity
to sufficiently observe these qualities, except in a general way.
There are certain General Properties that seem possessed by both Mass,
Molecules, and Atoms--and probably by Corpuscles.
These _General Properties_ are as follows:
_Shape_: That property whereby Substance "takes up room." This property
manifests in three directions, called Dimensions of Space, namely,
Length, Breadth, and Thickness.
_Weight_: That property whereby Substance responds to Gravity. Weight is
simply the measure of the attraction.
_Impenetrability_: That property whereby two bodies of Substance are
prevented from occupying the same space at the same time. A nail driven
into a piece of wood, simply pushes aside the molecules, and occupies
the Space between them. Substance is never actually "invaded" or its
actual territory occupied by other Substance.
_Indestructibility_: That property whereby Substance is prevented from
being destroyed or annihilated. Although the forms of Substance may be
changed, or transformed into other forms, still, Substance _in itself_
is not destroyed, and cannot be under the existing Laws of the Universe.
_Mobility_: That property whereby Substance responds to imparted Motion.
We shall notice this property in our consideration of Motion. In
addition to the Motion of the Mass, and the movements of Molecules and
Atoms in response to its Attraction, there is another form of Motion
constantly going on, without reference to the Attraction or impressed
Motion of the Mass. The Molecules of all bodies are always in a state of
rapid Motion, called Vibration. In solids this vibration is short, being
restrained by the close cohesive position of the Molecules. But in
Liquids, the Molecules being further separated, the vibration is far
more rapid, and they move around and slide over each other with
comparatively little resistance. In gases and vapors the Molecules have
a splendid field for Motion, and consequently vibrate in wide fields and
orbits, and dash around with the greatest velocity. The Atoms also are
believed to vibrate rapidly, in accordance with their own laws of
vibration. And the Corpuscles are believed to far excel the last two
mentioned particles in intensity, rapidity and complexity of their
vibrations, as we shall see a little later on in the book. All Substance
is in constant Motion and Vibration. There is no Rest in Substance.
_Inertia_: That property whereby Substance may not move unless in
response to imparted Motion; nor terminate its Motion, when it is once
imparted, except in response to some other manifestation of impressed
Force. Science holds that this "impressed Force" or "imparted Motion"
must come from without, but the writer holds that Force may also be
"expressed" from "within," as may be seen by reference to subsequent
chapters of this book.
_Attraction_: That property whereby particles or bodies of Substance (1)
draw other particles or bodies toward themselves; or (2) move toward
other particles or bodies; or (3) are mutually drawn together. This
property manifests in four forms, generally referred to as separate and
distinct from each other, but which the writer believes to be but forms
of the same Attractive Power, and which he believes to be a Mental
Process, at the last analysis (a revolutionary claim, which will be
supported by argument in later chapters of the book). These three forms
of Attraction are known as (1) Gravitation; (2) Cohesion; (3) Adhesion;
and (4) Chemical Affinity, or Chemism. We are invited to consider them
briefly, at this point, further investigation being reserved for our
chapters on Motion, and Dynamic Thought.
_Gravitation_: This term is usually applied to the attraction between
Masses of Substance, such as the Sun, the Earth, and Masses of Substance
on or about the Earth's surface. However, Newton, who discovered the
facts of Gravitation, states the Law, as: "_Every particle of matter in
the Universe, attracts every other particle_," _etc._
_Cohesion_: This term is used to indicate the attraction between
Molecules, by which they are combined into Masses or Bodies. Cohesion
causes the Molecules to unite and cling together, thus forming the Mass.
_Adhesion_: This term is used to indicate the attraction between Masses
which causes them to "stick together" without a cohesion of their
Molecules. Adhesion operates through the adjacent surfaces of the two
Masses. It may be considered as a "lesser" form of cohesion.
_Chemical Affinity_ (sometimes called Chemism or Atomic Attraction):
This term is used to indicate the attraction between the atoms, by which
they combine, unite and cling together, forming the Molecule.
Science has before it the task of naming, and classifying, the
attraction between the Corpuscles, by which they combine and form the
Atom. But whatever the name, it will be seen that it represents but
another manifestation of "Attraction."
Arising from Molecular Attraction, or Cohesion, are several "Properties"
peculiar to Masses having Molecules, and resulting from the tendency of
the latter to resist separation. We had better consider them briefly,
in order to understand the power of Molecular Attraction, and its
incidents.
_Porosity_: That property indicating the distances observed by the
Molecules in their relation to each other, which varies in different
"kinds" of Substance. All Substance is more or less Porous, that is, has
more or less space existing between the Molecules--the degree depends
upon the "closeness." Compressibility and Expansibility, sometimes
mentioned as "properties," are but results of Porosity.
_Elasticity_: That property whereby bodies resume their original size
and form, after having been compressed, expanded or "bent." The result
is caused by the inclination of the molecules to resume their original
positions. What is sometimes called "Plasticity" is merely the reverse
of Elasticity, and denotes a limited degree of the latter.
_Hardness_: That condition resulting from Molecular Attraction resisting
the forcible entrance and passage of other Substance between the
molecules.
_Tenacity_: That condition resulting from Molecular Attraction resisting
the forcible pulling asunder, or tearing apart of the Mass. This
condition sometimes is called "Toughness."
_Malleability_: That condition resulting from Molecular Attraction
resisting the forcible separation of the Mass by pounding, hammering or
pressure. The resistance is "passive," and consists of the Molecules
allowing themselves to assume a spread-out formation, rather than to be
forced apart.
_Ductility_: That condition resulting from Molecular Attraction
resisting the forcible separation of the Mass by a "drawing out"
process. The resistance is "passive," and consists of the Molecules
allowing themselves to be drawn out into a formation of the shape of
wire or thread, rather than to be pulled apart.
In any of the above cases, we may intelligently, and with propriety,
substitute the words, "_Molecules, by means of cohesion, resisting,
etc._," for the terms above used, "Molecular Attraction, resisting,
etc."
All Masses of Substance (probably Molecules as well) are capable of
_Expansion and Contraction_, both phenomena, in fact, and in degree,
resulting from the relation of the Molecules. Contraction is a "crowding
together" of the Molecules; Expansion a "getting apart" of them.
_Density_: The amount of Substance in relation to a given bulk.
_Volume_--the "size" or "bulk" of a body of Substance. _Mass_--Besides
being used to designate a "body" of Substance, composed of two or more
Molecules, the term "Mass" is used to designate the "total quantity of
Substance in a Body." An application of the above terms may be seen in
the following illustration:
A quart of water occupies a certain space--and has a certain "volume,"
"mass" and "density." Convert the same "mass" of Water into Steam, and
it expands to a "volume" of 1700 times that of Water--but, as no
molecules have been added, the "mass" remains the same--but as a quart
of Steam weighs 1700 times less than the same "volume" of Water, the
"density" of Steam is 1700 times less than that of Water. As the
"volume" of a given "mass" increases, the "density" decreases in the
same proportion--but the "mass" remains the same. "Mass" therefore has
two factors, _i.e._, "Volume" and "Density." The "Density" of a "Mass"
is determined by the _weight_ of a certain "Volume" of it.
The above consideration of the "Properties" of Substance dealt only with
the Molecular Properties, or Physical Properties, as they are sometimes
called--that is, with properties depending upon the existence of the
Molecules. When we consider the Molecules as being composed of Atoms,
and when we consider the processes whereby these Molecules are built up
of, or broken down through the separation of Atoms, we come to the
subject of Atomic Properties, or Chemical Properties, as they are often
called.
_The Atomic Properties of Substance_ consist principally in the power
and manifestation of Motion, in the direction of combination,
separation, and the complex motions resulting from the same. This Motion
is manifested by reason of Atomic Attraction, sometimes called "Chemical
Affinity," which we shall consider a little later on in the chapter.
Atomic Principles, as above mentioned, are best illustrated by a
reference to Chemical changes, and we shall now examine the same. And,
the better way to consider Chemical Changes is by comparing them with
Physical Changes, or Changes of the Molecules.
_Some Physical Changes in Substance_ are brought about by Heat, which
tends to separate the molecules, or rather to allow them to spread out
away from each other, so long as the high temperature is maintained, the
degree of their nearness being influenced by temperature. Other Physical
Changes are produced by outside Forces separating the molecules to such
an extent--to such a distance--that their cohesive force is lost, and
the Solid matter is said to be "broken," or even reduced to dust. Other
physical changes are brought about by Electricity, causing the Molecules
to separate and disintegrate.
_Chemical Changes_, as distinguished from Physical Changes, do not
involve or deal with Molecules, the action being solely upon the Atoms
of which the Molecules are composed. Physical Changes _separate_
Molecules from each other, while Chemical Changes destroy and break up
the Molecule, so that its identity is forever lost, its Atoms thereafter
either existing free from combinations, or else recombining with other
Atoms, and forming new combinations. Chemical changes are occasioned by
either physical or chemical agencies. The physical agencies generally
employed are heat, electricity, light, pressure, percussion, etc. The
principle of Chemical Changes is that the Atoms are possessed of, and
subject to, what is called "Atomic Attraction" or "Chemical Affinity,"
which may be defined as an attraction or "love" existing in varying
degrees between Atoms. This Affinity causes Atoms of one element to seek
out and ally themselves to Atoms of another element, the element of
"choice" or "preference" being strikingly in evidence.
Atoms of different elements form marriages, and cling together in
harmony, until, perchance, by some physical or chemical agency, the
Molecule is brought in sufficiently close connection with another
Molecule composed of different elemental atoms, when, alas! one of the
Atoms of our Molecule finds that it has a greater Affinity for some
other elemental Atom in the second Molecule, and lo! it flies away,
leaving its first partner, and seeking the new charmer. Divorce and
re-marriage is a common thing in the world of Atoms--in fact, Chemistry
is based upon these qualities.
Physical and Chemical Changes gradually transform solid rock to "earth"
or "soil." Disintegration, by the action of changes in temperature,
rains and atmospheric influences, and other Physical Changes, have
slowly worn down the rocks into "dirt," gravel, clay, loam, etc. And
Decomposition by Chemical Change that set the atoms free from their
combinations has aided in the work.
There is no rest in the world of Substance. Everything is
changing--constantly changing. Old forms give way to new, and these,
grown old while being born, are, in turn replaced by still newer. And
on, endlessly. Nothing persists but change. And yet nothing is
destroyed, although countless forms and shapes have succeeded each
other. Substance is always there, undisturbed and unaffected by the
varieties of forms it is compelled to undergo. Masses may change--and do
change. Molecules may change--and do change. Disintegration and
decomposition affect both, and bring to them the death of form. But
their substance endures in the Atom. Atoms may change, and decompose, or
undergo whatever change that is their fate, and still the Corpuscles, or
what lies beyond the Corpuscles will remain. The Atom was once regarded
as Eternal, but now even it seems to be capable of dissolving into some
finer division of Substance--and perhaps still finer subdivisions await
it.
That familiar form of Substance that we call "earth," "dirt," "soil,"
etc., is but the result of disintegrated rock, which has crumbled and
lost its former form through the action of air, water and atmospheric
influences. And the rocks themselves, from which the "soil" came, were
at one time a sea of melted, flowing liquid Substance, somewhat
resembling volcanic lava. And this "melted rock" is thought to have been
condensed from the same principles in the shape of vapor, that existed
in the early days of our planetary system. Vapor, gas, liquid,
semi-liquid, solid rock, "soil"--the Substance unchanged, the forms
totally unlike. Helmholtz estimates the density of the nebulous vapors
of Substance as being so rare that it would take several millions of
cubic miles of it to weigh a single grain. Oh, Nature, what a wizard
thou art!
We have spoken of Air and Water, in a former chapter, and their
constituent atoms have been named. And from these three great reservoirs
of Substance--the Earth, the Air, and the Water--are obtained all the
material that goes to form the bodies of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms. The plant draws its nourishment from the soil, the air, and
water, and in its wonderful chemical laboratory is able to transform the
elements so drawn from these sources into a substance called "Plasm,"
which consists principally of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen,
being nearly identical in composition to the white of an egg, and which
constitutes the basis of animal and plant bodily structures. All the
material of the physical bodies, of men, animals and plants, are but
forms of Plasm. The animals, and man, obtain their nourishment, directly
or indirectly, from the plant body, and so at the last we are seen to
draw from the soil, air and water all our bodily nourishment, which we
convert into bodily structure, bone, muscle, flesh, blood, veins,
tissue, cells, etc. And the chemical atoms of our bodies are identical
with those in the rock, the air, the water. And so you see the
universality of Substance and its countless forms and appearances.
Chemistry resolves Substance back into about seventy-five simple
substances, of which Atoms are the Units, which simple substances are
called "Elements." From these Elements (by their Atoms) all other
substances are formed by combinations, the number of such possible
combinations being infinite. An Element (in order to be an element) must
be a "simple" substance, that is, must be incapable of further analysis
into some other elements. The seventy-five elements, now recognized by
science, have never been resolved into other elements, by chemical
analysis, and therefore are accepted as "simple." But, it is true that
other substances that were formerly considered as simple elements were
afterward decomposed by electricity, and found to consist of two or more
simpler substances or elements. Thus new elements were discovered, and
old ones discarded as "not-elemental." And this fate may be in store for
a number of the elements now on the list--and many new ones may be
discovered.
For a long time Science was endeavoring to trace all elements back to
Hydrogen, the latter being considered the "Ultimate Element," and its
atoms composing all the other atoms, under varying conditions, etc. But
this theory is now almost abandoned, and Science rests on its list of
seventy-five elements, the atoms of which are composed of "Electrons."
Some have hazarded the theory that the Elements were all forms of Ether
(see next chapter), their apparent differences resulting merely from the
varying rate of vibration, etc. And, in fact, such theory was about
finally adopted as a working hypothesis until the discovery of the
Corpuscle. Everything in Substance now seems to be moving back to the
Corpuscle, as we shall see a little further on.
The following is a list of the principal Elements, known to Science,
to-day:
Aluminum.
Antimony.
Arsenic.
Barium.
Bismuth.
Boron.
Bromine.
Cadmium.
Calcium.
Carbon.
Chlorine.
Chromium.
Cobalt.
Copper.
Fluorine.
Gold.
Hydrogen.
Iodine.
Iron.
Lead.
Magnesium.
Manganese.
Mercury.
Nickel.
Nitrogen.
Oxygen.
Phosphorus.
Platinum.
Potassium.
Radium.
Silicon.
Silver.
Sodium.
Strontium.
Sulphur.
Tin.
Zinc.
Of the above, Hydrogen is by far the lightest in weight; in fact it is
used as a unit of Atomic Weight, its weight being marked "1" on the
scale; Gold, 197; Lead, 207; Silver, 108; Oxygen, 16; Nitrogen, 14;
Iron, 56.
The discovery of the Corpuscle, or Electron, rudely shattered the
vortex-ring theory of the origin of the Atom, and now, instead of the
Atom being regarded as a "vortex-ring" in that hypothetical, paradoxical
absurdity, the Ether, it is believed to be composed of a vast number of
tiny particles called Corpuscles, as we saw stated in our last chapter.
These Corpuscles seem to be the "last thing in Substance"--its last
known state of refinement, and already it is being proclaimed as the
long-sought for "Primal Matter," or "Ultimate Substance." Whether or not
a still finer state of Substance will be discovered Science is unable to
say, but thinks it unlikely. But we must not overlook the old Occult
Teaching indicating a state of Substance so fine that it is
imperceptible, and only recognizable as apparently "free force"; its
covering, or vehicle of Substance not being evident. This would seem to
indicate a still further refinement of Substance, although perhaps the
"Corpuscle" or "Electron" will answer to "fill the bill" in the case.
As to the Corpuscle being "Primal Substance," it must be admitted that
its advocates have presented a very strong case. One of their most
important points is that although Molecules differ very materially from
each other, according to their kinds; and while Atoms likewise manifest
very plainly their "kind," the Corpuscle seems to possess _only one
"kind,"_ no matter from what form or "kind" of Substance it is thrown
off. Just think what this means. It means that the finest particles of
Gold, Silver, Iron, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and all the rest of the Elements,
_are composed of identically the same material, and exhibit no
differences in_ "_kind_." The Elements are no longer "Simple." _All
Substance is One, at the last analysis!_
The Corpuscles seem to possess the same Mass--to carry the same charge
of Electricity--to act precisely the same--irrespective of their source.
No difference in size, mass or character, as in the case of the
Atom--all are identical, save in the rate of their vibration at the time
of observation, which is simply a matter of more or less Motion. Space
seems to be flooded with these tiny particles--these Units of Substance.
They stream from the Sun; the Stars; and every body highly heated.
Likewise they stream from the bodies of highly electrified Substance.
Groups of these Corpuscles, absolutely identical in nature, size, mass,
etc., constitute the Atoms of the Seventy-five Elements, the "kind" of
Element seemingly being dependent upon the number and arrangement of the
Corpuscles, and possibly by their rate of vibration. Every Atom is like
a great bee-hive with a swarm of Corpuscles vibrating, moving around
each other, and upon their own centres. And, if by the action of intense
heat, transmitted, or caused by interrupted Motion--or if by a strong
Electric charge--some of these Corpuscles are detached from the Atoms
(or possibly an Atom broken up), they fly off through Space at a
marvellous speed of many thousand miles an hour.
So we see that these wonderful Corpuscles look very much like Primal
Matter or Ultimate Substance--the "Stuff" out of which Substance is
made. And, taking you back to the chapter on "The Universality of Life
and Mind," the writer would remind you that in their Motions and
evident Attraction, etc., these Corpuscles evidence the same "Life and
Mind" that we observed in the Molecules and Atoms. It must be so, for
what is in the manufactured article must be in the material of which the
article is made. And so, even here, Life and Mind have not escaped us.
Nor will it in The Ether!
And speaking of the Corpuscles, as "manufactured articles," we are
reminded of Herschel's thought about the Atoms, when they were regarded
as Primal Matter and likely to be uniform, and, at the end, of one
primal substance. Although Herschel's conception does not now apply to
the Atoms, it may be transferred to the Corpuscles.
Herschel thought that the fact that the Particles of Substance were
likely to be found to be uniform in size, and identical in nature and
characteristics, indicated that they might be akin to "manufactured
articles," turned out from the same great machinery of Creation. This
idea would indicate that the Creator applied the rules of careful
manufacture to the manufacture of the Particles, the uniformity
operating in the direction of (1) Economy of Material; (2) Utility
through interchangeability, replacing broken or discarded parts, etc.;
and also (3) Conformity to a Standard of Size, Quality, etc.
The thought is interesting, and is mentioned here for that reason. It is
not affected by the supposition that there may be a still finer and
rarer form of Substance, from which the Particles are "manufactured"--in
fact, the idea of Herschel, if closely analyzed, would seem to indicate
some such "raw material" from which the articles were manufactured.