THE SCANDINAVIANS.--FORMS IN -BY: THEIR IMPORT AND DISTRIBUTION.--
DANES OF LINCOLNSHIRE, ETC.; OF EAST ANGLIA; OF SCOTLAND; OF THE
ISLE OF MAN; OF LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE; OF PEMBROKESHIRE.--
NORWEGIANS OF NORTHUMBERLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND, AND ISLE OF
MAN.--FRISIAN FORMS IN YORKSHIRE.--BOGY.--OLD SCRATCH.--THE PICTS
POSSIBLY SCANDINAVIAN.--THE NORMANS.
[Sidenote: A.D. 787.]
In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle we find the following notices:--"This year
King Beorhtric took to wife Eadburg, King Offa's daughter; and in his
days first came three ships of Northmen, out of Hæretha-land. And then
the reeve rode to the place, and would have driven them to the king's
town, because he knew not who they were; and they there slew him. These
were the first ships of Danish-men which sought the land of the English
race." Again:--
[Sidenote: A.D. 793.]
"This year dire forewarnings came over the land of the North-humbrians,
and miserably terrified the people; these were excessive whirlwinds, and
lightnings; and fiery dragons were seen flying in the air. A great
famine soon followed these tokens: and a little after that, in the same
year, on the 6th of the Ides of January, the ravaging of heathen men
lamentably destroyed God's church at Lindisfarn, through rapine and
slaughter. And Siega died on the 8th of the Kalends of March."
After this the notices of the formidable Danes become numerous and
important. But it is not in the pages of history that the influence of
their invasions is to be found. The provincial dialects of the British
Isles, the local names in the map of Europe, the traditions and (in some
cases) the pedigrees of the older families are the best sources.
If we study the local names of Germany and Scandinavia, we shall find
that when we get North of the Eyder a change takes place. In Sleswick
the compound names of places begin to end in -_gaard_, -_skov_, and
-_by_; in -_by_ most especially, as Oster-_by_, Wis-_by_, Gammel-_by_,
Nor-_by_, &c. In Jutland the forms in -_by_ attain their _maximum_. They
prevail in the islands. They prevail in Sweden. They are rare (a fact of
great importance) in Norway. In Germany they are either non-existent or
accidental. In respect to its meaning, _by_=_town_, _village_,
_settlement_; and _By-en_=_the town_, is a term by which Christiania or
Copenhagen--the metropoles of Norway and Denmark--are designated. Such
forms as Kir-_ton_, Nor-_ton_, and New-_ton_ in German would, in Danish,
be Kir-_by_, Nor-_by_, New-_by_.
Now the distribution of the forms in -_by_ over the British Isles has
the same import as its distribution in Germany and Scandinavia. It
indicates a Danish as opposed to a German occupancy. Again--the
Anglo-Saxon forms are _Church_ and _Ship_, as in Dun-_church_ and
_Ship_-ton; whereas the Danish are _Kirk_ and _Skip_, as in Orms-_kirk_
and _Skip_-ton. The distribution of these forms over the British Isles
closely coincides with that of the compounds in -_by_.
With these preliminaries we will follow the lines which are marked out
by the occurrence of the places in -_by_; beginning at a point on the
coast of Lincolnshire, about half-way between the entrance to the Wash
and the mouth of the Humber; the direction being south and south-west.
Ander-_by_ Creek, Willough-_by_ Hills, Mum-_by_, Or-_by_, Ir-_by_,
Firs-_by_, Reves-_by_, Conings-_by_, Ewer-_by_, Asgar-_by_,[27]
Span-_by_, Dows-_by_, Duns-_by_, Hacon-_by_,[27] Thurl-_by_,
Carl-_by_[27] take us into Rutlandshire, where we find only Grun-_by_
and Hoo-_by_. Neither are they numerous in Northamptonshire; Canons'
Ash-_by_, Cates-_by_, and Bad-_by_ giving us the outline of the
South-eastern parts of their area. For Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Beds,
nothing ends in -_by_, whilst the other forms are in _sh_, and _ch_--as
_Charlton_, _Shelton_, _Chesterton_ rather than _Carlton_, _Skelton_,
_Casterton_. Leicestershire is full of the form, as may be seen by
looking at the parts about Melton, along the valleys of the Wreak and
Soar; but as we approach Warwickshire they decrease, and there is none
south of Rug-_by_. More than this, the form changes suddenly, and three
miles below the last named town we have Dun-_ch_ur_ch_ and
Coa_ch_-bat_ch_. Tradition, too, indicates the existence of an old March
or Debateable Land; for south of Rug-_by_ begins the scene of the deeds
of Guy Earl of Warwick, the slayer of the _Dun_ Cow. Probably, too, the
Bevis of Hampton was a similar[28] North-_amp_-_ton_-shire hero,
notwithstanding the claim of the town of Southampton.
The line now takes a direction northwards and passes through Bretby (on
the Trent) to Derby, Leicestershire being wholly included. And here the
frontier of the forest which originally covered the coal-district seems
to have been the western limit to the Danish encroachments, Rotherham,
Sheffield, and Leeds lying beyond, but with the greater part of
Nottinghamshire and a large part of Derby within, it. In Yorkshire the
East Riding is Danish, and the North to a great extent; indeed the
western feeders of the Ouse seem to have been followed up to their
head-waters, and the watershed of England to have been crossed. This
gives the numerous -_bys_ in Cumberland and Westmoreland[29]--Kirk-_by_,
Apple-_by_, &c.
So much for the very irregular and remarkable outline of the area of the
forms in -_by_ on its southern and western sides. In the north-east it
nearly coincides with the valley of the Tees--nearly but not quite;
since, in Durham, we have Ra-_by_, Sela-_by_, and Rum-_by_. The
derivatives of _castra_, on the other hand, are in -_ch_-; _e.g._,
Eb_ch_ester, _Ch_ester-le-street, Lan_ch_ester (Lan-_c_aster). In
Northumberland there are none.
I look upon this as the one large main Danish area of Great Britain, its
occupants having been deduced from a series of primary settlements on
the Humber. It coincides chiefly with the water-system of the Trent,
makes Lincolnshire, and the East Riding of Yorkshire the
mother-countries, and suggests the notions that, as compared with the
Humber, the rivers of the Wash, and the river Tees were unimportant. The
oldest and most thoroughly Danish town was Grimsby. The settlements were
generally small. I infer this from the extent to which the names are
compounded of -_by_ and a noun in the genitive case _singular_
(Candel-_s_-_by_, Grim-_s_-_by_, &c.). Danish names such as Thorold,
Thurkill, Orme, &c., are eminently common in Lincolnshire; and, at
Grimsby, a vestige of the famous Danish hero Havelok is still preserved
in _Havelok-street_. On the other hand, the number of Danish idioms in
the provincial dialects is by no means proportionate to the
preponderance of the forms in -_by_. In Lincolnshire it is but small,
though larger in Yorkshire and Cumberland.
The extent to which the rivers which fall in the Wash are _not_
characterized by the presence of forms in -_by_ is remarkable. The
Witham and Welland alone (and they but partially) have -_bys_ on their
banks. Again--
Just above Yarmouth, between the Yare, the North River and the sea, is a
remarkable congregation of forms in -_by_. These are more numerous in
this little tract than the rest of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex
together--Mault-_by_, Orms-_by_[30] (doubly Danish), Hemes-_by_, &c.
This may indicate either a settlement direct from Scandinavia, or a
secondary settlement from Lincolnshire.
However doubtful this may be, it is safe to attribute the -_bys_ on the
West of England, to the Danes of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the Danes
of the Valley of the Eden. These spread--
A. Northwards, following either the coast of Galloway or the
water-system of the Annan, Locker-_bie_, &c.--
B. Westwards into the Isle of Man--
C. Southwards into--
_a._ Cheshire, Lancashire, and Carnarvonshire (_Orms_-head), always,
however, within a moderate distance of the sea--Horn-_by_,
Orms-_kirk_,[31] Whit-_by_, Ire-_by_, Hels-_by_, &c.--
_b._ Pembrokeshire; where in Haver-_ford_ and Mil-_ford_ the element
_ford_ is equivalent to the Danish _Fiord_, and the Scotch _Firth_, and
translates the Latin word _sinus_--not _vadum_. _Guard_- in Fish-_guard_
is Danish also; as are Ten-_by_ and _Harold_-stone.
Such is the distribution of one branch of the Scandinavians, viz.: those
from Jutland, the Danish Isles, and (perhaps) the South of Sweden. That
of the Norwegians of Norway is different. Shetland, the Orkneys,
Caithness, and Sutherland, the Hebrides, and Ireland, form the line of
invasion here. In Man the two branches met--the Danish from the east,
and the Norwegian from the north and east.
The numerous details respecting the Scandinavians in Britain are to be
found in Mr. Worsaae's "Danes and Northmen;" and, besides this, the
proof of the distinction just drawn between the Danes of South Britain
and the Norwegians of Scotland, the Hebrides and Ireland. It lies in the
phenomena connected with the form -_by_.
_a._ Common as they are in Denmark and Sweden, they are almost wholly
wanting in Norway.
_b._ Common as are other Scandinavian elements, the forms in -_by_ are
almost wholly wanting in Scotland and Ireland.
Hence--_Northman_ or _Scandinavian_ means a _Dane_ in South Britain, a
_Norwegian_ in Scotland and Ireland, and a Dane _or_ Norwegian, as the
particular case may be, in the Isle of Man, Northumberland, and Durham.
This is well shewn, and that for the first time, in the valuable work
referred to.
Can this analysis be carried further? Probably it can. Over and above
the consideration of the Frisians of Friesland,[32] there is that of the
North-Frisians.[33] Some of these may easily have formed part of the
Scandinavian invasion. The nearest approach to absolute evidence on this
point is to be found in the East Riding of Yorkshire; where in
Holdernesse we have the Frisian forms News-_om_, Holl-_ym_, Arr-_am_,
and the compound Fris-_marsh_. The Leicestershire Fris-_by_ is more
evidently _North_-Frisian.
Again, a writer who, like the present, believes that, until a
comparatively recent period, South Jutland, the Danish Isles, and the
South of Sweden, _at least_, were Sarmatian, is justified in asking
whether members of this stock also may not have helped to swell the
Scandinavian host. The presumption is in favour of their having done so;
the _a posteriori_ evidence scanty. Two personages of our popular
mythology, however, seem Slavonic--Old _Bogy_ and Old _Scratch_. _Bog_
in Slavonic is _God_, or _Dæmon_; so that Czerne-_bog_=_Black God_, and
Biele-_bog_=_White God_; whereas no Gothic interpretation is equally
probable.
Old _Scratch_ is the _Hairy one_, or _Pilosus_, as his name is rendered
in the glosses. In Bohemian we have the forms _scret_, _screti_,
_scretti_, _skr'et_, _s'kr'jtek_=_demon_, _household god_; in Polish,
_skrzot_ and _skrzitek_; in Slovenian, _shkrátie_, _shkrátely_. On the
other hand, in the Old High German, the Icelandic, and some of the Low
German dialects, the word occurs as it does in English. Still the
combination of sounds is so Slavonic, and the name is spread over so
great a portion of the Slavonic area, that I look upon it as essentially
and originally belonging to that family.
The ethnological analysis of the Scandinavians is one question; the date
of their first invasion, another. The statements of the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle opened the present chapter. Is there reason to criticize
them? For the fact of Danes having wintered in England A.D. 787 they are
unexceptionable. For the fact of their having never done so before, they
only supply the unsatisfactory assertion of a negative.
For my own part I should not like to deny the presence of Scandinavians
in certain parts of Great Britain, even at the very beginning of the
Historical period. That this was the case with Orkney and Shetland few,
perhaps, are inclined to deny. But the gloss _dal_[34], combined the
exception which can be taken to the words _penn fahel_,[35] gives a
probability to the Scandinavian origin of the _Picts_ which has not
hitherto been generally admitted--the present writer, amongst others,
having denied it.
When the Britons had occupied the greater part of the Island they were
met by the _Picts_ from _Scythia_. It was not, however, on any part of
Great Britain that the Picts first landed.
It was on the north coast of Ireland, then held by Scots. But the Scots
had no room for them, so they told them of the opposite island of
Britain, and recommended them to take possession of it; which was done
accordingly. "And as the Picts had no wives, and had to seek them from
the Scots, they were granted on the sole condition, that whenever the
succession became doubtful, the female line should be preferred over
the male; which is kept up even now amongst the Picts." This peculiarity
in the Pict law of succession is interesting; and as Beda speaks to it
as a cotemporary witness, it must pass as one of the few definite facts
in the Pict history. Another statement of true importance is, that the
Scriptures were read in all the languages of Great Britain; there being
five in number: the Latin, the Angle, the British, the Scottish, and the
_Pict_.
Could this _Pictish_ have been Scandinavian, a language closely allied
to the Anglo-Saxon, without Beda knowing it? I once answered hastily in
the negative, but the fact that he actually overlooks the Gothic
character of the word _dal_ (=_part_), has modified my view.
On the other hand, their deduction from Scythia goes for nothing. The
text which supplied Beda with his statement has come down to us, though,
unfortunately, with three different readings. It is from Gildas, and
seems to be one of that author's least happy attempts at fine writing.
He calls the German Ocean the _Tithic Valley_, or the Valley of _Tithys_
(_Thetis?_). In one out of the two MSS. which deviate from the form
_Tithecam Vallem_, the reading is _Aticam_, and in the other _Styticam_.
I give the texts of Gildas in full. They may serve to shew his
style:--"Itaque illis ad sua remeantibus, emergunt certatim de curucis,
quibus sunt trans Tithecam vallem vecti, quasi in alto Titane
incalescente caumate de aridissimis foraminum cavernulis fusci
vermiculorum cenei, tetri Scotorum Pictorumque greges, moribus ex parte
dissidentes, et una eademque sanguinis fundendi aviditate concordes,
furciferosque magis vultus pilis, quam corporum pudenda pudendisque
proxima vestibus tegentes, cognitaque condebitorum reversione, et
reditus denegatione, solito confidentius, omnem Aquilonalem extremamque
terræ partem, pro indigenis muro tenus capessunt."--_Historia_, §. 15.
But, perhaps, Gildas readily wrote Scythica; for there _was_ a reason,
as reasons went in the sixth century, for his doing so. It was,
probably, the following lines in Virgil:--
"Aspice et extremis domitum cultoribus orbem,
Eoasque domos Arabum, _pictosque Gelonos_."--G. xi. 115.
That either Gildas or Beda knew of the line or translated it as if the
_Picts_ were _Geloni_ cannot be shewn; but that an author not very much
later than Beda did so is shewn by the following extract from a Life of
St. Vodoal, written about the beginning of the tenth century--"The
Blessed Vodoal was (as they say) sprung from the arrow-bearing nation of
the _Geloni_, who are believed to have drawn their origin from
_Scythia_. Concerning whom, the poet writes _Pictosque Gelonos_; and
from that time till now they are called _Picts_."[36] _Sagittiferi_ is
as Virgilian as the word _Picti_--
"Hic Nomadum genus et discinctos Mulciber Afros,
Hic Lelegas, Carasque sagittiferosque Gelonos
Finxerat."--Aen. viii. 725.
Another element in the reasoning upon the date of the earliest
Scandinavians is the fact that more than one enquirer has noticed in the
nomenclature of a writer so early as Ptolemy, words with an aspect more
or less Scandinavian--_e.g._, Ar-_beia_, Leucopi-_bi_-um, _Vand_-_uarii_
(Aqui-colæ), _Lox_-ius fluvius (=Salmon River), and, perhaps, some
others.
To argue that there were Scandinavians amongst us in the second century,
because certain words were Norse, and then to infer the Norse character
of the words in question from the presence of Scandinavians is a vicious
circle from which we must keep apart. At the same time, the
insufficiency of the early historians to give a negative, the oversight
of Beda in respect to the word _dal_, and the exceptions which can be
taken to the gloss _penn fahel_, are all elements of importance. The
present writer believes that there _were_ Norsemen in Britain anterior
to A.D. 787, and also that those Norsemen _may_ have been the Picts.
The Danish and Norwegian subjects of Canute give us a _direct_, the
Normans of William the Conqueror an _indirect_, Scandinavian element.
"The latest conquerors of this island were also the bravest and the
best. I do not except even the Romans. And, in spite of our sympathies
with Harold and Hereward, and our abhorrence of the founder of the New
Forest and the desolator of Yorkshire, we must confess the superiority
of the Normans to the Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Danes, whom they met here
in 1066, as well as to the degenerate Frank _noblesse_, and the crushed
and servile Romanesque provincials, from whom, in 912, they had wrested
the district in the north of Gaul, which still bears the name of
Normandy."[37]
This leads us to the analysis of the blood of the _Norman_, or
_North-man_. Occupant as he is of a country so far south as Normandy,
this is his designation; since the Scandinavians who in the eighth,
ninth, and tenth centuries ravaged Great Britain, extended themselves
along the coasts of the Continent as well. And here they are subject to
the same questions as the Scandinavians of Lincolnshire, Scotland, and
the Isle of Man. They are liable to being claimed as Norwegians, and
liable to be claimed as Danes; they may or they may not have had
forerunners; their blood, if Danish rather than Norwegian, may have been
Jute or it may have been Frisian; they may have been distinct from
certain allied conquerors known under the name of _Saxon_, or they may
be the Saxons of a previous period.
They seem, however, in reality, to have been Norwegians from Norway
rather than Danes from Jutland and the Danish Isles; Norwegians,
unaccompanied by females, and Norwegians who preserve their separate
nationality to a very inconsiderable extent. They formed French
alliances, and they adopted the habits and manners of the natives. These
were, from first to last, Keltic on the mother's side; but on that of
the father, Keltic, Roman, and German. That this latter element was
important, is inferred from the names of the Ducal and Royal family:
William, Richard, Henry, &c., names as little Scandinavian as they are
Roman or Gallic.
Hence, the blood of even the true Norman was heterogeneous; whilst (more
than this) the army itself was only partially levied on the soil of
Normandy--Bretons, who were nearly pure Kelts, Flemings who were
Kelto-Germans, and Walloons who were Kelto-German and Roman, all helped
to swell the host of the Conqueror. What these effected at Hastings, and
how they appropriated the country, is a matter for the civil rather
than the physical historian; the distribution of their blood amongst the
present Englishmen being a problem for the herald and genealogist. The
elements they brought over were only what we had before--Keltic, Roman,
German, and Norse. The manner, however, of their combination differed.
There was also a slight variation in the German blood. It was Frank
rather than Angle.
* * * * *
Kelts, Romans, Germans, and Scandinavians, then, supply us with the
chief elements of our population, elements which are mixed up with each
other in numerous degrees of combination; in so many, indeed, that in
the case of the last three there is no approach to purity.
However easy it may be, either amongst the Gaels of Connaught, or the
Cambro-Britons of North-Wales, to find a typical and genuine Kelt, the
German, equally genuine and typical, whom writers love to place in
contrast with him, is not to be found within the four seas, the nearest
approach being the Frisian of Friesland.
It is important, too, to remember that the mixture that has already
taken place still goes on; and as three pure sources of Keltic, without
a corresponding spring of Gothic, blood are in full flow, the result is
a slow but sure addition of Keltic elements to the so-called Anglo-Saxon
stock, elements which are perceptible in Britain, and which are very
considerable in America. The Gael or Briton who marries an English wife,
transmits, on his own part, a pure Keltic strain, whereas no Englishman
can effect a similar infusion of Germanism--his own breed being more or
less hybrid.
The previous pages have dealt with the retrospect of English ethnology.
The chief questions in the prospect are the one just indicated and the
effects of change of area in the case of the Americans.
FOOTNOTES:
[27] These are Danish forms throughout--_Asgar_-, _Hacon_-, and _Carl_-
being as little Anglo-Saxon as -_by_. _Carl-by_ in Anglo-Saxon would be
_Charl-ton_.
[28] North-_avon_-ton-shire.
[29] Also _Caster_-ton=_Chester_-ton. The numerous forms in _thwaithe_
are shewn by Mr. Worsaae to be Norse.
[30] Doubly Danish: the Anglo-Saxon form of _Orm_ being _Worm_.
[31] Doubly Scandinavian: the Anglo-Saxon form would be _Worm-church_.
_Generally_ in compounds of this kind the Danish form _Kirk_ is a
prefix, the Anglo-Saxon _church_ an affix; _e.g._, _Kirk_-by,
Off-_church_.
[32] See p. 240.
[33] See p. 177, &c.
[34] See p. 226.
[35] See p. 229.
[36] From Mabillon.--Zeuss, p. 198.
[37] The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World.--By Prof.
Creasy,--_Hastings_.
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Transcriber's Amendments:
p. 9, 'Feroe' amended to _Faroe_: 'Faroe Isles'.
p. 17, 'milleniums' amended to _millenniums_.
p. 28, 'milleniums' amended to _millenniums_.
p. 47, 'Periegeta' amended to _Periegetes_: 'Dionysius Periegetes'.
p. 48, 'Prosepine' amended to _Proserpine_: 'Ceres and Proserpine'.
p. 52, 'boats' amended to _books_: 'different part of Cæsar's books'.
p. 61, 'Luxumbourg' amended to _Luxembourg_.
p. 64, 'potenate' amended to _potentate_.
p. 67. 'Diviaticus' amended to _Divitiacus_.
p. 76, 'PEANN FAHEL' amended to _PENN FAHEL_ (in heading).
p. 79, fn. 7, 'Philogical' amended to _Philological_.
p. 89, 'Oose' amended to _Ouse_: 'such rivers as ... Ouse'.
p. 92, 'phisopher' amended to _philosopher_: 'philosopher Seneca';
'Servius' amended to _Severus_: 'Emperor Severus'.
p. 95, '-uis' amended to _-ius_: 'the forms in -_ius_ and -_inus_'.
p. 98, 'Britains' amended to _Britons_: 'harass the South Britons'.
p. 107, 'there' amended to _their_: 'if their dates were'.
p. 124, second entry for 'LXXVII' amended to _LXXVIII_.
p. 125, 'XCLIV' amended to _XCIV_.
p. 126, 'CXLIX' amended to _CLVI_.
p. 149, 'Lunenburg' amended to _Luneburg_.
p. 153, 'Hevel' amended to _Havel_: 'river Havel'.
p. 154, 'Verini' amended to _Varini_: 'Varini of Tacitus'.
p. 167, 'Francs' amended to _Franks_: 'Merovingian Franks'.
p. 171, '(vita St. Bonifac:)' amended to _(vita St. Boniface)_;
'Ceadmon' amended to _Cædmon_.
p. 173, 'Dutchy of Holstein' amended to _Duchy of Holstein_.
p. 184, 'cristened' amended to _christened_.
p. 193, 'Briton' amended to _Britain_: 'coasts of Gaul and Britain'.
p. 195, 'Peloponessus' amended to _Peloponnesus_.
p. 202, additional 'and' removed: 'and _and_ in a form adapted'.
p. 204, 'Nibelungen-Lied' amended to _Nibelungenlied_.
p. 222, 'Britain' amended to _Brittany_;
'Britanny' amended to _Brittany_.
p. 227, added 'a': 'a bad reason for _a_ good one'.
p. 228, duplicate text removed: '_disturb the inference_'.
p. 231, 'Hengest' amended to _Hengist_.
p. 238, 'Britains' amended to _Britons_: 'as Britons from'.
p. 242, 'Glostershire' amended to _Gloucestersh._ (in table).
p. 243, 'Gloster' amended to _Gloucester_.
p. 245, 'Scandanavia' amended to _Scandinavia_.
p. 246, 'Willoug-by' amended to _Willough-by_.
p. 254, 'pars' amended to _part_.
Further Notes:
p. 169, 'Hildubrant' and p. 171, 'Hildebrant': With no clear preference
shown by the author, both variant forms remain as printed.