MAKING THE PICTURE
_Loading the Camera_
Most hand cameras are made to take _roll film_. This is especially
convenient as a darkroom is not required for loading. Extending the
full length of the strip of film and several inches beyond each end is
a strip of lightproof paper, which in connection with the flanges on
the spool, forms a lightproof cartridge.
The loading operation is performed entirely by daylight, but a position
should be selected where the light is somewhat subdued. Care must be
taken before beginning the work to see that the shutter is closed. The
empty spool is inserted in the winding end and the full spool is placed
in the recess at the opposite end by pulling out the spool pins and
allowing the film cartridge to drop into place, care being taken that
the top of the spool is at the top of the camera. Otherwise the opaque
red paper would be between the lens and the film. The spool pins are
then pushed back into place in the holes at the end of the spool so
that the spool revolves upon them. The gummed strip that holds the end
of the red paper is next removed and the paper is sufficiently unrolled
to thread into the empty spool. Unless it is kept taut it may slip and
loosen sufficiently to admit light which would fog the film. The back
of the camera is next replaced and the winding key turned until the
figure 1 appears at the little red window.
_Film packs_ contain film similar to roll film but cut to the various
sizes in use. They can be loaded and removed from the camera in
daylight, the darkroom only being necessary when the films are to be
removed from the pack and developed. The film pack consists of 12 flat
cut films packed in a lightproof case and attached singly to strips
of black paper the ends of which project from the top of the pack and
terminate in tabs numbered from 1 to 12. By the use of a film pack
adapter an ordinary plate camera is transformed into a daylight loading
film camera. After the pack is placed in position in the camera, the
tab marked “safety cover,” is pulled out and torn off at the place
marked. The first film is now ready for exposure. After making the
first exposure, tab No. 1 is pulled out and torn off in the same manner
and so on until No. 12 is removed which will draw the last film to the
back of the pack. The films now being protected from light, the pack
can be removed in daylight and another inserted.
_Plates_ must be loaded into plate holders or into the plate magazine
in the dark room illuminated only by a safelight lamp. _Cut films_ are
loaded similarly into film holders, film magazines, and also into film
sheaths which are to be used in plate holders, by the aid of suitable
safelight in the darkroom.
CHOICE OF SUBJECT AND VIEWPOINT
There are of course subjects innumerable which will make pleasing
pictures. Regardless of whether the picture is a landscape or a
portrait, there are several points that should be kept in mind in
regard to artistic composition if the picture is to be pleasing
pictorially as well as good technically.
COMPOSITION[4]. This may be defined as the bringing of things together
in an orderly and symmetrical arrangement. It is not an exact science
that can be depended upon to produce results mechanically, but its
general principles can be applied in such a way as to aid materially in
avoiding the inartistic.
[Footnote 4: See, Hammond: _Pictorial Composition in Photography_.]
The first lesson to be learned is to leave out what is not required.
This is known as _selection_. By moving the camera to the right or
left, up or down, focusing at different planes, and using different
stop openings, much that is objectionable may be either eliminated or
at least made unobtrusive.
_Simplicity_ is the keynote of artistic work. Over-crowding must be
avoided. Ordinarily the picture should have but one object or group of
principal interest, all others being subordinate and helping support it.
There should be such a combining of masses, tones and lines as to
produce a pleasing whole. This is known as _harmony_ and _balance_.
Objects should be so grouped that there will not be too many shadows
or highlights of equal importance. The exact center is the weakest
portion of the picture and so important objects should be a little to
one side and in some cases slightly above or below. The picture should
balance, both vertically and horizontally, a large mass near the center
being balanced by several smaller objects on the other side or by a
smaller one further from the center.
In the case of landscapes, neither the horizon nor a vertical line
should ever exactly divide the picture into two equal parts. If there
are subjects of importance in the near foreground, the horizon line
should be perhaps 1–3 down from the top as this gives a prominent
foreground; for broad expansive views it should be the same distance
from the bottom in order to direct attention to the sky and more
distant parts of the landscape. A clouded sky should be included if
possible. Clouds are a pictorial asset as they break up the monotony of
the white sky and add greatly to the beauty and attractiveness of the
picture, but they cannot ordinarily be obtained without the use of a
filter. A sky filter is a little attachment which slips over the front
of the lens, and as only the upper portion of the filter is colored
it keeps back the excessive light from the sky without appreciably
affecting the exposure. Thus many clouds will be brought out nicely in
the picture which ordinarily do not show because of overexposure.
In landscape photography it is not generally advisable to introduce
human figures as in nearly all cases they fail, either in costume
or in pose, to harmonize with the subject. The domestic animals,
such as horses, cows and sheep, can, however, frequently be included
with success. When human figures are introduced they should not look
directly at the camera.
For pictorial landscape work a diffusion attachment as the Kodak
Pictorial Diffusion Disk may be placed over the regular lens or a soft
focus lens such as the Verito[5] may be used.
[Footnote 5: Wollensak Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.]
LIGHTING. This is of equal importance with the arrangement of the
subject in the picture as it determines the strength and position of
the lights and shadows. It is the variation in these that gives the
picture depth and roundness, making the subject stand out from the
surroundings. The beginner when making exposures in the sunlight should
have the sun behind him, but a little to one side. If the illumination
comes from directly back of the camera, the shadows are more or less
lost, giving a flat appearance. However, contrary to the generally
published advice, some of the most pleasing results may be obtained
with the sun from in front but a little to one side. In such a case it
is necessary to shade the lens from the direct rays of the sun. The
exposure should be increased as there are more deep shadows.
STEPS IN TAKING THE PICTURE
After the folding camera is loaded, there are still the following steps
to be carried out in taking the picture:
1. See that an unexposed portion of film is
in position for the exposure.
2. Open the camera, and set the focus if
a focusing model is being used.
3. Adjust the diaphragm opening.
4. Set the shutter (on some types).
5. Hold the camera level and include the
view wanted.
6. Make the exposure.
1. When roll film is being used, a fresh section should be turned into
position immediately after each exposure. Similarly with film packs the
tab should be pulled out as soon as each exposure is made so as to be
all ready for the next. This is often overlooked by beginners with the
result that two pictures are made on the same section of film.
2. On the bed of most adjustable hand cameras, is a _scale_ marked with
figures, usually 6 to 100, indicating feet. The front of the camera
must be extended until the pointer is over the figure indicating the
number of feet which the operator has estimated to be the distance to
the subject. Some types of cameras are equipped with a screw focusing
device—a revolving ring, which is marked with a scale and moves the
lens back and forth. When using a large stop and working up close, it
is necessary to estimate the distance carefully but when using a medium
small stop such as f.16 and photographing an object 50 feet or farther
away, the focus need be estimated only with approximate accuracy.
If the camera is 3¼ × 4¼ or smaller it may be used as if it were a
fixed focus type by extending the front to the 25 foot mark on the
focusing scale and using stop f.11 (U.S.8).
3. In choosing the stop to use it is necessary to consider the amount
of light available, the rapidity of movement of the subject, the depth
of focus needed, and the shutter speed that is to be used. Large stops
are necessarily used for slow snapshot exposures under poor lighting
conditions, and for very rapid instantaneous exposures of moving
objects in bright sunlight. They are also used to limit the depth of
focus so as to make the principal object stand out from its background.
This is more particularly desirable in portraiture. Smaller stops
give sharper images especially over a greater depth of field, and are
generally used for groups, views and other subjects, where the entire
picture must be sharp. In such a case it may be necessary to use a
tripod and give a time exposure.
While there are exceptions to the appended table of stops to be used,
yet it will be helpful, especially to beginners.
f.4.5 (a) For extra rapid exposures when the light is
very good, i. e. for moving objects at 1–100 to
1–1000 of a second.
(b) For portraiture indoors when the light is only
fair and short time or bulb exposures are made.
(c) For slow snapshots outdoors when the light is
poor, or indoors by a sunlit window.
This opening gives but little depth of focus so the
camera must be carefully focused.
f.6.3 (a) For quick exposures of moving objects in good
light with shutter speeds to about 1–300 second.
(b) For slower speeds on hazy and slightly cloudy days.
(c) For indoor home portraiture.
f.7.7 or f.8 (U.S.4) (a) For instantaneous exposures in
slightly cloudy weather, speed 1–25. (Do not attempt
instantaneous exposures on dark, cloudy days.)
(b) For flashlight groups.
(c) For portraiture indoors or outdoors in the shade.
f.11 (U.S.8) (a) For all ordinary instantaneous exposures
when the subject is in bright sunshine, using 1–25 sec.
(b) For flashlight interiors.
f.16 (U.S.16) (a) For instantaneous exposures when the
sunlight on the subject is unusually strong and there
are no heavy shadows, as for views on the seashore,
or on the water, using speed 1–50.
(b) For ordinary landscapes in bright sunshine with clear
sky overhead, speed 1–25.
(c) For interior time exposures.
f.22 (U.S.32) (a) For instantaneous exposures of
extremely distant views.
(b) For marine or snow scenes, or clouds in bright
sunshine, at speed 1–25.
(c) For time exposures of interiors, and of outdoor
scenes in cloudy weather.
f.32, f.45 (U.S.64, U.S.128) (a) For time exposures
outdoors in cloudy weather. Never used for snapshots.
4. When making instantaneous exposures it is necessary to see that
the shutter is set at “I.” In addition to this some shutters must be
“set” by special levers, much as a gun is cocked, before they can be
operated. If instantaneous exposures are to be made while holding the
camera, a large enough stop must be used so that the exposure will
be ¹/₂₅ second or less, as few people can hold a camera steady for a
longer time.
5. When making the exposures, care must be taken to hold the camera
level and have it include the exact view wanted. If the camera is
inclined to one side, horizontal lines will be at an angle in the
picture; if pointed up, a building will photograph smaller at the top;
if down, the opposite will be the case. If the camera is fitted with
a rising front, it will be found useful for eliminating undesirable
foreground or including the top of a tall building. In the case of
architectural subjects it is especially important that the back of the
camera remains vertical in order to prevent any distortion of the lines
of the building.
A single reversible view finder is provided with most cameras. It is
notched to indicate the view that will be included both when the camera
is used vertically and horizontally. One should always look at the
finder from directly above and not at an angle, or the view included
will not be accurately seen.
6. Exposure is made by means of a lever, or cable release.
MAKING THE EXPOSURE
Exposure depends on such a variety of factors that only with practice
will the worker be able to give consistently the correct amount under
varied conditions. Nearly all of the subjects ordinarily photographed
by daylight may be classified into four groups. Since the normal
exposure for each of these groups may be easily memorized, the outdoor
exposure problem is reduced to the simple one of determining to which
group the subject belongs. While the table is eminently satisfactory
for stationary objects, it is not adapted for rapidly moving objects as
the shutter speed would be too slow. When using these tables, a faster
or slower shutter speed may be used if the stop opening is varied
accordingly so as to give the same amount of light. As explained, each
succeeding smaller stop than f.8 (U.S. 4) admits about half as much
light as the next larger. The exposure tables are for from 2½ hours
after sunrise until 2½ hours before sunset on days when the sun is
shining on the subject.
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLES (Rectilinear and Anastigmat Lenses)
Rectilinear Anastigmat
Shutter Lenses Lenses
Groups Speed Stop Stop
1—Snow, marine and
beach scenes, extremely
distant landscapes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 32 f.22
2—Ordinary landscapes
showing sky, with a
principal object in the
foreground ¹/₂₅ U.S. 16 f.16
3—Nearby landscapes
showing little or no
sky, groups, street
scenes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 8 f.11
4—Portraits in the open
shade, not under trees
or the roof of a porch; f.7.7 or
shaded nearby scenes ¹/₂₅ U.S. 4 f.8
OUTDOOR EXPOSURE TABLE (Single Lenses)
Folding Cameras
Shutter
Groups Speed Stop Box Cameras
1 ¹/₂₅ 3 Snapshot with middle stop
2 ¹/₂₅ 2 Snapshot with largest stop
3 ¹/₂₅ 1 Snapshot with largest stop
4 1 second 4 1 second with smallest stop
MOVING OBJECTS. The briefest possible exposure must be given to moving
objects in order that the motion may be stopped. Consequently such
pictures can be taken only in bright sunlight and in most cases the
largest stop opening must be used. Best results are usually obtained
by taking the picture from somewhat in front of the subject and a
little to one side or perhaps at about a 45 degree angle. In this way
the actual movement of the subject in relation to the camera is not so
apparent as at right angles, and the perspective will be more pleasing.
It is necessary to work back at some little distance if the subject
is moving rapidly. If the shutter speed is ¹/₁₀₀ it will be necessary
to get back perhaps 75 or 100 feet. On the other hand if a focal
plane shutter is being used in connection with an f.4.5 lens, then an
exposure of from ¹/₅₀₀ to ¹/₁₀₀₀ will enable the worker to get somewhat
closer and get sharp images of automobile races or similar subjects.
INTERIORS. Stop 16 or smaller should ordinarily be used for interiors
in order to get nearby objects and those at the furthest side of the
room sharp at the same time. Do not include any objects in the picture
that are very close to the camera. The exposure for interiors varies
widely according to different conditions but the following table for
use with stop 16 (next to largest stop on single lens cameras) may be
found useful as a guide:
White walls and more than one window—Bright sun outside,
4 seconds; cloudy bright, 20 seconds; hazy sun, 10 seconds;
cloudy dull, 40 seconds.
White walls and only one window—Bright sun outside,
6 seconds; cloudy bright, 30 seconds; hazy sun, 15 seconds;
cloudy dull, 60 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings and more than one
window—Bright sun outside, 8 seconds; cloudy bright,
40 seconds; hazy sun, 20 seconds; cloudy dull, 80 seconds.
Medium colored walls and hangings with only one
window—Bright sun outside, 12 seconds; cloudy bright,
60 seconds; hazy sun, 30 seconds; cloudy dull, 120 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and more than one
window—Bright sun outside, 20 seconds; cloudy bright,
20 seconds; hazy sun, 40 seconds; cloudy dull, 2 minutes,
40 seconds.
Dark colored walls and hangings and only one window—Bright
sun outside, 40 seconds; cloudy bright, 2 minutes,
40 seconds; hazy sun, 80 seconds; cloudy dull, 5 minutes,
20 seconds.
HOME PORTRAITURE
Excellent home portraits can often be made—pictures that will reveal
the personality of the subject—in the unconventional surroundings of
the home. In order to have the exposure time cut down to a minimum so
that the subject will not move or have a set expression, a large stop
opening should be used and the subject be placed close to a window.
The most pleasing results are usually obtained when the light falls at
about a 45 degree angle.
Too much posing is ruinous, especially in the case of children. They
appear at their best when unconscious of the presence of the camera.
It is very important that neither the hands nor feet or other portions
of the subject project out too much toward the camera or they will
appear too large in proportion to the remainder of the body. This is
particularly true when using a short focus lens and working up close to
get a large image.
By following out the diagram, (Figure 6), a good plain lighting is
obtained:
[Illustration:
A Subject
A-1 Direction of Face
A-2 Direction of Body
B Camera
C Reflector
D Window
E Background (if used)
Fig. 6]
It will be noticed that the subject is placed even with the edge of the
window or a little back of it and about as far into the room as the
window is wide. The body is turned somewhat away from the light and
then the face turned back into it until a v-shaped patch of light is
noticed on the cheek. This will give roundness to the features. A sheet
or newspaper may be used to reflect light onto the shadow side of the
subject. Enough reflected light must be used to show detail, but if too
much is used the face will appear flat.
A more difficult lighting is the one shown in Figure 7.
[Illustration:
A Subject
A-1 Direction of Face
A-2 Direction of Body
C Reflector
D Window
E Window (for general illumination)
F Background (if used)
Fig. 7]
A back lighting of this type is much used in showing movie effects.
Because of taking the picture toward a window it is much more difficult
than the plain lighting. It may be necessary to use a lens hood to keep
the excess light from the window from striking the lens, producing a
fogged appearance.
_Flashlight_ if properly controlled is one of the best sources of
illumination for home use. The light is available on dark days and
evenings, and as the flash occupies but a fraction of a second, there
is not much danger of movement. The lighting should be arranged the
same as shown in Figure 6, the flash taking the place of the window.